ASMAR english grammar book (Sách ngữ pháp tiếng Anh )

[Type the document title]
English
Grammar
Mohammad Shoaib “Andarabi”

9/4/2013
First Edition


Preface
Mohammad Shoaib “Andarabi” was born in Baghlan
Afghanistan in 1990. I was educated at SAMER English
Language Institute in Kabul Afghanistan. I taught English in
SAMER for few years after that I established an institute by the
name ASMAR English Academy: I run this academy for the 3
years, after the 3 years I stated working as an interpreter for the
Republic of South Korea PRT in US Military Base Bagram Air
Field up to now.
I have been in the Republic of South Korea for the capacity
building training (Law and Order program) for Afghan Officials
2 times, first in 2o11, second in 2012.
From 2011 to late December 2012 I was legal and cultural
advisor for KNP and I taught the Afghanistan constitution law,
penal code of law and the police law.
I have worked to write this book since 2006 when I graduate
from school.

Page 1


Articles

General information about “a/an/the” and the zero articles.
Article is a word which is used with noun or adjective and determines them.
E.g.: The girls are lazy.
Article
The Articles are divided in three parts:
1. Definite Article
2. Indefinite Article
3. Zero Articles

Definite Article
1. Definite Article:
There is only one definite in the English language which is (the).
.E.g.:. The shirt I am wearing is new
Form of “the”
Singular:
The man, the woman, the book.
E.g.: He is the man.
She is the woman.
That is the book.
Plural:
The women, The men. The books.
E.g.:. They are the men.
They are the women.
They are the books.
The pronunciation of “The”
The is pronounced (da) before consonant sounds: the day, the key, the house, the
way.
The is pronounced (di) before vowel sounds and words normally preceded by an:
The end, the hour, the inside, the outside, the ear, the eye, the umbrella.
The definite article (the) can be used in the following ways:

Note: when we wish to draw attention to the noun we use the prounounciatiuon
.(di)
Page 2


?E.g.:. Do you mean the Shakir Karimi, the instructor
.Andarab has become the place for sightseeing in the Afghanistan
.Some common abbreviations are preceded by the pronounced (da)
The BBC (the British Broadcasting Corporation)
.
1. Before things which are unique.
E.g.:. The sky, The sun, The Moon, The solar system, The galaxy, The universe.
2. Before the common nouns.
E.g.:. The student, The boy, The girl.
3. Before the ordinal number.
E.g.:. The first class, the tenth class.
4. Before the superlative form of adjectives.
E.g.:. The cleverest student.
The most beautiful car.
5. Before the nationality adjectives, particularly those ending in (ch, -sh,-ese)
E.g.:. The British= the British people in general.
E.g.:. British
French
However, we cannot say *many British * or * those two British*
But, for the plural nationality nouns we can use the and zero article to refer a
group as a whole.
The Americans or Americans
E.g.:. The British and the Americans have been allies for a long time.
The group as a whole: “the” + plural names.
Families: The Fahim Kazimi brothers have opened a market.

Races:
The Afghanis are a long way from political unity.
Politics: The Democrats want electoral reform.
Titles beginning with the are given to particular groups to emphasize their
identity.
E.g.:. The Jesuits.
The Army.
Page 3


6. Before the collective noun or plural countable.
Company, club, committee, government, group, staff, family, gang, council, union,
crowd and etc…
E.g.:. The police.
The public.
The audience.
7. Before time expressions (time sequence).
the beginning, the middle, the end, the first/last, the next day, the following day,
the present, the past, the future.
E.g.:. In the past, people had fewer expectations.
Attention!
We use the with parts of the day.
In the morning/ afternoon/ evening.
In the evening, we went out.
E.g.:. We spent the day at home.
Article (The) can’t be used in the following ways:
1. Before days of the week.
E.g.:. The Saturday…. Etc
2. Before year….The.2005.
E.g.:. Before the months……The June

