An analysis of errors related to the uses of english prepositions at, on, in produced by elementary level students at foreign languages & informatics center vinh city

TABLES OF CONTENT
Acknowledgement

i

Table of contents

ii

List of tables, charts and figures

iii

Chapter One: Introduction

9

1.1. Rationale for the study

9

1.2. Scope of the study

10

1.3. Research Questions

10

1.4. Aims and objectives of the study

10

1.5. Structure of the thesis

11

Chapter Two: Literature review

12

2.1. Error Analysis

12

2.2. The notion of errors in language learning

13

2.3. Errors vs. mistakes

13

2.4. Classification of Errors

14

2.5. Procedure of Error Analysis

16

2.6. Causes of Errors

16

2.6.1. Interlingual Errors and First Language Interference

16

2.6.2. Intralingual Errors and developmental Errors

18

2.7. The concepts of Prepositions

20

2.7.1. Syntactic characteristics of Prepositions

21

2.7.2. Semantic characteristics of Prepositions

22

2.8. The Spatial Prepositions “AT, ON, IN”

23

2.8.1. Usage of AT

26

2.8.2. Usage of IN

27

2.8.3. “AT and IN” in comparison

28

2.8.4. Usage of ON

30

2.8.5. “IN and ON” in comparison

30


2.9. “AT, ON, IN” as temporal prepositions

33

2.10. Spatial and Temporal Prepositions in Vietnamese

36

2.10.1. Spatial Prepositions

36

2.10.2. Temporal Prepositions

40

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

42

3.1. Participants

42

3.2. Instruments of data collection

42

3.3. Methodology of Data analysis

43

Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion

46

4.1. Errors related to the use of spatial prepositions

46

4.1.1. Analysis of Data

46

4.1.2. Analysis of Errors

48

4.1.2.1. Interlingual Errors and First language Interference

48

4.1.2.2. Intralingual and Developmental Errors

51

4.2. Errors related to the use of Temporal Prepositions

53

4.2.1. Analysis of Data

53

4.2.2. Analysis of Errors

55

Chapter Five: Conclusion

58

References

73

Appendices

I

Appendix 1

I

Appendix 2

III

Appendix 3

V

2


LIST OF TABLES, CHARTS AND FIGURES
ABBREVIATIONS
Table 2.1 Usage of AT and IN in comparison
Table 2.2. Usage of IN and ON in comparison
Table 2.3. Usage of temporal AT-IN - ON in comparison
Table 2.4. Some expressions of temporal AT

Table 4.1. Results of multiple-choice 1
Table 4.2. Results of cloze-exercise
Table 4.3. Results of picture description
Table 4.4.. Errors related to the use of Spatial Prepositions. Their frequency, sources
and percent
Table 4.5. Results of Multiple choice 2
Table 4.6. Results of Sentence building
Table 4.7 Errors related to the use of temporal Prepositions. Their frequency, sources
and percent
Figure 2.1.
* : ERRORNEOUS SENTENCE
X : no preposition

3


LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Test 1
Appendix 2: Test 2
Appendix 3: Drawings and Pictures
(to teach the meanings and usage of prepositions “AT, ON, IN”)

4


Chapter one

Introduction
1.1. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY
The center for Languages and Informatics – Vinh City is an address for learners at

different ages that have need of learning English. We offer them general English
courses along with the book New Headway Elementary 3rd Edition which provides a
foundation in the structure of the language, gradually builds student’s understanding
of the basic grammar, vocabulary and functions of English.
We observe that the elementary-level students meet a lot of difficulties in learning
grammar. In particular, preposition usage is one of the most challenging aspects of
English grammar. During the courses, we have detected common errors in using the
prepositions AT, ON, IN. It seems that these errors occur frequently and
systematically. They are exemplified as follow:
(1) IN is used in contexts where ON and AT are required (>50%)
* in TV (on)
* in this time (at)
* in a sunny morning (on)
* in the farm (on)
* students in Vinh University (at)
(2) ON is used in contexts where IN/ AT is required (> 70%)
* on many ways (in)
* on that place (in)
* going on cars (in)
* on the sky / mountain / the world (in)
(3) AT is used in contexts where IN /ON is required (> 60%)
* at the evening (in)
* at the first of March (on)

