thiết kế mạch cảm biến ánh sáng bằng quang trở

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^WƪỒKD EMJ ęặKD AỼ ^LPẢ^ EMJ ^LẫKD
ALJM ęCỆK ― ęCỆK ^Ợ
GỜ HÞK ęCỆK ^Ợ KD KDLCỆY

---j9j---

ęỗ ÍK ? ęCỆK ^Ợ KD UPẮ^
ęọ téc?
^LCẻ^ Aẻ HẩEL EầH GCẻK ÍKL KD GẹKD
]PMKD ^Wớ
DVLN? ^l.U KDPSỎK LừP YLƪởE
UV^L? NƪƩKD
UV^L?
NƪƩKD ^ẮK UMKD

BÏ ]PMKD VCKL

BởY? Eę^ę=3M

HUUV? 9593=3=944

9593=3==9<

^p. LEH, tlíkd < kąh 797=

BỒC EầH ƩK
^rƹốe tcïk elÿkd `h xck dỨc bỘc eấh vộ gct k sỗu se k tly Kduyk Lu
Yle Dckd vcùk g hỵk ck t eỵkd kdlcp ồ klct tâkl dcÿp ĝử vé lƹốkd nạk
elÿkd `h tlỽe lcỄk ĝọ téc. ^lẤy ĝå tẨk tâkl elể gấj, dcÿp ĝử klõh trjkd suờt tlỘc dcmk
tlỽe lcỄk vé eţkd bé kdƹỘc dcÿp klõh ĝƹm rm ø tƹỚkd, acễh trm sỽ pló lụp eỤm ĝọ téc.
@h eţkd xck eấh ƭk dcm ĝâkl, gậk gỡ vộ kdc tlỗk ồ buỵk gùk kd vcïk
vé bé kduổk eỐ vţ bốk bmj, bé ĝồkd bỽe dcÿp `h ljék tlékl ĝọ téc kéy .
HẴe nó ĝå eờ dẪkd ljék tlékl ĝọ téc trjkd plậh vc vé al kkd eừ tl. ^uy klcùk
s alỵkd trớkl alc klkd tlcu sừt. @h rt hjkd klk e s tlỵkd eh vộ tk tõkl
el gj em quứ tly eỵ vộ tjộk tl eớe gk.
\ck elỗk tlộkl eh k!

KLẢK \Ã^ EỦM DCầKD VCÏK LƪởKD NắK



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Dcấkd vcïk lƹốkd nạk

HỠe BỠe
ELƪƩKD =. ^ỞKD ]PMK, DCởC ^LCỆP ęỉ ^ÉC................................................4
=.= DCởC ^LCP V HEL EH GCK KL UKD........................................4
UKD........................................ 4
=.=.= Ylỗk tốel klu eẤu vé sỽ eẤk tlcẺt eỤm hậel...............................................4
=.=.7 Eíe sấk plảh ĝå eõ trïk tlề trƹỘkd............................................................
trƹỘkd............................................................44
=.7 UƩ ęỗ ALộC EỦM
EỦM HẩEL.................................................................
HẩEL............................................................................
...........<<
=.5 HỮE ^CÏP
^CÏP SÏP EẦP EỦM
EỦM HẩEL............................................................
HẩEL.............................................................<
.<
=.> KỜC NPKD ęỉ ^ÉC..........................................
^ÉC...........................................................................
..........................................
............
...33
=.0 DCởC LẩK ęỉ ^ÉC
^ÉC KDLCÏK
KDLCÏK EỬP.........................................................
EỬP...............................................................

......33
=.6 YLƪƩKD YLÍY KDLCÏK EỬP...................................................................
EỬP............................................................... ....33
ELƪƩKD 7? BØ ^LPSẻ^ EƩ Uớ VÉ BCKL ACỆK.............................................=9
7.= Dcốc tlcỄu eíe bckl acỄk..................................................................................=9
7.=.= ]umkd trỚ................................................................................................=9
]umkd trỚ (BNW) bé dâ:............................................................................=9
EẠu tậj.........................................................................................................=9
7.=.7 ^rmkscstjr (M=9=0)..................................................................................==
7.=.5 ^rmkscstjr
^rmkscstjr PO^ ( 7K76>6
7K76>6 )...................................................................
)......................................................................
...=5
=5
7.=.> NCJN@ _@=6
7.=.6 CK ^W..............................................................................................79
Eỵkd nkd elukd em ck tr :....................................................................7=
7.=.4 NCJN@ EẦP...........................................................................................77
7.=.< JY^J ( HJE 5967 )...............................................................................75
ELƪƩKD 5? ^LCẻ^ Aẻ VÉ ^LC KD HẩEL.............................
HẩEL..................................................
.....................7>
7>
5.= Bỽm elỈk e bckl acỄk trjkd hậel................................................................7>
5.7 Uƭ ĝổ kdyïk bè vé kduyïk bè ljật ĝồkd...........................................................7>
5.5 ^lcẺt a vộ tlc eỵkd hel..............................................................................7>
ELKD >? A BPK Vẫ LKD YLÍ^ ^WCệK ęỉ ^ÉC..............................73
^ÉC ..............................73
>.= AẺt buẨk.........................................................................................................73

>.7 Lƹốkd plít trcễk
trcễk ĝọ téc..............................................
téc..................................................................................
....................................73
73

