A discourse analysis of english commercial advertisements = phân tích diễn ngôn quảng cáo thương mại tiếng anh

A discourse analysis of English Commercial Advertisements

Acknowledgement
For the completion of this study, I have been fortunate to receive invaluable
contributions from many people. First of all, I would like to express my greatest
gratitude to M.A. Tran Ba Tien, my supervisor, for his excellent suggestions,
valuable materials, unflagging encouragement, and detailed correction that help
me to fulfill this study.
I am also grateful to my teachers in the department of foreign languages for
their helpful suggestions and encouragement which help me overcome
difficulties in the process of my study.
My warmest thanks go to my loved family and my good friends who are willing
to help me and always by my side, encourage me to complete my work.

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Table of content
Page
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………i
Table of content……………………………………………………ii
Introduction………………………………………………………….1
1. Rationale of the study…………………………………………………….1
2. Aims of the study………………………………………………………....2
3. Scope of the study………………………………………………………...2
4. Research Methods………………………………………………………..2
5. Design of the study……………………………………………………….3

Development……………………………………………………………4
Chapter I: Theoretical background……………………………4
1.1.

Discourse and discourse analysis…………………………………...4

1.1.1.

Definition of discourse……………………………………………..4

1.1.2.

Spoken discourse and written discourse……………………………4

1.1.3.

Discourse analysis………………………………………………….5

1.1.4.

Discourse context…………………………………………………..6

1.1.4.1. Context of situation………………………………………………...6
1.1.4.2. Context versus Co-text……………………………………………..7
1.1.5.

Thematisation………………………………………………………8

1.1.5.1. Theme and rheme…………………………………………………..8
1.1.5.2. Types of theme……………………………………………………..8

1.1.6.

Cohesion…………………………………………………………...9

1.1.6.1. Definition of cohesion……………………………………………..9
1.1.6.2. Types of cohesion...10
1.1.6.2.1. Reference ..10
1.1.6.2.2. Substitution.13

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1.1.6.2.3. Ellipsis…………………………………………………………....14
1.1.6.2.4. Conjunction………………………………………………………15
1.2.

The discourse of advertising……………………………………..17

1.2.1.

Definition of advertising…………………………………………17

1.2.2.

Classification of advertising……………………………………...18

1.2.2.1. Non-commercial advertising……………………………………..19
1.2.2.2. Commercial advertising…………………………………………..20
1.2.3.

Objectives of advertising…………………………………………20

1.2.4.

Role of language in advertising…………………………………..21

Chapter II: An analysis of English commercial
Advertisements…………………………………..22
2.1.

The structure of an commercial advertisement……………………..22

2.1.1. Headline……………………………………………………………23
2.1.2. Body………………………………………………………………..24
2.1.3. Signature……………………………………………………………25
2.2.

Cohesion……………………………………………………………26

2.2.1. Cohesive devices…………………………………………………...27
2.2.1.1. Reference………………………………………………………….27
2.2.2. Substitution………………………………………………………...32
2.2.3. Ellipsis…………………………………………………………......33
2.2.4. Conjunction…………………………………………………………35
2.3. Thematisation………………………………………………………..38
2.3.1. Unmarked theme…………………………………………………….39

2.3.2. Marked theme………………………………………………………..39
Conclusion……………………………………………………………41
1. Review of major findings……………………………………………...41
2. Implication for advertisement writers…………………………………42
References

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Appendix

introduction
1. Rationale of the study
Since the appearance of advertising, it has become one of the most effective
strategies of business in increasing their out-put. The out-put of a product partly
depends on the strategy of advertising. This is proved in reality by thousands of
products which are well advertised. Although few people admit to being greatly
influenced by advertising, surveys and sale figures show that a well-designed
advertising campaign has dramatic effects. Therefore, a lot of money is spent on
advertising. For example, in 1997, in the U.S alone, over $175 billion USD was
spent on it. Advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth.
Developing an advertising strategy to achieve the objectives of a campaign
requires that consideration be given in both the message which will be
communicated and the media through which it will be sent. However, apart from
the used media, the message plays an important role in achieving the objectives. In
order to do this, the language that is used to write advertising message must be

positive, attractive, beautiful, etc. Thus, research on the language of advertising is
very necessary.
Moreover, Vietnam has been official member of the World Trade Organization
which is considered as the opportunity for businesses in Vietnam to introduce
their own products to the world. If they want to introduce or sell their products,
firstly, they have to advertise them to the customers in the world. It is no
exaggeration to say that advertising can lead to the success or failure of a product.
The fact is that many Vietnamese companies have not paid attention to how to
advertise well or how to write an effective advertising message. Specially, almost
advertisements for foreigners are written in English. For all reasons above, I