5


(4) AT, ON, IN are used in contexts where no prepositions are required ( > 55%)
* on last Tuesday (X)
* in next spring (X)

* in tomorrow morning (X)
* go at home (X)
Whether the errors in using prepositions of place “AT, ON, IN” are due to the
interference of Vietnamese or the non-framed rules of the English prepositions? The
study may not be innovative, though, we hope our findings would help to improve the
quality of learning and teaching of prepositions “AT, ON, IN” at our center.
1.2.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study mainly deals with three prepositions “AT, ON, IN” of time and place.
The survey is carried out at Language and Informatics Center-Vinh City.
1.3.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the thesis are:
-

Identifying the errors in using the prepositions of place and time: “AT, ON, IN”
by Vietnamese learners at our English center.

-

Finding the causes of their errors.

-

Proposing pedagogic solutions for the teaching and learning of the prepositions
“AT, ON, IN” at our English center.

1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
The above mentioned objectives can be elaborated into the following research
questions:
1. What errors do elementary learners are likely to make in using the prepositions
“AT, ON, IN”?
2. What are the possible causes of the errors?
3. What are the possible solutions to students’ errors related to the use of “AT, ON,
IN” as prepositions of place and time?

6


1.5. THESIS STRUCTURE
The thesis consists of five main chapters as follows:
-

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

In this introductory part, the rationale of the study is presented. The aims, scopes of
the study are then identified.
-

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides an in-depth review of the relevant literature related to the issue
under investigation. A review of English prepositions “AT, ON, IN” provides the
theoretical background for the recognition of the errors that students are likely to
make. Error Analysis as the main theoretical tool for analyzing data will also be
reviewed.
-

Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the main principles and techniques for conducting the research.
-

Chapter 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter is spared for the presentation of major findings and proposal of possible
solutions to students’ errors related to the uses of “AT, ON, IN” as place and time
prepositions.
-

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION

The chapter will present recapitulation, conclusions on each of the objectives set forth
as tasks assigned to the study, implications for teaching and the recommendation for
further research.

7


CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.

ERROR ANALYSIS

Error Analysis is the study and analysis of errors made by the second and foreign

language learners (Richards et.al, 1985:96). In a definition by Brown (1980:166),
error analysis is the process to observe, analyze, and classify the deviations of the
rules of the second language and then to reveal the system operated by learner.
Crystal (1987:112) shared the same view point that error analysis is a technique for
identifying, classifying and systematically interpreting the unacceptable forms
produced by someone learning a foreign language, using any principles and
procedures provided by linguistics.
Error analysis may be carried out in order to (1) find out strategies which learners use
in learning a language, (2) find out the causes of learner errors and (3) obtain
information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid in teaching or in
the preparation of teaching materials.
Error analysis was claimed to be used as a primary pedagogical tool because of three
arguments: (1)Error Analysis not only restrict to errors caused by interlingual
transfer, it also brings to light many other types of errors such as intralanguage errors
and some arising from the particular teaching and learning strategy employed. (2)
Error Analysis provides data on actual, attested problems and therefore forms a more
efficient and economical basis for designing pedagogical strategies. (3) Error analysis
is not confronted with the complex theoretical problems (Richards 1975:17).
According to Corder (1971b: 154 & 166), the learner’s errors are evidence of the
system, and the investigation of the language of second language learners would rely
heavily on Error Analysis.
2.2.