3. Before the proper noun.
E.g.:. The Ahmad ……. Etc.
4. Before the names of rivers, oceans, gulfs and etc.
E.g.:. The Amo river……….Etc

Indefinite Article
There are two indefinite articles in English language which are (a) and (an).
1. The form (a) is placed before the word beginning with a consonant sounds
(not just consonant letters).
E.g.:. A chair
A book …….. Etc
Note:
Page 4


In the plural, when the exact number is not important, we can use quantifiers like
some, a few, a lot of, a number of and etc…
E.g.:. We have some books.
They have fewer students.
2. The form (an) is placed before a word beginning with vowel sounds (not just
vowel letters, a, e, i, o, u).
E.g.:. An orange
An apple…..Etc
Memo
When (U) has the sound of (U) at the beginning of the words (a) is used instead of
(an).
E.g.:. a university, a European, a uniform, a union, and etc…
E.g.:. an umbrella, an unusual case, an eye, an ear, and etc…
An hour, an honor.
A hot dinner, a hall.

Attention: a few words beginning with H may be preceded by a or an at the
discretion of the speaker.
A hotel, a historian or an hotel, an historian. If such words are used with an, then
H is not pronounced or is pronounced softly.
H is not pronounced at all in a few words.
An heir, an honest man, an honour, and hour.
Note:
1: The form (a) can be used before titles (Mr., Mrs., Miss) with the sense of ‘a
certain person whom I don’t know’:
E.g.:. A Mr. Samim came here yesterday.
A Mrs Nahida is waiting to see you.
A Miss Negina phoned and left a message for you.
2: Some common abbreviations (depending on their first letter) are preceded by a,
an.
E.g.:. a B.A (Bachelor of Arts).
an I.Q (Intelligence Quotient).
3: The phrase (a certain) to refer to people whose identity is not yet known, is
common in fables and folk stories.
E.g.:. Many years ago a certain merchant arrived in Andarab.
Page 5


4: when we mentioned for the first time, the speaker assumes listener does not
know what is referred to.
E.g.:. I looked up and saw a plane. (Mentioned for the first time – you don’t know
which plane I mean).
E.g.:. The plane flew low over the trees. (You now know exactly which plane I
mean).

The difference between ‘a/an’ and ‘one’

One and a/an cannot normally be used interchangeably. We use one when we are
counting.
E.g.:. One apple
It was one coffee we ordered, not two.
But we could not use one to mean ‘any one’ (not specified)
E.g.:. a knife is no good. You need a screwdriver to do the job properly.
One is often used with day, morning, etc…
One day, many years later, I found out what had really happened.
a/an and one can be used when we refer to.
Whole numbers: a or (one) hundred, thousand, million
Fractions:
a or (one) quarter, third, half
Money:
a or (one) pound/dollar
Weight/measure: a or (one) pound/kilo, foot/meter

The uses of a/an with reference to measurement
Price in relation to weight:
Distance in relation to speed:
Distance/fuel consumption:
Frequency/time:

80P a/per kilo
40km an/per hour
30 miles a/per gallon
twice a/per day

The uses of a/an after ‘what’ and ‘such’
a/an is used with countable nouns after what in exclamation:
E.g.:. What a surprise!

What an interesting story!
a/an is used after such when we wish to emphasize degree:
E.g.:. My boss is such an idiot!
The baby is such a pest!
What a lot …! Is used for exclamation (not*How much/many…!*).
E.g.:. What a lot of flowers!
What a lot of trouble!

Page 6


The uses of a/an with pairs of nouns
a/an is used before the first noun of a pair:
a cup and saucer, a hat and coat, a knife and fork
E.g.:. It’s cold outside. Take a hat and coat with you.
E.g.:. When you go on holiday, take a raincoat and a camera.
(an Ipad and camera) is okay but, (a coat and camera) is not the same pair.