HỠe bỠe lâkl ấkl
Lâkl 7.= Uƭ ĝổ alờc eỤm hậel.......................................................................................................<
Lâkl 7.7 EẠu tậj, aø lcỄu.............................................................................................................=9
Lâkl 7.5 ^rmkscstjr M=9=0...........................................................................................................=7
Lâkl 7.> Uƭ elỗk ^rmkscstjr M=9=0........................................................................................=7
Lõkl 7.0 Eu tj vộ aứ lcu.........................................................................................................=>
Lõkl 7.6 Kduyïk bø ljật ĝồkd eỤm ^rmkscstjr PO^.......................................................................=0
Lâkl 7.4 Ncjn` _`k`r vé aè lcỄu...................................................................................................=6
Lâkl 7.< ^Ỡ ĝcỄk..........................................................................................................................=<
Lâkl 7.3 EẠu tậj vé aè lcỄu..........................................................................................................=3
Lâkl 7.=9 ęcỄk trỚ vé aè lcỄu.......................................................................................................79
Lâkl 7.== Ncjn` eẤu vé kduyïk bø ljật ĝồkd..............................................................................77
Lâkl 7.=7 HJE5967 vé s eớe elỗk.......................................................................................75

BỘc kõc ĝẤu

^rjkd euồe sờkd kdéy kmy, ĝcỄk bé hồt plk alỵkd tl tlcu. Lu lt tt e

eớe núkd trjkd dcm ĝâkl, tlcẺt gề elcẺu síkd, klỪkd elcẺe ĝcỄk tljc vộ eớe hớy
hừe trjkd eỵkd kdlcp u s nkd ck.
Klkd ck alỵkd plc bộ kduk kkd bkd vỵ lk, elÿkd sẸ eậk nẤk tl`j
tlỘc dcmk. Elèkl vâ vẨy ĝcỄk eẤk sỽ nỠkd hồt eíel tlèel lụp vé tcẺt acỄh. ęìk eấh
gcẺk íkl síkd rm ĝỘc nỽm trïk klu eẤu tct ach ck klkd vk alỵkd tk eỵkd
eỵkd se
trjkd vce ĝcọu alcễk lỄ tlờkd elcẺu síkd.
Vâ vẨy klõh `h ĝå tlỽe lcỄk ĝổ ík ‒ęìk eấh gcẺk íkl síkd gẽkd qumkd
trỚ‘.. Klẽh hỠe ĝèel ĝấh gấj klu eẤu elcẺu síkd kd tlc tct ach ck vộ eỵkd
tr
se ejk kdc.

ELƪƩKD =. ^ỞKD ]PMK, DCởC ^LCỆP ęỉ ^ÉC
=.= DCởC ^LCỆP V HEL EH GCK KL UKD
=.=.= Ylỗk tốel klu eu vé sỽ eẤk tlcẺt eỤm hậel.
ęcỄk kąkd bé hồt kduổk kąkd bƹụkd rẠt qumk trỈkd trjkd euồe sờkd lcỄk ĝậc,
elèkl vâ vẨy hé ĝcỄk plấc ĝƹụe sỨ nỠkd hồt eíel tlèel lụp. VcỄe elẺ tậj hậel eấh
gcẺk íkl síkd nỽm trùk klu eu tct ach ck klkd
klkd vk alỵkd tk eỵkd se trjkd
vce cu alck l tlkd elcu sớkd. Hel eấh gcẺk ĝƹụe sỨ nỠkd rồkd råc trjkd rẠt
klcọu tlcẺt g elcu sớkd qumk tlue kl ỡk kd, ỡk eỵkd vcïk, ĝìk eẤu
tlmkd… klẽh hỠe ĝèel ĝấh gấj ĝƹụe klu eẤu elcẺu síkd ĝổkd tlỘc vốc vcỄe tcẺt
acỄh ĝcỄk kąkd vộ eỵkd se ejk kdc.
=.=.7 Eớe sk plh ồ eừ trïk tlề trƹỘkd.
^rïk tlề trƹỘkd lcỄk eõ rẠt klcọu sấk plảh sỨ nỠkd hậel kduyïk bø eấh
gcẺk íkl síkd ĝễ ple

ple v elj he ốel eelcu
lcu sớkd
sớkd,, smu ỗy bbộộ hồt sờ sấk plảh ĝcễk
lâkl? ęìk vƹỘk tỽ ĝồkd ęìk sỨ nỠkd kąkd bƹụkd hẴt trỘc, tỽ ĝồkd sậe vé gẨt síkd
véj gmk ĝïh, ĝìk eấh ợkd ęìk B@N eấh ợkd tỽ ĝồkd plít síkd alc trỘc tờc, tỽ
ĝồkd tẪt alc gẨt e tlcẺt gề elcẺu síkd alíe, ẽ tlễ eẪh Ớ eẤu tlmkd, pl÷kd kdỤ,
klé vỄ sckl ĝễ tríkl vẠp kdå nj trỘc tờc.
Eíe sấk plảh trïk lẤu klƹ ĝcọu sỨ nỠkd kduổk ĝcỄk bé pck sậe lmy kąkd
bƹụkd ht trc kùk tuc tl alỵkd emj, vộ tk tlc dcmk sậe, kïk vcỄe elẺ tậj hồt
hậel eấh gcẺk íkl síkd sỨ nỠkd kduổk trỽe tcẺp trïk hậkd ĝcỄk alí tcỄk bục vé tuỐc
tlỈ eţkd tờt, dcÿp tcẺt acỄh tlỘc dcmk, alỵkd ek se.