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decide to choose “A discourse Analysis of English Commercial advertisements” to
be the theme of my thesis.
2. Aims of the study
Originating from the reasons above, the aims of the study are:
- To emphasize the important role of language in a advertising campaign to
businesses.
- To clarify some special features of the language used in advertisements.
- To analyze the structure of an advertisement in magazine in terms of discourse
analysis.
- To suggest some implications for advertisement writers in creating an effective
advertising message.
3. Scope of the study

Due to time and resource limitation, this study only focuses on the analysis of
English commercial advertisements. Thematisation and grammatical cohesion
provided by Halliday and Hasan (1976) are used as the framework for data
analysis. Other types of lexical cohesion are out of the scope of the thesis. The
data analyzed in the thesis are advertisements in a magazine named “Chatelaine”,
which is chosen by many advertisers in order to advertise their product because of
the large number of readers who are mainly women.
4. Research Methods
To achieve the mentioned aims, the following methods were employed:
The first is reviewing the theories related to the study in order to shape up a
framework for the analysis.

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The next is collecting some advertisements in “Chatelaine” magazine to analyze
their structure as well as their cohesion.
Finally, based on the data shown from these advertisements, some conclusions and
recommendations will be made.
5. Design of the study
This study consists of three parts:
Part one: Introduction
In this part, the rationale, aims, scopes, methods and design of the thesis are
introduced.
Part two: Development
There are two chapters in this part:

Chapter 1 Theoretical background
Chapter 2 An analysis of English commercial advertisements
Part three: Conclusion
In this part, major findings are reviewed and then some applications as well as
suggestions for further researches are provided.

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development
chapter 1: theoretical background
1.1. Discourse and discourse analysis
1.1.1. Definition of discourse
Since the appearance of new subject- Discourse analysis, linguists have new
orientational point of view on the language. They consider and study the language
in the relation to the context in which it is used. This viewpoint is different from
traditional linguists’ one that only concentrate on phonological, lexical, and
syntactical features. However, the term “discourse” is defined in different ways.
The term discourse refers to the interpretation of the communicative event in the
context. A discourse, according to Crystal (1992:25) is “a continuous stretch of
(especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a
coherent unit, such as a sermon, argument, joke or narrative.” The notion
“discourse” is defined by Cook (1989:156) as “stretches of language perceived to
be meaningful, unified and purposive” that is the best to apply in this study.
1.1.2. Spoken discourse and written discourse
There are two forms of language: spoken and written discourse. However, spoken

language emerged before written one. According to Halliday (1985:6), cultural
changes which created new communicative needs resulted in the emergence of a
new form of language-writing.
Brown and Yule (1983:13) suggest that spoken and written discourse share some
common functions. The first is to establish and maintain human relationships
(interactional use) and the second is to transfer information (transactional use).
Also, David Nunan (1995) believes that they both perform an equivalent range of

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broad functions, that is, it is used to get things done, to provide information and
entertain.
However, there are some different points between written and spoken discourse.
The major difference between them is taken from the fact that spoken discourse is
changeable and written discourse is permanent. Written discourse is often edited
and structured while spoken discourse is considered to be less planned and
orderly, more open to intervention by the receivers. (Cited in To Viet Thu 2001MA thesis)
According to Raphael Sakies (1993), the contexts for using written language are
very different from those in which spoken language is used. For example, in the
case of information, written discourse is used to communicate with others who are
removed in time and space, for those occasions on which a permanent or semipermanent record is required.
To summarize, spoken and written discourse share some common points in their
functions, however, they are different in term of communicative need, the way of
production, and context and these differences are not absolute because the
characteristics that we tend to associate with written language can sometimes

occur in spoken language and vice versa.
This study uses the term Discourse for any written record of a communicative
event in context. Thus, the analysis of English commercial advertisement means
the analysis of print advertisements in magazine.
1.1.3. Discourse analysis
All traditional linguists-from the phonetician, through the grammarian, to the
discourse analyst-are concerned with identifying regularities and patterns in