Basic uses of a/an.
There is no difference in meaning between a and an. When using a/an we must
always bear in mind two basic facts:
1: a/an has an indefinite meaning, (the person, animal or thing)
2: a/an can combine only with a singular countable noun.

Zero Article
Summary of the Zero article:
The symbol of Zero article ø
Plural:
E.g.:. ø Girls do better than ø boys at school.
ø Butter makes you fat.

ø Honesty is the best policy.

Basic uses of the Zero article.
We use the Zero article before three types of nouns:
1: plural countable noun.
Beans
2: uncountable noun (always singular) .
Water
3: proper nouns.
Omed
Zero article with plural countable nouns
People:
Afghan women are fighting for their rights.
Places:
Museums are closed on Mondays.
Foods:
Beans contain a lot of fiber.
Occupations:
Doctors always support each other.
Nationalities:
Afghans make delicious Qabli Uzbaki.
Animals:
Cats do not like cold water.
Insects:
Ants are found in all parts of the world.
Page 7


Plants:
Products:

Trees don’t grow in the Antarctica.
Watches have become accurate.

Zero article with uncountable nouns (always singular)
Food:
Refined foods like sugar should be avoided.
Drink:
water must be pure if it is to be drunk.
Substances:
oil is essential for the manufacture of plastic
Collections:
money makes the world go round.
Colours:
Red is my favorite colour.
Activities (-ing):
Smoking is bad for health.
Other activities:
Business has been improving in this year.
Sports, games:
Football is played all over the world.
Abstract:
life is short; art is long.
Policies:
Capitalism, Marxism, materialism and etc…
Philosophy:
Determinism.
Languages:
Dari is a sweet language.
Zero article with proper nouns (names of people)

First names:
Sadaf is my friend name.
Surnames:
These tools are made by Sarwary and Hakimi.
Full names:
Nawrooz khan works for this company.
Initials:
M. Saeed Khail is the famous Jehadi leader of Parwan
Afghanistan.
Zero article with titles
Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms. and Dr. (Attention: full stop may be used optionally after
these abbreviations)
E.g.:. Mr. and Mrs. Omera khan are here to see you.
Dr. Najmuddin said she has liver problem.
Some other abbreviations:
Like: (Captain, Colonel, Major, Headmaster, Madam, Dear Sir and etc…)
E.g.:. May I introduce you to Colonel Walid?
Titles applied to relations:
(Uncle, Aunt, Auntie, (endearment: means to courteous someone and love
someone and say sweet) Mum, Mom, Mommy, Mummy = ’informal’
Dad, Pop, Daddy, Granddad, Grandpa, and Grandma) = ’informal’
Also we can use adjective in front of many titles:
E.g.:. Kind Aunt Shah Boboo.
Page 8


Old Mrs. Sadaf.
Young Mr. Saeed Sadat.
Mad Uncle Raqib.
Zero article for days, seasons, months and holidays.

Mondays are always difficult. Monday is always a difficult day.
Hamal is my favorite month. Spring is a lovely season.
Nawroz is the time for picnic.
Zero article for academic subjects.
Biology, Geography, physics, Trigonometry, History and Chemistry.
E.g.:. Trigonometry is a difficult subject to understand easily.
Zero article for meals.
Lunch, Dinner, Tea, breakfast and (supper: means evening).
E.g.:. Dinner is served.
Let’s have lunch.
Zero article for transport.
By bus, by bicycle, by bike, by boat, by car, by land, by plane, by sea, by train, by
foot, by ship and etc…
E.g.:. we traveled all over Kabul city by bus.
Zero article for pairs.
Day and night, father and mother, son and daughter, husband and wife, sun and
moon, pen and ink, young and old, light and dark.
E.g.:. This business has been run by father and son for 20 years.
Ahmad is working by day and night.
Note:
Zero article is very common in journalism.
Because in the newspaper headlines we omit article.