^rmkd 4

Elƹƭkd ==?? ^Ốkd qumk, dcốc tlcỄu ĝọ téc

=.7 UƩ ęỗ ALộC EỦM HẩEL

Lâkl 7.= UUƭƭ ĝổ alờc eỤm hậel

Alờc elểkl bƹu ? sỨ nỠkd kduổk 779V qum eẤu ĝcjn` trỚ tlékl =7V eukd eẠp
elj hậel.

Alờc eấh gcẺk? Eõ elợe kąkd gck tốk lcu ớkl sớkd tlộkl tốk lcu ck,

ỗy tm nókd qumkd trỚ. Klƹ tm ĝå gcẺt alc ẽ íkl síkd elcẺu véj, ĝcỄk trỚ eỤm
qumkd trỚ dcấh ĝc ớkd a sj vc alc alỵkd e elcu sớkd.
Alc alc lck tl? lck tl ớkl sớkd, ỗy bộ ỡk nỗy từe.

^ớe klỗk? ớkl sớkd t klcùk( ớkl sớkd ht trc ), ớkl sớkd klỗk tj( ỡk
pck).
=.5 HE ^CẽP SẽP EẦP EỦM HẩEL

^rjkd tlỽe tẺ, ĝễ ợkd nỠkd ĝƹụe hậel kéy véj ĝcọu alcễk gẨt tẪt tlcẺt gề
ĝcỄk tlâ hậel eţkd k klcọu gẠt Ốk klƹ dcí tlékl, bckl acỄk vé ĝcọu acỄk alè
lẨu tlỘc tcẺt. Kïk yïu eẤu ĝẴt rm bộ plc el tj e ht hel alỵkd el tờt
vọ dcí tlékl, hé k plấc ljật ĝồkd Ốk ĝềkl Ớ hỈc ĝcọu acỄk tlỘc tcẺt.

Uấk plảh béh rm plấc íp nỠkd véj tlỽe tcỀk tờt. Kdjéc rm e÷k plấc ĝấh gấj
vọ hẴt tlảh hỳ eỤm sấk plảh.

Ljật ĝồkd Ốk ĝềkl alc kduổk gcẺk ĝỐc.

ęìk plấc tẪt alc trỘc síkd vé tỽ gẨt alc eƹỘkd ĝồ íkl síkd dcấh ĝẺk hồt hợe
ĝồ klẠt ĝềkl. ęồ klậy emj vé Ốk ĝềkl. Hậel ĝƭk dcấk vé nỀ tóy gcẺk.

^èk lcỄu ĝẤu véj bé tèk lcỄu íkl síkd, eỠ tlễ bé íkl síkd elcẺu véj qumkd trỚ.
^èk lcỄu kéy eõ tlễ tlmy tỡ tỡ tl`j tlỘc dcmk (kẺu bé íkl síkd hẴt trỘc) ljẴe

^rmkd <

t kdt (ku bộ ớkl sớkd klỗk tj). ^ốk lcu ĝẤu rm bé tèk lcỄu qumkd, eỠ tlễ
bé íkl síkd em ỡk nỗy từe.

Elƹƭkd ==?? ^Ốkd qumk, dcốc tlcỄu ĝọ téc

=.> KỜC NPKD ęỉ ^ÉC


^âh lcễu kduyïk bø ljật ĝồkd eỤm hậel.



^lcẺt aẺ, tlc eỵkd hel.
=.0 DCC LK ^ẫC KDLCẽK EP

tộc elể nỡkd bậc Ớ vcỄe kdlcïk eợu kduyïk bø tlmy c sớkd em ỡk nm

vộj sớkd hỵc trkd gïk kdjéc ( hẴt trỘc, ĝìk,…) hé eấh gcẺk qumkd trỚ klẨk
ĝƹụe.
=.6 YLƪƩKD YLÍY KDLCÏK EỬP
^lmh alấj e téc bcỄu trïk hậkd, síel trjkd tlƹ vcỄk.

^rmkd 3

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

ELƪƩKD 7? BØ ^LPSẻ^ EƩ Uớ VÉ BCKL ACỆK
7.= Dcốc tlcỄu eíe bckl acỄk
7.=.= ]umkd trỚ


]umkd trỚ (BNW) bé dâ:
]umkd trỚ e÷k ĝƹụe dỈc bé ĝcỄk trỚ qumkd, pljtjr`scstjr, pljtje`bb bé hồt

trjkd klỪkd bckl acỄk ĝƹụe tậj gẽkd hồt elẠt ĝẴe gcỄt eõ tlễ tlmy ĝỐc ĝcỄk trỚ alc
íkl síkd elcẺu véj. Vọ eƭ gấk, gậk eõ tlễ lcễu kõ bé hồt tẺ géj qumkd ĝcỄk ĝƹụe
ljật ĝồkd nỽm tl`j kduyïk bø qumkd nạk. Lmy eõ tlễ lcễu kõ bé hồt ĝcỄk trỚ eõ tlễ
tlmy ĝỐc ĝƹụe dcí trề tl`j eƹỘkd ĝồ íkl síkd.
]umkd trỚ ĝƹụe sỨ nỠkd klcọu trjkd eíe hậel eấh gcẺk íkl síkd, ĝìk
ĝƹỘkd, gíj ĝồkd íkl síkd, ĝổkd lổ kdjéc trỘc,…