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language. However, in different situation the same grammatical form can have
different functions. The different situations will have different roles of
relationships, different purposes and different settings that are the main factors
deciding the function of a grammatical form. Discourse analysis is interested in all
these factors and tries to account for them in a rigorous fashion. In other words,
discourse analysis is interested in written/spoken discourses, but fully
contextualized both in terms of the surrounding text and of the key features of the
situation (context). It is in this respect that discourse analysis adds something
extra to traditional linguistics.
Guy Cook (1989: 3) also claims that “discourse analysis examines how stretches
of language, considered in their full textual, social, and psychological context,
become meaningful and unified for their users”. The ultimate aim of this
analytical work is both to show and to interpret the relationship between these
regularities and the meaning and purposes expressed through discourse. Therefore,
discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between

language and the context in which it is used, that is, it involves the study of
language in use: written texts of all kinds, and spoken data from conversations to
highly formal forms of speech.
This study analyzes the language of commercial advertising in the magazine
“Chatelaine” in the relation to the context of advertising.
1.1.4. Discourse context
1.1.4.1. The context of situation
In discourse analysis, context of situation, or context is an important factor that
can not be dissociated when interpreting the discourse. “A context can support a
range of meaning” (Hymes, quoted in Brown and Yule, 1983). According to

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David Nunan (1983:7), “context refers to the situation giving rise to the
discourse and within which the discourse is embedded”. He also divides context
into types: linguistic and non-linguistic. The linguistic context is the language that
surrounds or accompanies the piece of discourse under analysis. The nonlinguistic context includes the type of communicative event, the topic, the purpose
of the event, the setting, the participants and the relationships between them and
the background knowledge and assumptions underlying the communicative event.
This viewpoint of Nunan is much similar to that of Halliday and Hasan (1976)
who claim that when responding to a spoken or a written passage (discourse or
text), the receiver employs not only linguistic clues, but also situational ones.
Linguistically, he responds to specific features which bind the passage together,
the pattern of connection, independence of structure, that we are referring to as
cohesion; situationally, he takes into account all he knows of the environment:

What is going on, what part of language is playing, and who are involved.(cited in
Dang Huu Phuoc 2006:7- Graduation Thesis)
It is undeniable that the contexts, both linguistic and non-linguistic contexts are
important to discourse interpretation as ‘there are good arguments for limiting
the field of study to make it manageable, but it is also true to say that the answer
to the question of what gives discourse its unity may be impossible to give
without considering the world at large: the context’ (Cook, 1989:10)
As mentioned above, both linguistic and non-linguistic contexts do appear to be
relevant to the analysis of English commercial advertising.
1.1.4.2. Context versus co-text
It is obvious that context is different from co-text. David Nunan (1995) holds that
co-text is considered the linguistic element and context the non-linguistic one.
Taking about context, Brown and Yule (1983) state that any sentence other than

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the first in a fragment of discourse will have the whole of its interpretation
forcibly constrained by the proceeding text” and “the words occur in discourse
are constrained by their co-text”.
Both context and co-text take important parts in interpreting discourse but they are
obviously different. The former involves non-linguistic elements and the latter the
linguistic one.
1.1.5. Thematisation
1.1.5.1. Theme and Rheme
The term “Theme and Rheme” refers to a formal category. Theme that Halliday

calls a “point of departure” (1967:212) refers to the left- most constituent of the
sentence. Rheme is the remainder of the message which consists of what the
speaker states about that point of departure (Halliday, 1985:38). Mathesius also
claim that each simple sentence has a theme “the starting point of the utterance”
and a rheme, everything else that follows in the sentence which consists of “what
the speaker states about”. In complex and compound sentences a separate thematic
organization will be assigned to each clause ( Halliday,1967).
Theme, which refers to the initial element in a clause, is rearranged by means of
fronting devices. What the speaker or writer decides to bring to the front of the
clause is a signal of what is to be understood as the frame work within which what
we want to say is to be understood. The rest of the clause can then be seen as
transmitting “what we want to say within this framework”. Items brought to be
front-placed in this way we shall call the themes of their clause.
1.1.5.2. Types of Theme
Theme is where the subject matter of the sentence is usually laid out for the
reader. Brown and Yule 91983:133) divide theme into subtypes like single and