Parts Of Speech
Page 9


The words are classified according to the work they do in the sentences, these parts
are called parts of speech.
1. Noun

2. Pronoun
3. Verb
4. Adjective
5. Adverb
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection

Noun
Noun is a word which is used as a name of persons, places and things.
E.g.:. Ahmad
Kabul
Chair
Noun can be the name of person, job title, thing, place, quality or the name of an
action.
E.g.:. Najibullah
Doctor
Radio
Afghanistan
Courage
Laughter
The noun is divided into two parts
A. Concrete Noun
B. Abstract Noun

A. Concrete Noun is a noun which has foreign existence and can be
touchable.
Ex. Chair, Book, Car and etc…
Both concrete and abstract
Persons, animals, plants:

a girl,
Objects:
a bottle,
Groups:
an army,
Unite of measurement:
a kilo,
Parts of a mass:
a bit,
Materials, liquid, gases:
cotton,
Grains and powders:
barely,
Activities:
camping,

a horse,
a desk,
a crowd,
a liter,
a packet,
milk,
rice,
drinking,

Page 10

a geranium,
a typewriter,
a herd,

a meter,
a slice,
a piece,
air
dust,
flour,
eating,
sailing,


Languages:

Arabic,

Turkish,

Italian,

Japanese,

The Concrete nouns are divided into five parts.
1. Proper noun is a noun which indicates some particular person, place,
thing or idea which is imagined to be unique. It is generally spelt with a
capital letter. Articles are not normally used in front of proper nouns.
Note: The proper nouns are always written with capital letters at the beginning of
it.
Personal names (with or without titles):
Shoib, Shoaib, Andarabi
President Karzai, Mr Abdullah
Forms of address:

Mum, Dad, Auntie, Uncle…etc
Geographical names:
Asia, India, Afghanistan …etc
Place names:
Shahar-e-now Avenue
…etc
Months, days of the week, festival and seasons:
April, Sunday, Eid,
…etc
Seasons are usually spelt with a small letter but sometimes with a capital.
Spring/spring
2. Common noun is a noun given common to every persons or things in the
same class or kind we can use Articles in front of common nouns.
Like: Child, School and etc…
E.g.:. Our school is very nice.

Countable nouns
If a noun is countable:
-we can use (a/an) in front of it:
-it has a plural and can be used in the question:
-we can use numbers:

a book, an envelope.
How many stamps/envelops?
one stamp, two stamps

Uncountable nouns
If a noun is uncountable:
-we do not normally use (a/an) in front of it:

Sugar is expensive.
A sugar is expensive.
-it does not normally have plural and can be used in the question:
How much oil/meat?
How much oils/meats?
-we cannot normally use a number (0ne, two) in front of it:
One water, two milk
Page 11


Nouns which can be either countable or uncountable
Some nouns may be countable or uncountable depending on their use.
When we use as countable, we refer to them as single items.
When we use as uncountable, we refer to them as substances.
1)
Countable (a single item)
uncountable (substance/materials)
He ate a whole chicken!
Would you like some chicken?
I had a boiled egg for breakfast.
There’s egg on your face.
I tied it up with a ribbon.
I bought a meter of ribbon.
2)
Countable (‘thing’)
uncountable (‘material’)
I broke a glass this morning.
Glass made from sand.
Would you like an ice?
Ice floats.

I have got a new iron.
Steel is an alloy of iron.
What do the papers say?
Paper is made from wood.
3)
Countable (‘specific’)
uncountable (‘general’)
A good education is expensive.
Education should be free.
Try not to make a noise.
Noise is a kind of pollution.
4) (ing)
Countable (‘specific’)
uncountable (‘general’)
Are these drawings by Sadaf?
I am not good at drawings.
He has a painting by Saeed.
Painting is my hobby.
She gave a reading of her poems.
Reading is taught early.
5)
Uncountable
equivalent countable
Bread:
a loaf
Clothing:
a garment
Laugher:
a lough
Luggage:

a case/ a bag
Poetry:
a poem
Money:
a coin/ a note
Work:
a job
Note: Nouns for animals are countable; nouns for meat are uncountable.
A cow/beef,
a deer/venison,
a pig/pork,
a sheep/mutton,