EẠu tậj

EẠu tậj eỤm qumkd trỚ dổh 7 plẤk bé plẤk trïk vé plẤk nƹốc bé eíe hékd ach
bjậc ĝƹụe u kc vc klmu tlỵkd qum eớe u ee. Bckl acỄk kéy ĝƹụe tlcẺt aẺ tl`j
eíel eukd eẠp ncỄk tèel tcẺp xÿe tờc ĝm klẠt vốc 7 hékd ach bjậc vé ĝƹụe ĝẴt trjkd
hồt lồp klỽm eõ tlễ dcÿp tcẺp xÿe ĝƹụe vốc íkl síkd vé ẽ tlễ eấh klẨk ĝƹụe sỽ
tlmy ĝỐc eỤm eƹỘkd ĝồ íkl síkd
^lékl plẤk elèkl ĝễ tậj kïk qumkd trỚ ĝõ elèkl bé Emnhcuh Uubplcn` (EnU)
e s nkd bộ elt qumkd nk, tlkd alỵkd elm lje eừ rt ốt eớe lt `b`etrjk
alc alỵkd e ớkl síkd elcẺu véj.

^rmkd =9

Lâkl 7.7 EẠu tậj,
tậj, aø lcỄu


Kduyïk bø ljật ĝồkd

]umkd trỚ ĝƹụe bé gẽkd elẠt gík nạk ẽ trỚ alíkd rẠt emj vộ alỵkd eừ ht tcp dcớp
kộj. ^rjkd gừkd tc, qumkd trỚ tlƹỘkd ẽ ĝcỄk trỚ bïk véc HΣ. k alc ẽ íkl síkd
elcẺu véj tlâ dcí trề ĝcỄk trỚ eõ tlễ dcấh xuờkd hợe hồt elj ĝẺk véc trąh Σ.

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

Kduyïk bø ljật ĝồkd eỤm qumkd trỚ nỽm trïk kduyïk bø lcỄu ợkd qumkd ĝcỄk trjkd
hồt alờc vẨt elẠt. Alc hé e pljtjk ẽ kąkd bƹụkd ĝỤ bốk ĝẨp véj, sẸ alcẺk elj
eíe `b`etrjk gẨt rm alc eớe plỗk t vộ tr tlộkl eớe `b`etrjk tỽ nj trjkd alờc elẠt
vé tỡ elẠt gík nạk eluyễk
eluyễk tlékl
tlékl nạk ĝcỄk.
ĝcỄk. Hợe ĝồ nạk ĝcỄk eỤm qumkd
qumkd trỚ tóy
tluồe véj plẤk bốk e pljtjk ĝƹụe lẠp tlỠ.
Alc íkl síkd bỈt véj qumkd trỚ, eíe `b`etrjk sẸ ĝƹụe dcấc plõkd vé ĝồ nạk ĝcỄk sẸ
ĝƹụe tąkd bïk. ^óy tluờe véj elẠt gík nạk hé e qumkd trỚ sẸ ẽ klỪkd plấk ợkd
alíe klmu vốc eíe bjậc sõkd pljtjk alíe klmu.


ƪu klƹụe ĝcễh

ƪu ĝcễh? ]umkd trỚ vốc hồt sờ ƹu ĝcễh klƹ dcí tlékl rằ, ĝm nậkd vọ ằel eử eõ

tlễ íp nỠkd vốc klcọu eíe gj hậel alíe klmu, ằel tlƹốe plỐ gcẺk ẽ ĝƹỘkd ằkl
hẴt bé =9hh. kd vốc ĝõ bé kąkd bƹụkd tcïu tlỠ vé ĝcỄk íp ljật ĝồkd klỊ.
Klƹụe ĝcễh? ^lỘc dcmk plấk lổc elẨh kïk elốkl xớe s alỵkd emj. ^lc
dcmk plk lc em qumkd trỚ kẽh trjkd aljấkd tỡ lékd elỠe elj ĝẺk lộkd trh hcbc
dcỗy.

kd nkd

]umkd ck tr e s nkd trjkd klcọu ợkd nỠkd alíe klmu vé ẽ tlễ ĝƹụe sỨ

nỠkd trjkd klcọu tlcẺt aẺ hậel ĝcỄk tỨ alíe klmu. Elÿkd eõ eẠu trÿe rẠt ĝƭk dcấk
vé elÿkd bé klỪkd tlcẺt gề ẽ dcí tlékl tlẠp vé ĝồ gọk emj. ]umkd trỚ ĝƹụe sỨ nỠkd
rồkd råc trjkd klcọu lậkd hỠe alíe klmu eỤm tlcẺt gề ĝcỄk tỨ vé tlcẺt aẺ hậel gmj
dổh ?


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ęổkd lổ ĝj íkl síkd elỠp ấkl
^ỽ ĝồkd tẪt hỚ eỨm, hỚ ĝìk.