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multiple theme, unmarked and marked theme, predicated and not predicated
theme. However, unmarked theme and marked theme are mentioned in this thesis.
By unmarked theme we mean it strictly in the sense that “it is the most expected,
common, and unmarkable case” (Butt 2000:139); therefore, themes are unmarked
when they are conflated with subject (as identified and specified in D.Q.Ban
2001:45-147; N.V.Hiep and N.M.Thuyet 1998:119-128). If the first topical

element of a declarative is also the subject of the clause, then the theme choice is a
neutral or unmarked one, which gives the theme no special prominence.
By contrast, by marked theme we mean it in the sense that “it is unusual and
should be noticed because of the way it stands out” (Butt, ibid:140). When the
topical theme of a declarative is not the subject, it gains greater textual
prominence. Non-subject themes are “marked” theme and are often important in
structuring the larger discourse. Marked themes may draw the addressee’s
attention to a particular group or phrase, but more often, it is to build a coherent
text easy to follow. Skillful writers and speakers choose marked theme to add
coherence and emphasis to their text.
1.1.6. Cohesion
1.1.6.1. Definition of cohesion
Cohesion is part of the system of a language and is known as links between the
clauses and sentences of a text. Halliday and Hasan view that cohesion is a
semantic relation, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and
that defines it as a text. In addition, a text is best regarded as a semantic unit: “a
unit not of form but meaning” (1976:2). They also claim that “Cohesion occurs
where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that
of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it can not be

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effectively decoded except by recourse to it”. Here is a text displaying cohesive
features:
Trades Councils should ensure that the local branch of the National

Union of Journalists is affiliated. Even if An UNJ branch rejects an approach
to join one year, try again the following year and keep on asking the branch to
join until it does.
The underlined items are all interpretable in relation to items in previous
sentences. These are features of grammatical cohesion; including reference,
substitution, conjunction but there is lexical cohesion, too; that is lexical repetition
of “branch” and of “join”.
When the similar things happen, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two
elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are there by at least potentially
integrated in to a text.
1.1.6.2. Types of cohesion
Cohesion is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the
vocabulary which are also regarded as “grammatical cohesion and lexical
cohesion”. In this thesis, we adopt the division of Halliday and Hasan (1976)
which is considered as the most comprehensive description and analysis of
cohesive devices. They include 5 major types: reference, substitution, ellipsis,
conjunction and lexical cohesion.
1.1.6.2.1. Reference
There are words whose meaning can only be discovered by referring to other
words or to elements of the context which are clear to both sender and receiver.
They are called reference. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), there are two

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kinds of reference: exophoric and endophoric. If it is endophoric, it may be

anaphoric or cataphoric. Referring items refer to may be in or out of the text.
Reference-in-text may be anaphoric (looking back) or cataphoric (looking
forwards) and out of context reference is called exophoric (looking outwards).
Reference words are words which do not have a full meaning in their own right.
To work out what they mean on any particular occasion. We have to refer to
something else. The following examples will describe clearly dementions of
reference.
Anaphoric reference is the way in which the pronouns refer back to nouns which
have already appeared in the text. In this type, it is necessary to look forwards for
the information necessary to identify the referent.
E.g.: “You are right”. The young man said. “Yes . That is very true.
Isn’t it, Julie? He looked at the young woman next to him”.
(The Girl with Green Eyes- One-way Ticket Jennifer Bassett : 1)
The pronoun “he” and “him” refers back to the previously mentioned noun “the
young man” so it is called anaphoric reference.
Cataphoric reference is the reverse of anaphoric reference and is relatively
straight forward. Referents can be confirmed by look forward in the text. To find
out cataphoric reference, the reader has to read on and find the identity in the latter
sentence. Cataphoric reference engages and holds the reader’s attention with a
“read on and find out” message. This is an example of cataphoric:
They pressed round him ragged fashion to take their money. Andy,
Dave, Phil, Stephen, Bob.
(Graham Swift, The Sweet Shop Owner, Penguin Books Limited,
1983:13)