THE NOTION OF ERRORS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

There is a variety of definitions of errors. According to Norrish (1987:7), error is a
systematic deviation, when a learner has not learnt something and consistently gets it

8

wrong”. Cunningworth (1987:87) states the same view point as errors are systematic
deviations from the norms of the language being learnt. Dulay et Al (1982: 138)
states that errors are understood as the flawed side of learners’ speech and writing,
those parts of conversation or composition that deviate from some selected norms.
The above definitions have a common idea that errors are deviations from the norm of
the target language. The norm is understood as the standard form of the language
used by native speakers. In the context of the study, utterances which are deviant
from the standard form will be considered errors even though they do not affect
intelligibility or communication.
Like the child struggling to acquire his language, the second language learner is also
trying out successive hypotheses about the nature of the target language, therefore,
the learner’s errors (or hypotheses) are not only inevitable but are a necessary part of
the language learning process. (Richards et al. , 1974:17)
Corder (1967:167) noted that errors could be significant in three ways: (1) they
provided the teacher with information about how much the learner had learnt; (2) they
provided the researcher with evidence of how language was learnt; (3) they served as
devices by which the learner discovered the rules of the target language.
2.3.

ERRORS VS. MISTAKES

Corder (1967:167) makes a distinction between “errors” which are systematic
deviations from the target language revealing the learner’s transitional competence
and “mistakes”, which are the product of chance circumstances or failure of
performance owing to lapses of memory, inattention, fatigue, etcetera, and as such are
unsystematic.
Ellis (1997:17) expresses the same view: “errors reflect gaps in a learner’s
knowledge, they occur because the learner does not know what is correct; mistakes
reflect occasional lapses in performance, when the learner is unable to perform what

he or she does know”.

9


The term “error “refers to some idiosyncratic or “un-nativelike” piece of language
produced regularly and systematically by a number of learners. This means only
learners of a foreign language commit errors. “Mistake” refers to occasional actions
which are not systematic. Native speakers as well as foreign language learners may
make mistakes.
Corder (1967:167) insisted that mistakes are of no significance to the language
learning process, mistakes can readily be corrected by the learner when his attention
is drawn to them. On the contrary, errors are significant to the process of language
learning (Corder 1967:167). Errors cannot be self-corrected until further relevant
input has been provided and converted into intake by the learner (C. James 1998:83).
To distinguish between an error and a mistake, Ellis (1997:17) suggest two ways. The
first one is to check the consistency of learner’s performance. If he sometimes uses
the correct form and sometimes the wrong one, it is a mistake. However, if he always
uses it incorrectly, it is then an error. The second way is to ask learner to correct his
deviant utterance himself. Where he can, they are mistakes; where he cannot, they are
errors.
From the above-mentioned definitions, it can be concluded that mistakes are non
systematic deviations from the norms of the language; therefore they are of no
interest to the Error Analysis. The objects of Error Analysis are Errors.
2.4.

CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS

Richards et al. (1974:17) believed that both children learning the first language, and
children and adults learning foreign languages likely to produce errors of following

types:
i)

The omission of grammatical morphemes;

ii)

The double marking of a given semantic feature;

iii)

The over generalized application of irregular rules;

iv)

The use of one form for several required;

v)

The wrong word ordering.

10


Corder (1973:273) classifies the errors in terms of the difference between the
learners’ utterance and the reconstructed version. Therefore, errors fall into four
categories:
i)

Omission of some required element;

ii)

Addition of some unnecessary or incorrect element;

iii)

Selection of an incorrect element (substitution);

iv)

misordering of the element.