3. Collective noun is the name of collection of people or things.
Page 12


Like: Family, Nation, Team, people and etc…
E.g.:. The Afghan nation is brave.
Collective nouns + singular or plural verb
Collective nouns which have plural forms
Some collective nouns such as
Audience, class, club, committee, government, company, congregation, council,
crew, crowd, family, gang, group, jury, mob, staff, team and union:
Can be used with singular or plural verbs:
Collective noun + plural verb
The following collective nouns must be followed by a plural verb; they do not have
plural forms:
Cattle, the clergy, the military, people, the police, swine, vermin
E.g. Some people are never satisfied.

The police/ the military have surrounded by building.
Nouns with a plural form + singular verb
The following nouns are plural in form are always followed by a singular verb:
News, (games) such as Billiards, bowls, darts, dominoes, (name of cities) such as
Athens, Brussels, Naples
E.g. the news on TOLO TV is always depressing.
Billiards is becoming more and more popular.
Athens has grown rapidly in the past decades.
Nouns with a plural form + singular or plural verb
The following nouns ending in _ics_ take a singular or plural verb:
Athletics, gymnastics, linguistics, mathematics, physics, acoustics, economics,
ethics, phonetics, statistics
E.g. Mathematics is a compulsory subject at school.
Acoustics is a branch of physics.
The acoustics in the Festival Hall are extremely good.
Nouns with a plural form + plural verb
Nouns with plural form only plural verbs:
Nouns can combine with (a pair of):
Cloths, congratulation, earrings, goods, greens, lodgings, looks, odds, oats, brains,
antipodes, belongings
E.g. My trousers are torn.
All my belongings are in this bag.
A pair of glasses costs quite a lot these days.
Page 13


Two pairs of your trousers are still at the cleansers.
Nouns with different singular and plural meanings
Some nouns have different meaning in the singular and plural.
Note: sometimes the meanings are far apart and sometimes are quite close.

Air
airs
Ash
ashes
Content
contents
Custom
customs
Damage
damages
Drawer
drawers
Fund
funds
Glass
glasses
Look
looks
Manner
manners
Minute
minutes
Pain
pains
Scale
scales
Saving
savings
Spectacle
spectacles

Step
steps
Work
works
Numbers and their plurals
The word (dozen & numbers) do not add (s) when they are used in front of plural
nouns:
Two dozen eggs, three hundred men, ten thousand pounds.
Note: add (s) before (of) when the number is not specified.
Hundreds of people are going to the demonstration.
Thousands of pounds have been spent on the new hospital.
I said it was secret but she has told dozens of people.
A whole amount
When the reference is to a whole amount a plural subject is followed by a singular
verb.
Duration:
three weeks is a long time to wait for an answer.
Money:
two hundred dollars is a lot to spend on address.
Distance:
forty miles is a long way to walk in a day.
Two nouns joined by ‘and’
Page 14


Nouns that commonly go together are used with singular verbs.
Bacon and eggs, bread and butter, cheese and wine, fish and chips, lemon and oil,
trips and onions, sausage(s) and mash
E.g. Chips and fish is a popular meal in Kabul.
Note: If we think of the items as ‘separate’ we use a plural verb.