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The word “they” refers not to just any person, but to Andy, Dave, Phil, Stephen,
Bob. At the beginning, when we read, we may not understand what and who
“they” is but latter we know that “they” is rightly “Andy, Dave, Phil, Stephen,
Bob”.
Exophoric reference is the type in which the information needed for identification
is outside the text. With outward- pointing reference, the reference may be not
something in the immediate situation, but to something in a wider context,
knowledge of which is assumed to be shared by speaker or writer and hearer or
reader. Exophoric reference will often be a world shared by sender and receiver of
the linguistic message, regardless of cultural background, but equally often,
reference will be culture – bound and outside the experiences of the language
learner. It is clearly shown in the following example:
That morning, Washington Post had more detail.
(ibid:9)
“Washington Post” refer to a real entity (a Press in the USA) in the world but not
any item elsewhere in the text. To know the full meaning of this type, it is
necessary to share the knowledge between the writer and the reader or the sender
and the receiver.
Halliday and Hasan (1976) also identify three sub-types of referential cohesion,
including personal, demonstrative and comparative.
Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation,
through the category of person. Its items are expressed through personal pronouns
I, you, he, she, it, we and they, along with their object forms (me, him, etc.) and
their possessive forms (my, your, etc., and mine, yours, etc.). In fact, referring
words used are not conjunctions, they function to make cohesion and avoid

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repeating a single word or a whole clause. And the most common way to look
forwards or backwards to people or things within one sentence or of the previous
one is the use of personal pronouns. Pronouns cohesive ties may be used in a way
that “ties” them to certain nouns in the text. For example:
Mikhail Gorbachev didn’t have to change the world. He could have
chosen to Rule much as his predecessors did.
(The Bulletin, 24 December 1991)
Here the pronoun refers back to a previously mentioned noun, so “he” refers to
Mikhail Gorbachev.
Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of proximity
and is expressed through determiners and adverbs (this/ these; that/ those; here/
there).
Last year we went to Devon for a holiday. The holiday we had there was
the best we’ve ever had.
( Halliday and Hasan, 1976 :73)
Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity and
is expressed through adjectives and adverbs (same, equal, identical (ly), similar,
such, so, likewise, similarly, more, fewer, etc.). Most comparatives are used for
anaphoric reference. For example:
There were two wrens upon a tree
Another came, and there were three
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:31)
It is less common for a comparative to be used for cataphoric reference, i.e. to tie
the comparative to a noun in the following clause or sentence.
1.1.6.2.2. Substitution

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Another kind of formal link between sentences is the substitution of words like do
or so for a word or group of words which have appeared in an earlier sentence.
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), substitution “is a relation on the lexical
grammatical level, the level of grammar and vocabulary, or linguistic form”. A
substitute is a sort of counter which is used in place of the repetition of a particular
item.
Since substitution is a grammatical relation, a relation in the wording rather than
in the meaning, the different types of substitution are defined grammatically rather
than semantically. The criterion is the grammatical function of the substitute item.
In English, the substitute may function as a noun, as a verb, or as a clause. There
are three types of substitution, including nominal, verbal, and clausal that can be
consecutively exemplified in the following instances:
Nominal substitution
I’ve heard some strange stories in my time. But this one was the perhaps
the strangest one of all.
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:92)
Verbal substitution
Does Granny look after you yesterday?
She can’t do at weekends, because she has to go to her own house.
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 114)
Clausal substitution
Is there going to be an earthquake?

It says so.
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 130)

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In each example, part of the preceding text has been replaced by one, do, so
respectively. These words can only be interpreted in relation to what has gone
before.
1.1.6.2.3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is a kind of substitution, can be defined as substitution by zero. It occurs
when something that is structurally necessary is left unsaid. In other words, it is
the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the
speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not to be
raised. “Like substitution, ellipsis is a relation within the text, and in the great
majority of instances the presupposed item is present in the preceding text. That
is to say, ellipsis is normally an anaphoric relation.”(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:
144). Ellipsis can be made for nominal, verbal and clausal those are clearly
illustrated in the following examples.
Nominal ellipsis
Which last longer, the curved rods or the straight rods?
The straight <>are less likely to break.
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:148)
Verbal ellipsis
Joan brought some carnations, and Catherine <> some sweet peas.
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:143)