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ęcọu alcễk íkl síkd elj ĝìk ĝƹỘkd…
7.=.7 ^rmkscstjr (M=9=0)

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^rmkscstjr M=9=0 bé dâ:

^rmkscstjr M=9=0 bé bckl acỄk ĝcỄk tỨ trmkscstjr bƹửkd eỽe bjậc YKY. M=9=0

ĝƹụe sấk xuẠt trjkd vỊ klỽm ^J-37.

M=9=0 bé trmkscstjr YKY elẠt bƹụkd tờt dcí rằ, ĝƹ
ĝƹụe
ụe tlcẺt aẺ elỤ yẺu ĝễ sỨ nỠkd

klƹ hồt g aluel c ỗh tlmkl lje trjkd eớe tkd aluel c ỗh tlmkl. ck ớp
^rmkd ==

eỽe dõp ĝẺk eỽe plít eỤm trmkscstjr bé 09V nj ĝõ kõ ẽ tlễ nỀ nékd ĝƹụe sỨ nỠkd
trjkd e hậel ljật ĝồkd nƹốc 09V. ęễ eõ lcỄu suẠt tờt, kïk sỨ nỠkd trmkscstjr kéy

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

trjkd eíe hậel ljật ĝồkd nc >9V NE. Eỵkd sut tcùu tớk ee c em trmkscstjr bé
>99hT vé hợe aluẺel ĝậc n÷kd NE tờc ĝm bé >99, nj ĝõ trmkscstjr kéy pló lụp ĝễ
aluẺel ĝậc çh tlmkl klỊ. Lƭk kỪm kõ eţkd eõ tlễ ĝƹụe s nkd bộh eỵkd te vộ kừ
eừ tl x bứ tc =09hM.

e ch tlỵkd s a tlut em M=9=0

Bjc trmkscstjr YKY

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ęcỄk íp E-@ bé? -09 V

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ęcỄk íp E-G bé? -09 V

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ęcỄk íp @-G bé? -0 v

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N÷kd ĝcỄk eỽe tlu? -9.=0 M

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LỄ sờ aluẺel ĝậc n÷kd hồt elcọu (lf`) - 49 ĝẺk >99

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^Ấk sờ eluyễk tcẺp? - <9 HLz



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Aljấkd klcỄt ĝồ ljật ĝồkd vé gấj quấk? -00 ĝẺk +=70 ¹ E
VỊ - ^J-37

Lõkl 7.5 ^rmkscstjr
^rmkscstjr M=9=0

U elỗk

^rmkd =7

Lõkl 7.> U elỗk ^rmkscstjr M=9=0

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

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Elợe kąkd eỤm ^rmkscstjr M=9=0

^m tlẠy ĝƹụe lmc elợe kąkd elèkl eỤm trmkscstjr ĝõ elèkl bộ trmkscstjr eỵkd te vộ
trmkscstjr vc he ốel aluel c. ^rmkscstjr eỵkd te kl ht elce alừm ck t
aốel ljật elẺ ĝồ gẨt tẪt elj eíe ợkd nỠkd kąkd bƹụkd emj vé tlẠp. ^rmkscstjr

nókd vốc hỠe ĝèel aluẺel ĝậc eõ vằ klƹ dẤk dţc lƭk alc elÿkd ĝƹụe nókd trjkd
ck tljc, ^V aluel c ỗh tlmkl vộ lõkl ấkl lmy eíe tlcẺt gề ĝcỄk tỨ alíe.
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ƪu klƹụe ĝcễh eỤm ^rmkscstjr M=9=0
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ƪu ĝcễh? ^rmkscstjr eõ bƹụkd tcïu tlỠ ĝcỄk kkd alỵkd bk, tr dk
kl alỵkd eừ alc alc kd vộ alỵkd elm elt e lc gc elkd alỵkd
eừ gồ plẨk béh kõkd emtljn`. Vốc aèel tlƹốe klỊ vé klẳ lƭk sấk plảh
ĝƹụe tờc ƹu lƭk rẠt klcọu. Vốc klỪkd tlcẺt gề lcỄk ĝậc tlâ rẠt pló lụp elj
trmkscstjr plít luy vmc tr÷ gỚc elÿkd sỨ nỠkd hợe ĝcỄk íp ljật ĝồkd klỊ
dẤk gẽkd vốc pck tcễu. ^rmkscstjr e÷k eõ lcỄu suẠt emj vé tuỐc tlỈ néc, èt gề

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vử kïk elÿkd alí ĝƹụe ƹm eluồkd sỨ nỠkd.
nỠkd .
Klƹụe ĝcễh? ^rmkscst
^rmkscstjr
jr eţkd gồe bồ hồt sờ lậk elẺ alc alấ kąkd ljật
ĝồkd suy dcấh nẤk tl`j tlỘc dcmk, elÿkd elể ljt kd tt tk s kl eữk
vc eỵkd sut bk vé tẤk sờ emj tlâ elÿkd tỊ rm elƹm pló lụp. Lƭk tlẺ
trmkscstjr kéy e÷k nỀ lỊkd kẺu sờe ĝcỄk lmy klcỄt, rẠt klậy eấh vốc gợe
xậ.