Fish and chips make a good meal.
4. Material noun is a noun which shows what substance is a noun made of.
Like: Wood, Cotton, Milk and etc…
E.g.:. This table is made of wood.
5. Combined or Compound Noun is a noun which formed by the
combination of two or more than two nouns.
Like: Book Store, bus driver and etc…
E.g.:. Ahmad has a big book store in the city.
Sometimes compounds noun are spelt with a hyphen and sometimes not.
E.g.:. Son-in- law.
Stick-in-the-mud.
Single-word compound nouns
Single word compound nouns are clearly made up of two words.
E.g.:. a ʹcupboard, a ʹraincoat, a ʹsaucepan,
Nouns formed with adjective + noun
E.g.:. a ʹgreenhouse
a ʹraincoat

a ʹlonghand

a ʹred head

Nouns formed with gerund + noun
E.g.:. Drinking water
a ʹfrying pan
a ʹwalking stick
Note: In gerund + noun (hyphen) is optional.
Nouns formed with noun + gerund
E.g.:. ʹHorse-ridding,
ʹsight-seeing,

Nouns formed with adverb
E.g.:. ʹBreakdown,
ʹincome,
Nouns formed with noun + noun
E.g.:. a ʹcar key,
a ʹchair leg,

ʹsunbathing,

ʹmake-up,
a ʹdoor knob ,
Page 15

a ʹtypewriter key,


When we want to say that one (non-living) thing is part of another, we can use of.
E.g.:. The key of the car.
Compound nouns which refer to place
The first word refers to a place and the second word to something that is in the
place.
E.g.:. a ʹPersonal computer,
a ʹkitchen sink,
ʹLondon Airport,
ʹKabul Stadium,
ʹKushanabad Street,
ʹkololapushta road,
Compound nouns which tell us about materials and substances
The first word refers to a substance or materials; the second to something made of
the substance or materials.

E.g.:. a ʹcotton blouse, a ʹgold watch,
a ʹplastic raincoat,
Compound nouns which relate to time and formed with (self)...Man; woman.
E.g.:. ʹAfternoon tea,
ʹmorning coffee, a ʹtwo hour walk,
an ʹevening
dress, ʹSunday lunch,
E.g.:. an ʹairman,
a ʹfireman,
a ʹgentleman/woman,
a ʹhorseman/woman,
A. Abstract Noun: abstract noun is a noun which does not have any foreign
existence and cannot be touchable.
Like: Beauty, Cleverness and etc…

Noun Gender:
General information about gender
A noun is always considered according to being male, female, or neuter.
1. Masculine Gender:
A noun which denotes a male human or animal is called Masculine gender.
Like: Father, Brother, Man, Lion and etc…

2. Feminine Gender
A noun which indicates a female human or animal is called feminine gender.
Like: Mother, Sister, Lioness and etc…
Page 16


3. Dual Gender
A noun which denotes either a male and female human or animal is called dual

gender.
Like: Driver, Teacher, Child, artist, Professor, Student.

4. Neuter Gender
A noun which denotes neither a male nor a female (inanimate) is called neuter
gender.
Like: Table, Chair and etc…
Identifying masculine and feminine gender
People
Masculine
Feminine
Bachelor
spinster
Boy
girl
Brother
sister
Father
mother
Gentleman
lady
Grandfather
grandmother
Grandson
granddaughter
Husband
wife
King
queen
Man

woman
Monk
nun
Mr.
Mrs.
Nephew
niece
Sir
madam
Son
daughter
Uncle
aunt
Animals
Masculine
Bull
Cock
Dog
Gander
Pig
Ram
Stallion

Feminine
cow
rooster/hen
birch
geese
sow
ewe

mare
Page 17


Add (ess) change from masculine to feminine
People and Animals
Masculine
Feminine
Actor
actress
God
goddess
heir
heiress
Host
hostess
Prince
Princess
Steward
Stewardess
Waiter
waitress
Leopard
leopardess
Lion
lioness
Tiger
tigress
Note: manager, instructor and author are used for both genders
(He / She) indicates for masculine and feminine sexes.