Clausal ellipsis
A: Why’d you only set three places? Paul’s staying for a dinner, isn’t he?
B : Is he? He didn’t tell me <>
1.1.6.2.4. Conjunction

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The fourth and final type of cohesive relation that we find in the grammar is that
of conjunction. It is “provided by those words and phrases which explicitly draw
attention to the type of relationship which exists between one sentence or clause
and another.” (Guy Cook, 1989:21).
Halliday and Hasan (1976) suggest that conjunction is rather different in nature
from the other cohesive relations. “Conjunctive elements are cohesive not in
themselves but indirectly, by virtue of their specific meanings; they are not
primarily devices for reaching out into the preceding (or following) text, but
they express certain meanings which presuppose the presence of other
components in the discourse.” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:226)
Various suggestions could be taken up for classifying the phenomena which we
are grouping together under the heading of conjunction. In this thesis, we
adopt the classification of Halliday and Hasan which conclude four categories:
additive, adversative, causal, and temporal. Here is an example of each:
Additive
Today, only forty-four inhabitants remain join (on Pitcairn Island).
Conditions on the island have deteriorated, and their only contact with the
outside world is via an antiquated radio link with the British Consulate in New

Zealand and (weather permitting) two passing ships a year. In other words the
Pitcairners are desperately in need of aid.
(Text and discourse analysis, Raphael Salkies, 76)
Adversative
Of the economists considered in section II above, the one who was
interested in the relation of firms to markets was Marshall, however, chose to go
in a different direction. His contemporaries, on the other hand, though they

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developed the theory of completive equilibrium, were interested in issues other
than that of the relationship of the firm to the industry.
(Text and discourse analysis, Raphael Salkies, 76)
Causal
…she felt that there was no time to be lost, as she was shrinking rapidly;
so she got to work at once to eats some of the other bit.
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:256)
Temporal
Recently, interest in local government autonomy has revived in some countries.
But the question of how long this will last, before central control re-emerges on
the scene, has to be raise.
(Text and discourse analysis, Raphael Salkies, 76)
1.2. The discourse of advertising
1.2.1. Definition of advertising
Nowadays, we can see advertising everywhere; however, it is difficult to have a

clear and accurate definition of advertising. Firstly, some definitions of advertising
in dictionary are introduced then we discuss some others in terms of modern usage
of advertising.
In dictionary, advertising means “to make know, to inform, to attempt to
persuade”, etc. The Reader’s Digest Great Encyclopedic Dictionary defines
advertising as “the act or practice of attracting public notice so as to create
interest or induce purchase; also, any system or method used for such
purposes”. Advertising is defined in “Webster’ dictionary as “the action of
calling something to the attention of the public, especially by paid

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announcement so as to arouse a desire to buy”. However, advertising is more
than to make know, to publish, to inform. Dictionary definitions of advertising do
not tell us too much about the modern uses of function of business tool.
Early advertising- the simple functions and much advertising still perform them
identify goods, services and ideals that they want to sell but modern advertising
goes beyond the simple process of identification. It not only presents ideals goods
and services but also promote them. Therefore advertising is a message designed
to strengthen or sell them. In modern usage, that is the basic function of
advertising: not only to categorize goods, services or to present them with a listing
of their good points and bad, but also to promote them. The Institute of
Practitioners in Advertising (IPA), the body which represents advertising agencies,
defines advertising as “the means of providing the most persuasive selling
message to the right prospects at the lowest cost”.