However, he adds that this classification is not enough to describe errors. He includes
the linguistics level of the errors under the sub-areas of morphology, syntax and
lexicon (Corder, 1973:273).
Ellis (1997:20) states that “classifying errors in these ways can help to diagnose
learner’s learning problems at any stage of their development and to plot how
changes in error patterns occur over time”. The categorization can be exemplified as
follows:
i)

Omission (morphological and syntactical omission)

ii)

Addition (in morphology, syntax and lexicon)

iii)

Selection (in morphology, syntax)

iv)

Ordering (in pronunciation, morphology, syntax and lexicon)

Brown (2000:222) views errors as either global or local. Global errors violate the
comprehension of the overall structure of a sentence as in the following instance:
* The policeman was in this corner whistle … (Ellis 1997:20)
On the contrary, local errors do not prevent the message from being understood. The
hearer can guess the intended meaning since only a single constituent in the sentence
is wrong. For example:
* The plane is flying on the sky.
Corder (1971:155) suggests two other categories: overt and covert errors. The former
are unquestionably ungrammatical at the sentence level. For example: * I runned all

11


the way. The latter are grammatically well-formed at the sentence level but are not
interpretable within the context of communication. For example, * “It was stopped”
is apparently grammatical until it becomes clear that “it” refers to the “the wind”.
Associate Professor Vo Dai Quang in his “Issues of Applied Linguistics” (2006:93)
classifies errors into categories such as referential errors, register errors, social errors,
textual errors.
2.5.

PROCEDURE FOR ERROR ANALYSIS

Corder (1974:175) described the procedure for Error Analysis as six-step method as

follow:
(1) Selection of data for error analysis.

(2) Identification (Recognition) of Errors
(3) Description of Errors
(4) Explanation of Errors
(5) Evaluation of Errors
(6) Prevention of Errors
2.6.

CAUSES OF ERRORS
2.6.1.

Interlingual errors and first language interference:

This class of errors is also known as errors of transfer from the source language, or
errors caused by interference of learner’s first language (Dictionary of Language
Teaching and Applied Linguistics (1992))
When the learner tries to create new knowledge about the target language, he first
tries to make some hypotheses by using prior knowledge. He uses his previous first
language experience as a means of organizing the second language. By transferring
the rules of the first language into the second language, his learning task can become
simpler. In the case that the two systems have similar devices, the learner benefits
from positive transfer. However, when there are differences between the first and the
second language, the learner commits errors. Lado (1957:1) claims that “errors are

12


originated in the learners’ disposition to transfer forms and meanings, and the

distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign
language and culture”.
Interlingual errors may occur at the levels of pronunciation, morphology, syntax,
vocabulary and meaning (Richards, 1971: 10)
In addition to the differences between the first and second language, there are four
other factors that may be the source of the first language interference in producing the
second language (Dulay et al, 1982:110).
Firstly, it is the performance pressure. In classroom settings, the learners may be
asked to perform tasks they are not willing to or their linguistic competence does not
meet the demand; therefore, they makes use of the language which is previously
familiar to them. Secondly, the limited foreign language environment is also a factor
leading to errors. It is understood as the lack of authentic linguistic inputs with native
speakers. The elements results in learners’ recourse on their language. Thirdly,
language tasks assigned for the learners have a significant affect on their verbal
performance. Among these tasks, translation is thought to “increase the foreign
language learners’ reliance on first language structures” (Dulay et al., 1982:110).
Lastly, Dulay et al. (1982:110) considered the monitor as “an important factor
associated with the learner’s use of foreign language acquisition”. Learners trend to
think in the first language and try to put the idea in the target language.
To summarize, interlingual errors are derived from negative transfer from the first
language to the second language. The effect of the first language on the second
language learning is also conditioned by four main factors: performance pressure,
limited language environment, manner of eliciting verbal performance and the
monitor use.
2.6.2.