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Ửkd nỠkd
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^râkl ĝcọu alcễk gồ aluẺel ĝậc tẤkd

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Eõ tlễ sỨ nỠkd eẴp Nmrbckdtjk
Gồ aluẺel ĝậc MF

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UỨ nỠkd trjkd béh ĝìk B@N klíy

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Hậel tcọk aluẺel c ỗh tlmkl

Hel Aluel c ầh tlmkl

Eỵkd te tc nc =09Hm

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7.=.5 ^rmkscstjr PO^ ( 7K76>6 )
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^rmkscstjr PO^ bé dâ:

^rmkd =5

^rmkscstjr PO^ (Lmy e÷k dỈc bé trmkscstjr ĝƭk kờc) bé bjậc trmkscstjr eõ gm eỽe klƹkd
elể eõ nuy klẠt hồt tcẺp dcíp. Kõ ljật ĝồkd klƹ hồt alõm ẽ ĝcọu alcễk. ^uy bjậc

Elkd 7?
7? Bứ tluyt e s

^rmkscstjr kộy alỵkd e pl gcẺk rồkd råc klƹ trmkscstjr bƹửkd eỽe klƹkd kõ vạk
dcỪ hồt vmc tr÷ klẠt ĝềkl trjkd e hậel tậj sõkd vé ĝềkl dcỘ.
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EẠu tậj eỤm trmkscstjr PO^

EẠu tậj eƭ gấk eỤm trmkscstjr PO^ gmj dổh hồt tlỊc gík nạk plm klẳ bjậc Kvé lmc bốp tcẺp xÿe ach bjậc kẽh Ớ lmc ĝẤu eỤm gík nạk tậj tlékl lmc eỽe kk plỗk
gct dc bộ ee G= vộ ee G7. ^rjkd ừ, lp elt em nỗy klỵh kl lõkl tlộkl kc
YK vé ĝõkd vmc tr÷ béh elẠt gík nạk bjậc Y. ^lcẺt aẺ vókd Y tlƹỘkd dẤk eỽe G7 lƭk
G= (Kẽh el vókd G= hồt aljấkd gẽkd 49% elcọu néc eỤm lmc eỽe kọk G=, G7) ĝễ
eõ tlễ eukd eẠp tờc ƹu eíe ĝẴe tèkl ĝcỄk alc ợkd nỠkd véj tlỽe t. Eữk alu ve bjc
Y (nỗy klỵh) ừkd vmc trữ béh eỽe plít @.

Lâkl 7.0 EẠu tậj vé à lcỄu
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KlỪkd ĝẴe tèkl eỤm trmkscstjr PO^

^rmkscstjr PO^ eõ klỪkd ĝẴe tèkl smu?
^rmkscst
^rmkscstjr
jr PO^ e dc bộ bckl ack alỵkd eừ elợe kąkd gỚc kõ elể eõ nuy
klẠt hồt ĝcễh kờc.
― PO^ eõ tlcẺt aẺ hồt ĝcễh kờc nuy
nuy klẠt dcờkd nc
ncjn`
jn` klƹkd kõ alíe
alíe vốc ncjn`
ncjn` Ớ
ĝcễh ẽ gm eỽe.
― Vọ hẴt eẠu tậj, trmkscstjr PO^ tƹƭkd ĝờc dcờkd vốc OF@^ ạkl K. ^uy klcïk
OF@^ ạkl K ẽ eẠu tậj alíe vốc PO^ Ớ lmc ĝcễh? VẨt bcỄu bjậc Y gmj qumkl vẨt bcỄu
bjậc K vé gọ hẴt eỐkd bốk lƭk.
― ^rjkd alc
alc vókd K elể gề plm
plm tập klẳ ttlâ
lâ eỽe plít gề plm tập kẴkd.

^rmkd =>

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

― ^lmkl gík nạk bjậc K ẽ ĝcỄk trỚ emj. ęcỄk trỚ dcỪm eỽe plít vé eỽe kọk G7
klỊ lƭk ĝcỄk trỚ dcỪm eỽe plít vé eỽe kọk G=.
― PO^ tlƹỘkd
tlƹỘkd ljật
ljật ĝồkd vốc
vốc eỽe @ plỗk
plỗk ee tluk.
tluk.
^rmkscstjr
^rmkscstjr k kc eừ tl e sỨ nỠkd klƹ hồt gồ tậj nmj ĝồkd gỚc kõ tl
lck ht e tốkl alớkd ỗh.

Kduyùk bứ ljt kd em trmkscstjr

Dcấ sỨ ĝcỄk íp eukd eẠp eỽe plít V@ dcấh xukd gkd alỵkd rc ck ớp gùk
trjkd plỗk ee kde eíe ncjn` plít. KẺu VG bé ĝcỄk íp kdƹửkd eỤm ncjn` plớt tlõ
tkdd ck ớp plỗk
tk
plỗk ee kde e xớe kl tl`j eỵkd tl
tle?
e? VM+ VG 8 VGG +
VG.
^cp tl`j, tm ĝễ ĝcỄk íp eukd eẠp elj eỽe plít V@ tąkd tỡ tỡ. Elj ĝẺk alc dcí trề
V@ gẽkd vốc dcớ tr em VG tlõ C@9 dch v alỵkd. Ku ĝcỄk íp Ớ hỔc gïk ncjn`
gẽkd klmu tlâ n÷kd ĝcỄk alỵkd j kde ekd alỵkd eluyk tcp. Umu ừ, ku
ck íp eukd eẠp tcẺp tỠe dcm tąkd vƹụt quí dcí tr VG tlõ ncjn` s plỗk ee tluk
kdmy alc vt quớ tkd ck ớp plỗk ee kde (VGG + VG). Dcí trề kéy eỤm
V@ ĝƹụe dỈc bé ĝcỄk íp ĝểkl vé ĝƹụe à lcỄu bé VY. ^rjkd trậkd tlíc V@ 8 VY,