Another definition of advertising is that “Advertising is non-personal
communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature
about products, services, ideals, by identified sponsors through the various
media” (Bovee, 1926-7). So as to comprehensively understand about this
definition, firstly, we need clarify the word “non-personal”. There are two basic
ways to sell anything: personally and non-personally. Personal selling means that
the seller and the buyer get together. In this way, the seller directly gives
information about product that they want to sell. The seller can response all
customers’ requirement and control customers’ attitude to persuade them to buy.
However, this way costs a lot of money and only sells product individually. Nonpersonal selling called advertising can solve disadvantages of personal selling.
Advertising has, comparatively speaking, all the time in the world. The sale
message can be rewritten; modified, injected that most greatly affects customers.
Although advertising may not see the individual customer, it has greatly effect on

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A discourse analysis of English Commercial Advertisements

large groups of customers. The most important thing is that advertising can be far
cheaper potential customers than the personal selling. Thus, it appears that
advertising is an effective sale tool for business in strategy of product sale.
1.2.2. Classification of advertising
In ancient times, the most common form of advertising was by word of mouth. As
the economy was expanding during the 19th century, the need for advertising grew
at the same pace. Advertising became popular, filling pages of newspapers with
small print messages promoting all kind of goods. Advertising transformed in to a
modern, more scientific approach in which creativity was allowed to shine,

producing unexpected messages that made advertisements more attractive to
consumers’ eyes. However, advertising is used not only for promoting goods,
services but also for other purposes such as policy, education, etc. Therefore,
advertising is classified into two main kinds: non-commercial advertising and
commercial advertising.
1.2.2.1. Non-commercial advertising
Non-commercial advertising is a popular kind of advertising which is used to
inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as
Aids, political ideology, energy conversation, religious recruitment and
deforestation, etc. Advertising is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching
and motivating large audiences. Non-commercial advertising is sponsored by or
for a charitable institution or civic group or religious or political organization. It
reached its height during World War I and II under the direction of several
governments. The main goals of non-commercial advertising are to:
- stimulate inquires for information
- Popularize social cause
- Change activity habits

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A discourse analysis of English Commercial Advertisements

- Decrease waste of resources
- Communicate political viewpoint
- Improve public attitude
1.2.2.2. Commercial advertising
Commercial advertising is advertising that involves commercial interests rather

than advocating a social or political cause. It is connected with or engaged in or
sponsored by or used in commerce or commercial enterprises. The objective of
this kind is to persuade the customers to buy the product. Therefore, how to
persuade them is extremely important to advertisers. The fact is that almost
producers spend a lot of money on advertising which is a great part in the
promoting strategy. The advertisements of this kind are special and various.
1.2.3. Objectives of advertising
The main objective of advertising is to market products and services to potential
buyers in an effective and persuasive manner. Similarly, the goal of advertising is
to develop awareness and recall of a product or service and to build a distinctive
corporate image for an advertiser. To achieve this goal, an advertising need to
inform, persuade and remind the target audience. However, a company that
advertises usually strives to achieve one of four advertising objectives: trial,
continuity, brand switching, and switch back.
Trial: The purpose of the trial objective is to encourage customers to make an
initial purchase of a new product. If the company does not have any the first trial
of product by customers, there will not be any repeat purchase. Therefore,
companies will typically use creative advertising strategy in order to cut through
other competing advertising.

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A discourse analysis of English Commercial Advertisements

Continuity: Continuity is a strategy to keep current customers using a
particular product. Existing customers are targeted and are usually provided new
and different information about the product.

Brand switching: Companies adopt brand switching as an objective when
they want customers to switch from competitors’ brand to their brands. A
common strategy that companies often use is to compare product price or quality
in order to convince customers to switch to its product brand.
Switch back: This advertising objective is adopted when they want to get
back former users of their product brand. A company might give new product
features, price reductions or other important product information in order to get
former customers of its product to switch back.
1.2.4. The role of language in advertising
Developing an advertising strategy to achieve the objectives of a campaign
requires that consideration be given to both the “message” which will be
communicated and the “media” through which it will be sent. Advertising
message is what is said about the information of products, services. An advertising
campaign, no matter how much money is spent no matter what media used will
only be successful if the message appeal to the target audiences. A successful
advertising message must stand out amongst the advertising clutter. It requires
being creative, imaginative and innovative.

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A discourse analysis of English Commercial Advertisements

Chapter 2:

An analysis of English commercial
advertisements

2.1. The structure of an advertisement
As defined, an advertisement is a short message which promotes, advertises a
product, service or an idea. In an advertisement, we can find the most necessary
information about product. This information often answers for these questions:
‘What is it? What is it used for? What are its outstanding characteristics? How to
buy it?’ In general, an advertisement includes 3 parts: headline, body and
signature. Here is an example about the structure of an advertisement.

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