Intralingual errors and developmental errors:

Interference from the leaner’s own language is not the only reason for committing
errors. Richards (1971a:174) describes these errors as those which reflect the general

characteristics of rule learning such as faulty generalization, incomplete application

13


of rules and failure to learn conditions under which rules apply. Developmental errors
illustrate the learner attempting to build up hypotheses about the English language
from his limited experience of it in the classroom or textbooks.
He presents the different types of the above errors in terms of: (1) overgeneralization, (2) ignorance of rule restrictions, (3) incomplete application of rules,
(4) false concept hypothesized
(1) OVER-GENERALIZATION:

Jakobovists defines generalization as “the use of previously strategies in new
situation, some of these strategies will prove helpful in organizing the facts about the
second language, but others, perhaps due to superficial similarities will be misleading
and inapplicable”
Over-generalization covers instances where the learner creates a deviant structure on
the basis of his experience of other structures in the target language since he wants to
decrease his linguistic load. Over-generalization generally involves the making of one
deviant structure in place of two regular structures. For example: *he can sings, * we
are hope, * he come from.
Over-generalization is associated with redundancy reduction. For instance, it may
occur with items which are contrasted in the grammar of the language, but which do
not carry significant and obvious contrast for the learner. * Yesterday I go to the pub
and I meet my best friend.. Therefore, the learner cuts down the tasks involved in
sentence production. Ervin-Tripp (according to Oller, 1973:20) suggests that
“possibly the morphological and syntactic simplifications of second language learners
correspond to some simplifications common among children (i.e. mother tongue
speakers) learning the same language”.
Certain types of teaching techniques increase the frequency of over-generalized

structures. Many pattern drills and transform exercises are made up of utterances that
can interfere with each other to produce hybrid structures:
Teacher

Instruction

14

Student


He walks quickly

Change to continuous form

* He is walks quickly

This has been described as overlearning of a structure. At other time, he walks may be
contrasted with he is walking, he sings with he can sing, and a week later, without
any teaching of the forms, the learner produces * he can sings, * he is walks.
(2) IGNORANCE OF RULE RESTRICTIONS
Closely related to the generalization of deviant structures, is failure to observe the
restrictions of existing structures; that is, the application of rules to contexts where
they do not apply.
For example:
* The man who I saw him, violates the limitation on subjects in structure with Who.
* I made him to do it ignores the restrictions on the distribution of make.
Ignorance of rules occurs when learners completely forget these rules and thus
produce deviant sentences haphazardly. Some rule restriction errors may be
accounted for in terms of analogy, other instances may result from the rote learning of

rules.
Analogy seems to be the major factor in the misuse of prepositions. The learner,
encountering a particular preposition with one type of verb, attempts by analogy to
use the same preposition with similar verbs.
For example:

He showed me the book ->* He explained me the book.
He said to me -> * He asked to me.
We talked about it -> * We discussed about it.

(3) INCOMPLETE APPLICATION OF RULES
It involves a failure to learn more complex types of structure because the learner finds
he can achieve effective communication by using relative simple rules.
(4) FALSE CONCEPT HYPOTHESIZED
In addition to the various intralingual errors, there is a class of development errors
which derive from faulty comprehension of distinction in the target language. These

15


are sometimes due to poor gradation of teaching items, premature contrastive
presentation.
This occurs when teachers either fail to transfer correct pattern and concepts to their
students or do not emphasize patterns which have been introduced correctly (i.e. by
giving sufficient exercises and drilling). Therefore, the students cannot grasp such
concepts properly. They may get confused and misunderstand.
Richards (1971:21) suggests that to minimize risks of confusion, teacher should select
non-synonymous contexts for related words, treat them at different times and avoid
exercises based on contrast and transformation.
2.7.

THE CONCEPT OF PREPOSITIONS

Let us examine a piece of text in the book New Headway Elementary:
Seumas lives and works on the island of Gigha in the west of Scotland. Only 120
people live on Gigha but in summer 150 tourists come by boat every day.
Every weekday Seumas gets up at 6.00 and makes breakfast for the hotel guest. At
8.00 he drives the island’s children to school. At 9.00 he collects the post from the
boat and delivers it to all the houses on the island. He also delivers the beer to the
island’s only pub. Then he helps Margaret in the shop.
He says: “Margaret likes being busy, too. We never go on holidays and we don’t like
watching television. In the evenings Margaret makes supper and I do the accounts.
At 10.00 we have a glass of wine and then go to bed. Perhaps our life isn’t very
exciting, but we like it.”
Prepositions in English have a wide variety of meanings and functions. According to
Cuyckens and Radden (2002:15), English prepositions can be seen from two different
perspectives. One is the syntactic-semantic, where prepositions are defined by their
function as head of prepositional phrases. The other one is the cognitive-semantic,
where the polysemy of prepositions is explained as a network of meanings. The basic
meaning is spatial and other meanings can be derived from this one.
2.7.1. Syntactic Characteristics of Prepositions:

16


Quirk et al (1976:142) states that a preposition describes relationships between two
entities. One of these entities is called the prepositional complement and it relates to
another part of the sentence. The prepositional complement is often a noun phrase, a
nominal WH-clause, a nominal –ing clause, or rarely, an adjective or adverb.
Preposition

Prepositional Complement

at

the airport.

from

what we knew

by

signing a love contract

English prepositional phrases may function as:
(i) adjunct:
The people were singing on the bus
(ii) disjunct
To my surprise, the boss phoned.
(iii) conjunct
On the other hand, he made no attempt to help the victim or apprehend her attacker.
(iv) postmodifier in a noun phrase
The weather in April is usually warm and sunny.
They can act as the complement of a verb (insist on eating out), of a noun (a hunger
for money), of an adjective or adverb (attentive to their needs) or of another
preposition (until after midnight).
From the syntactic point of view, the prepositions are classified as simple and
complex. Simple prepositions are single word ones such as across, after, at, before,
between, by, during etc. Complex prepositions consist of more than one word. They

can be adverbs of PREP + PREP as along with, as for, away from, out of, up to etc,
VERB/ADJECTIVE/ CONJUNCTION + PREP as owning to, due to, because of etc,
PREP + NOUN + PREP as by means of, in comparison with, in front of, etc.

17


2.7.2. Semantic Characteristics on Prepositions
Patrick Saint-Dizier (2006:2) states that “Prepositions can be viewed as a semantic
relation between a structure that precedes it (e.g. a verb) and another one that follows
it (e.g. an Noun phrase). This relation can be represented as a conceptual relation.”
Prepositions are used to express a wide range of semantic relations between their
complement and the rest of the context. It can be said that most prepositions are
highly polysemous. By semantic classification, prepositions can be named of:
- Spatial relations: location (inclusion, exclusion, proximity), direction (origin, path,
end point): in, on, at, into, onto, along, under, through, above, over, across …..
- Temporal relations: at, in, after, before, for, during, since ….
- Recipient, goal, target: for, to, at
- Support, opposition: for, with, against ….
- Agent: by, with…
- Instrument, means, manner: in, by, with, according to…
- Cause, purpose: for, because of, since ….
- Reference: with regard to, as to, as for ….
Priska-Monika Hotteroh (1993:179) presents three basic problems for the semantics
of prepositions as follows:
(1) Prepositions offer a considerable variability of context-dependent interpretation. It
means that the individual preposition can express a wide range of relations
(2) There is a very close semantic interaction between the preposition and its
linguistic context, especially between the preposition and its argument. For instance,
we cannot think of the meaning of a spatial preposition without bearing in mind some

place or thing. The meaning of a preposition cannot be conceived without reference to
the internal argument.
(3) One and the same spatial situation can be viewed from different perspectives, or
in other words, it can be conceptualized in different ways. Different mental structures

18


can be created to interpret an extra linguistic scene and correspondingly, in a number
of cases different preposition can be used to refer to one and the same extra linguistic
situation.
For example: something in / on the mirror
Some one in / on the island
Something in / on the tree
Some one in / on (the) bed
2.8.