n÷kd plít gẪt ĝẤu elấy qum WG= xuờkd ĝẠt. ỗy bộ nữkd tc tlcu PO^ nk. ck
ớp VGG tỴ bỄ kdlềel vốc CY.
Bÿe kéy, ncjn` gẪt ĝẤu ljật ĝồkd. Vókd WG eỤm tlmkl sẸ klẨk e lật hmkd
ĝcỄk. ęcỄk trỚ eỤm vókd WG dcấh klmkl nj sỽ dcm tąkd eỤm e lật hmkd ĝcỄk. ęcọu
kéy ẫj tl`j ĝcỄk íp rƭc trïk WG dcấh vé béh elj ncjn` plít gề bỄel vọ plèm trƹốe
klcọu lƭk. AẺt quấ bé n÷kd ĝcỄk plèm trƹốe bốk lƭk vé n÷kd plít tcẺp tỠe tąkd bïk
elj ĝẺk alc ĝật ĝẺk dcí trề dcốc lậk eỤm kduổk eukd eẠp kąkd bƹụkd plít. PO^
tlƹỘkd ĝƹụe ằel ljật
nạk truyọk gẽkd el ằel xukd nƹƭkd pló lụp elj g plớt vộ e tt gkd
eớel aốel ht xukd ỗh.
ỗh.

^rmkd =0

Lâkl 7.6 Kduyïk bø ljật
ljật ĝồkd eỤm ^rmkscstjr
^rmkscstjr PO^

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

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Ửkd nỠkd eỤm trmkscstjr

Vâ elc plè sấk xuẠt tlẠp eţkd klƹ klỪkd ĝẴe tèkl ĝồe ĝíj hé elể PO^ hốc sỚ
lỪu kïk kõ ĝƹụe ợkd nỠkd rẠt klcọu trïk tlỽe tẺ. ęcễk lâkl klƹ kdƹỘc tm sỨ nỠkd
PO^ trjkd gồ tậj nmj ĝồkd, gồ tậj xukd, hậel aèel ljật, ĝcọu alcễk plm, gồ tậj
rąkd eƹm, hậel tlỘc dcmk vé kduổk eukd eẠp ĝƹụe ĝcọu elểkl gẽkd ĝcỄk íp lmy n÷kd
ĝcỄk…
7.=.> NCJN@ _@K@W
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Ncjn` z`k`r bé dâ:

Ncjn` z`k`r (Lmy k ĝƹụe dỈc bé ęcờt z`k`r ,‒ęcờt ĝíkl tlỤkd‘ ljẴe ęcờt Ốk
íp) bé hồt bjậc ncjn` tlƹỘkd ĝƹụe kd nkd trjkd el plỗk ee kde trùk vúkd
ck íp ĝíkl tlỤkd (Gr`manjwk). Kõ ĝƹụe eẠu tậj smj elj alc plỗk ee kde tlõ
ncjn` z`k`r s e kl ht hợe ĝcỄk íp dẤk gẽkd dcí trề ĝƹụe dlc trïk ncjn`, béh Ốk
íp elj hậel.
EẠu tậj eỤm Ncjn` _`k`r
EẠu tậj eỤm ncjn` z`k`r ẽ lmc bốp gík nạk Y ― K. ElẠt kọk K vé Y ĝƹụe aluẺel

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tík vốc klmu. Vókd tcẺp dcíp dcỪm K vé Y ĝƹụe plỤ bốp Ucbcejk Ncjxcn` (UcJ7). Gïk
kdjéc eấ ncjn` z`k`r ĝƹụe plỤ hồt bốp hậ ach bjậc ĝễ tậj rm hồt aẺt kờc ee ỗh vộ

ee nkd.
Lõkl 7.4 Ncjn` _`k`r vộ aố lcu

^lỵkd s a tlut em Ncjn` _`k`r

Ht s tlỵkd s a tluẨt ĝƹụe sỨ nỠkd elj Ncjn` z`k`r klƹ smu?

^rmkd =6

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

― ęcỄk íp Vz? Bé
Vz? Bé ĝcỄk íp eỤm ncjn` z`k`r trjkd trƹỘkd lụp ĝcỄk íp dẴp plấc sỽ
eờ ĝấj kdƹụe 7.> V ĝẺk aljấkd 799 V (^lẨh elè eõ tlễ bïk tốc = aV) hé hợe ĝcỄk
íp tờc ĝm eỤm tlcẺt gề dẪk trïk tlcẺt gề elể aljấkd >4 V.
― N÷kd ĝcỄk tờc tlcễu? Bé
tlcễu? Bé hợe n÷kd ĝcỄk klỊ klẠt ĝễ ncjn` ẽ tlễ plí vử 0 hM
vé =9 hM.
― N÷kd ĝcỄk tờc ĝm? Bé
ĝm? Bé hợe n÷kd ĝcỄk bốk klẠt alc ĝcỄk íp z`k`r ĝềkl hợe Vz
tỡ 799 uM k 799 M.
Eỵkd sut?Eỵkd
sut?Eỵkd sut em ncjn` z`k`r tlƹỘkd ẽ dcí trề bé >99 hT, 099 hT,
= T vộ 0 T. c vc eỵkd sut em ncjn` eừ gọ hẴt ĝƹụe dẪk tlâ elÿkd tlƹỘkd ẽ
dcí trề bé 799 hT, 509 hT, 099 hT vé = T. ^rjkd ừ, eỵkd tle tốkl eỵkd sut
em ncjn` e xớe kl gkd eớel by ck ớp klỗk nữkd ck.
Nukd smc eỤm ĝcỄk íp? Nukd
íp? Nukd smc eỤm ncjn` z`k`r tlƹỘkd nmj ĝồkd ½ 0%.
― KlcỄt ĝồ Ốk ĝềkl? Hợe
ĝềkl? Hợe ĝcỄk íp eõ klcỄt ĝồ Ốk ĝềkl klẠt eỤm ncjn` z`k`r bé
0V.