Like:
He wolf
she wolf
He goat
she goat
Some other genders
Masculine
Bridegroom
Hero
Lad
Landlord
Male
Masseur
Usher
Widower

Feminine
bride
heroine
lass
landlady
female
masseuse
usherette
widow

Identifying by ‘man’ and ‘woman’
Masculine
Feminine
Policeman

police woman
Postman
postwoman
Salesman
saleswoman
Dustman
dust woman
Chairman
chairwoman
Note: a few of nouns can be used for men and women.
Chairman
Page 18


Note: for (model, nurse, judge & wrestler) we point a word (male &female/
woman), also we can use (he/she):
Masculine
Feminine
Male model
female/woman model
Male nurse
female/woman nurse
Male judge
female/woman judge
Male wrestler
female/woman wrestler
Male accountant
female/woman accountant
Male doctor
female/woman doctor

He is a doctor
she is a doctor
He is an accountant
she is an accountant
(Adult, artist, comrade, cook, cousin, lawyer, Liberian, musician, doctor, enemy,
foreigner, friend, guest, journalist, passenger, person, pupil, relation, relative,
scientist, singer, speaker, spouse, stranger, student, teacher, tourist, traveler, visitor,
writer).

5. Collective noun is the name of collection of people or things.
Like: Family, Nation, Team, people and etc…
E.g.:. The Afghan nation is brave.

Pluralization of Nouns
The general way for pluralizing of noun is adding (s) or (es) at the end of singular
nouns.
Like:
Book Books Watch Watches

Rules of adding (S) or (es)
1. Nouns ending in o, s, ss, ch, sh, x, z take (es).
Like: Box, Boxes – Dish, Dishes – watch, watches – class, classes
Bush, bushes – potato, potatoes
Like: Match – Matches
.When (ch) has the sound of (k) adds only (s) .2
Like: Epoch – Epochs
3. By adding (es) at the end of nouns ending in (y) following a consonant (y) is
change in to (I) and (es) is added.
Like: Army, Armies, Family, Families
5. Nouns ending in (y) following a vowel add only (s) without any change.

Like: Day – Days
Key – Keys and Etc.....
Page 19


6. Nouns ending in (O) following a consonant take (es).
Like: Negro – Negroes
Mango – Mangoes
All these nouns end with (o) and takes (es)
Echo
echoes
Hero
heroes
Potato
potatoes
Tomato
tomatoes
Buffalo
buffaloes
Cargo
cargoes
Commando
commandoes
Grotto
grottoes
Halo
haloes
Mosquito
mosquitoes
Tornado

tornadoes
Volcano
volcanoes
Note: The following nouns are exceptional.
Like: Kilo – Kilos
Photo – Photos
Piano – Pianos
7. Nouns ending in (O) following a vowel takes only (S)
Like: Video – Videos
Radio – Radios and Etc......
8. Nouns ending in (F) or (Fe) change (F) or (Fe) into (V) and add (es).
Like: Wife - Wives
Knife – Knives
Calf – Calves
Shelf-shelves
Wolf- Wolves
Half- Halves
1. Some nouns form their plural by a vowel change.
Like: Man – Men
Woman – Women
Goose – Geese – louse – lice
Mouse – Mice
Foot – Feet
Tooth - Teeth
2. Compound nouns usually take (s) or (es) at the end of the main nouns.
Like: Stepmother – Stepmothers
Bus driver - Bus drivers
3. Some nouns in English are pluralized irregularly and at the end take (en).
Like: Ox – Oxen Child – Children brother – brethren.
1. Noun:

Noun is a word which is used as name of person, place, and things.
E.g.:. Ahmad, Kabul, Chair.
Pronunciation of nouns with regular plurals
Page 20


The rules for pronunciation are the same as those for the 3rd person simple present
of regular verbs.
/s/ after
/f/:
chiefs,
coughs,
proofs
/k/:
cakes,
forks,
knocks
/p/:
drops,
taps,
tapes
/t/:
pets,
pockets,
skirts
/z/ after
/b/:
tubs,
verbs,
tubes