THE SPATIAL PREPOSITIONS “AT, ON, IN”

“AT, ON, IN” are the basic and most general SPATIAL prepositions. They usually
appear with static verbs to form “state” prepositional phrases.
Nature of the relationship

Position

Indifferent (Point)
Area or Volume

Line or Surface

X

AT

Interior

IN

Exterior

X

ON
Figure 2.1
The following relationships are illustrated in the Figure 2.1.
(i) An object can be related to a point, positioned at this point.
(ii) An object can be related to an enclosed area (a two-dimensional area or threedimensional volume) being positioned in it.
(iii) An object can be related to a line or a surface, supported by or attached on it.
AT as the most “neutral” place preposition, denotes place as a point of orientation,
disregarding its physical shape. For instances, “at the station” in Langacker’s trajector
and landmark view point, the station is taken as an orientation point for some

19


trajectory, but does not denote whether it is near or far, inside or on top of the station.
(René Dirven, 1993:74)
According to Close (1977:147), AT is used to express the idea of a stationary
relationship with an unspecified dimension.
AT extends from an orientation point in space to one in time, further into state, area,

etc, as illustrated below:
(a) Point as place: at the station
(b) time-point: at 9 o’clock
(c) State: at work/ rest/ war / lunch
(d) Area: (good/ bad/ an expert) at English
(e) Manner: at low speed
(f) Circumstances: at these words
(g) Causes: laugh at, aim at ….
With AT, all the prepositional predicates denote a more or less clearly delimited and
“active” state, the subject is usually human and engages in some form of organized
activity.
IN conceptualizes space as an enclosure or volume, denotes the enclosure of the
trajector in the landmark, therefore views the landmark as two or three-dimensional
space. This basic characteristic pervades all its extension:
(a) Enclosure space: in London
(b) Time: in spring, in 1998
(c) State: in love / sorrow / fun / peace
(d) Area: specialize in English Methodology, rich in generosity ….
(e) Manner / means: write in pink, in agreement ….
(f) Circumstances: in silence, in the dark ….
(g) Cause/ reason: in delight, in triumph …..

20


ON denotes physical contact between trajector and landmark (the trajector is
supported by or attached to the landmark). It is used in reference to a line (onedimensional space) e.g. “ON the way” or a two-dimensional area e.g. “ON the farm”,
also “On the bus” (horizontal) and “ON the TV (vertical) (Close, 1977:156).
ON can have the following extensions:
(a) Contact with line/surface: on the floor.

(b) Period of time: on Sunday
(c) State: on display / show / sale / hire / duty / trial
(d) Topic or area: lecture on history / a report on development / concentrate on the
lesson …
(e) Manner/means: diet on bananas, go on foot
(f) Circumstances: on arrival, on my return, on the condition that …
(g) Cause/ reason: congratulate some one on his performance...
ON is more concrete than AT and IN since it has the notion of “physical contact”. It
denotes “passive” states: things are or can be displayed, shown, sold, hired, etc.
Within this thesis, we concentrate ONLY on the spatial and temporal usage of the
prepositions AT, ON, IN.
2.8.1. Usage of “AT”
Pattern 1: at + the + place within a city or town
• The women are at the supermarket.
Nouns commonly used with this pattern:
Apartment, bus stop, factory, hospital, hotel, house, mall, office, park, parking lot,
restaurant, cinema, theater, school, station, store, university etc
Pattern 2: at + an address
• She lives at 3756 Oxford Street.
Pattern 3: at + the + place within another place

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• He was waiting in the room at the door.
• She likes to sit in her apartment at the window watching the street.
Nouns commonly used with this pattern: counter, desk, table, window etc
Pattern 4: at + the + back, bottom, end, front, and top + of (different parts of a place).
•

Mrs. Castle was waiting at the bottom of the stairs.

• They escaped by a window at the back of the house.
• I saw a taxi at the end of the street.
Pattern 5: at + a place or meal of regular attendance
• The children are at school.
• You shouldn’t watch TV at dinner.
Nouns used with this pattern are: church, class, home, practice, school, work,
breakfast, lunch, dinner.
Pattern 6: at + noun of event
• They are at the movies.
• She was at a party when I called.
Nouns commonly used with this pattern are:
Celebration, concert, conference, dance, debate, dinner, forum, function, funeral,
game, lecture, meeting, movies, parade, party, play, program, reunion, show,
wedding etc
2.8.2. Usage of “IN”
Pattern 1: in + names of countries, continents
• I usually work in England but sometimes I work abroad.
Pattern 2: in + names of towns, villages, cities
•

I’ve been teaching at a college in London.

•

She lives in Mendoza with her family.

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Pattern 3: in + named places:
•

The royal lives in Buckingham Palace.

Pattern 4: in + streets, roads, avenues:
Moniuszki, Fish Street etc.. e.g. in Stratford Avenue.
Pattern 5: in + the + rooms / an area of a room; buildings:
•

They were sitting having dinner in the restaurant.

Pattern 6: in + containers
•

She kept the cards in a little box

Pattern 7: in + a/the + types of transport (the vehicle one cannot walk around): Car,
van, lorry, aeroplane, boat etc
• I’m sitting in a taxi waiting for him.
Pattern 8: in + parts of the body (a bodily attack): his foot, her leg, our heads etc..
• Mr John has a problem in his left leg.
Pattern 9: In + the south/north/east/ west
•

In the south of China they eat rice, but in the north they eat noodles.

•

In North America, Australia, and Europe there are two or more courses to
every meal.

2.8.3.

“AT” and “IN” in comparison

(1) IN emphasizes the places as enclosed spaces, whereas AT relates the places to
people’s activities or events. Let us examine the examples as follow:
•

I had a hard day at the office. (the office as a working place)

•

I left my coat behind in the office. (the office is considered as a building)

•

There’s a good film at the cinema. (the cinema as a public place for seeing films)

•

It was very cold in the cinema. (the cinema as a building.)

•

Where are you? – We are at the supermarket (the activity of shopping)

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•

There were a lot of people in the supermarket when the fire went up. (the
supermarket as a building)

•

I was at Tom’s house last night

• The rooms in Mary’s house are luxurious.
(2) AT is used to give the house number; IN is used with the name of the street when
talking about addresses.
•

They used to live at 5, Weston Road.

•

She got a job in Oxford Street.

However, American English uses ‘on’: ‘He lived on Penn Street.’
(3) AT is used to show where something happens, for instances, with meeting places
or points on a map)
•

My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi.

•

The meeting took place at the company’s headquarters.

(4) The other differences between AT and IN are shown in the table 2. 1
AT

IN

At home/ work

in bed (the state)

At school / at university (attending school)

in the school (building)
in hospital (patient) / in prison

At church (attending church service)

(prisoner)
in the river / the lake / the sea / the

at the seaside / at sea

ocean

at the top of the page / of + N

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at the end of the road
at the corner of the street

in the corner of the room

at the front / at the back of a building, hall,
group of people

In the front / the back of a car

Table 2.1: Usage of AT and IN in comparison (source: http// englishclub.com)

For example:
•

Joanne’s front door is at the top of the plane’s steps.

•

Two hours later, a police car stopped at her house.

•

When I arrived in Berlin, many people were attacking the wall with
stones.

2.8.4.

Usage of “ON”

Pattern 1: on + a/the + surface of a place or object
• There was a “no smoking” sign on the wall

Nouns commonly used with this pattern are: shelf, wall, floor, ceiling, door, table,
menu, cover, page …..
Pattern 2: on + the directions: left/right/other side/nearside/far side: e.g. on the left.
•Go down Third street and you’ll see the General Hospital on the left.
Pattern 3: on + levels of a building: first floor, second floor, top floor etc..
•The headquarter is on the top floor.
Pattern 4: on + parts of the body: his foot, her leg, our heads
•Look! There something on your head.
Pattern 5: on + a/the + types of transport (vehicles one can walk around)
• Joanne Ussery, 54, from Mississippi is a big favorite with her two grandsons
because she lives on a jet plane.

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