/d/:
friends,
hands,
roads
/g/:
bags,
dogs,
legs
/l/:
bells,
tables,
walls
/m/:
arms,
dreams,
names
/n/:
lessons,
pens,
spoons
Note: nouns ending in the following take an extra syllable pronounced /iz/:
Mazes,
noises,
noses,
bushes,
crashes,
dishes,
bridges,
oranges,
pages,

matches,
patches,
speeches,
bushes,
classes,
masses,
axes,
boxes,
taxes
Nouns with regular spelling/ irregular pronunciation
The ending of the following nouns is pronounced /z/ in the plural:
Baths,
mouths,
oaths,
paths,
truths,
youths

wreaths,

Nouns with irregular pronunciation and spelling
The following nouns ending in (-f, fe-) and pronounced /f/ in the singular and when
it changes to plural take (ves) and pronounced /vz/:
Singular
plural
Pronounced /f/
pronounced /vz/
Calf:
calves
Elf:

elves
Half:
halves
Knife:
knives
Leaf:
leaves
Life:
lives
Loaf:
loaves
Self:
shelves
Sheaf:
sheaves
Shelf:
thieves
Page 21


Thief:
Wife:
Wolf:

wives
wolves

The following nouns have regular and irregular plural pronunciation and spelling:
Dwarf
dwarfs

or
dwarves
Hoof
hoofs
or
hooves
Scarf
scarfs
or
scarves
Wharf
wharfs
or
wharves
Note: these nouns have both pronunciations in the plural (/fs/ or/vs/):
Handkerchief
Handkerchiefs
Roof
roofs
Note: there are a few instances where (ʹs) is commonly used to form a plural:
– After letters:
watch your p ʹs and q ʹs
– After years:
1990s
or
1990 ʹs
– After abbreviations:
VIPs
or
VIPʹs

Attention: the final (s) is a small letter.

The above is totally completed
‫نوشته بال تمام گردیده است‬

Pronoun
Page 22


Pronoun is a word which is used instead of noun in prevent its repetition
Ex. Ahmad is a student, He is my brother.
Ex. Ahmad is a student and he studies hard.
Pronouns are divided in to nine parts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Personal Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
Possessive Pronoun
Distributive Pronoun
Indefinite Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Emphasizing Pronouns

9. Relative pronouns
General information about pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are those which are used instead of people and things in the
sentence.
The personal pronouns are divided in to two parts.
a. Subject Pronoun
b. Object Pronoun
a. Subject Pronouns
Subject Pronouns are those which are used instead of subject in the sentences.
The Subject Pronoun consists in:
Form of personal pronouns
Subject
I
You
He
She
It
One
Object
Me
You
Him
Her
It
One
Notes: personal pronoun not only refer to people
For examples: your breakfast is ready. It is on the table.
1st person: I, we
2nd person: you

Page 23

We
Us

You
You

They
Them


3rd person: he, she, it, one, they
1) Most European languages have two forms of (you) an
informal one for family, close friends, children and etc…
and a formal one for strangers, superiors but in English
there is no distinction the one word (you) is used for
everybody.
2) There aren’t different singular and plural forms of (you)
except (yourself/yourselves).
3) We do not normally use a noun and a pronoun together.
Note:
1. There is only (I) personal pronoun which is always spelt with a capital letter
whether it’s at the beginning of a sentence or not.
e.g.: I think she is lazy.
He told me I needn’t wait.
2. In polite usage it is usual avoid mentioning yourself first.
e.g.: Ahmad and I have just eaten lunch.
3. He
masculine

She
.Ahmad is a teacher
.He is a teacher
.Nadima is a nurse
.She is a nurse
.The vase is valuable
.It is more than 1000 years old

feminine

It

neuter

Note: Please remind these Notices:
 Subject is the doer of an action..
Ex. He fixes the car.
 Subject is a person or things that we talk about it.
Ex. He is a boy.
It is a book.
 Subject is the word which is used in the beginning of the sentences.
Ex. This is a comfortable chair.
The Usage of (It)
Page 24