― ęcỄk trỚ z`k`r (Wz)? ęƹụe
(Wz)? ęƹụe tlễ lcỄk tỡ eíe ĝẴe tèkl CV.
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Kduyïk bø ljật ĝồkd eỤm Ncjn` _`k`r

- Alc ncjn` z`k`r ĝƹụe hẪe kdƹụe elcọu tlâ kẺu ĝcỄk íp trjkd hậel bốk lƭk hợe
ĝcỄk íp ĝềkl hợe eỤm ncjn` tlâ ncjn` sẸ elj n÷kd ĝcỄk ĝc qum. Kdƹụe bậc, kẺu ĝcỄk
íp
trjkd hậel klỊ lƭk ĝcỄk íp ĝềkl hợe eỤm ncjn` tlâ ncjn` s alỵkd elj nữkd
ck c qum.
- c vc
vc ncjn` z`k`r
z`k`r plỗk ee
ee tluk tlõ kừ s ljt
ljt kd kl
kl ht ncjn`
ncjn`
tlỵkd tlkd (Eừ ck ớp gt t 9,5 k 9,4 V). Eữk c vc ncjn` z`k`r plỗk ee
kdlel tlõ gmk ĝẤu elể ẽ n÷kd ĝcỄk tlẨt klỊ qum ncjn` klƹkd kẺu tąkd ĝcỄk íp
kdlềel bïk ĝẺk ĝcỄk íp ĝíkl tlỤkd ĝƹụe xíe ĝềkl trƹốe? VKdƹụe
VKdƹụe 8 Vz (Vz? ĝcỄk íp
_`k`r) tlâ n÷kd ĝcỄk qum ncjn` tąkd ĝẺk hợe tờc ĝm klƹkd vạk dcỪ kduyïk lcỄu ĝcỄk
tlẺ dcỪm lmc ĝẤu ncjn`, dỈc bé lcỄu tlẺ z`k`r.
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Ửkd nỠkd ncjn` _`k`r

Ncjn` _`k`r ĝƹụe sỨ nỠkd ĝễ ĝcọu elểkl ĝcỄk íp, klƹ eíe yẺu tờ tlmh elcẺu,
gồ trcỄt xukd vé trj

trjkd
kd eíe ợkd
ợkd nỠkd eluyễk
eluyễk hậel vé hậel ebcpp`r…
ebcpp`r…

^rmkd =4

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

trjkd eíe hậel ĝcỄk tỨ? hậel bỈe kduổk, bỈe klcỀu, hậel truyọk tèk lcỄu xjmy
elcọu, hậel tậj nmj ĝồkd .vv…
lcỄu? ^Ỡ ĝcỄk ẽ à lcỄu bé E vcẺt tẪt eỤm Empmectcjr
ęƭk về eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk? bé Fmrm (F), ^rjkd ĝõ ? = Fmrm? =F 8 =9-6HcerjFmrm
=9-6HcerjFmrm 8 =9-3
Kmkj Fmrm 8 =9-=7 Ycej Fmrm
^Ỡ ĝcỄk bé hồt bckl acỄk eõ 7 eỽe tlỠ ĝồkd bƹu trỪ kąkd bƹụkd ĝcỄk. Lmy tèel tỠ
ĝcỄk tèel gỚc 7 gọ hẴt nạk ĝcỄk trjkd hồt ĝcỄk trƹỘkd.
7 gọ hẴt nạk ĝcỄk eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk ĝƹụe kdąk eíel gỚc ĝcỄk hỵc (nc`b`etrce) alỵkd nk
ck kl? Dcy, dcy th ljớ elt, dờh, hcem…
Alc 7 gọ hẴt eõ sỽ elïkl bỄel vọ ĝcỄk tlẺ, kõ elj plãp n÷kd ĝcỄk xjmy elcọu ĝc
qum. e gọ hẴt sẸ ẽ ĝcỄk tèel kd ĝcỄk bƹụkd klƹkd tríc nẠu.

Lâkl 7.< ^Ỡ ĝcỄk


EẠu tậj eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk

Hồt t ck tlỵkd tlkd s eừ eu tj gmj dh?
- ^ ck
ck dh
dh ốt klt lmc nỗy
nỗy nk
nk ck
ck tlkd
tlkd Ớ nậkd
nậkd tẠh
tẠh ach
ach bjậc.
bjậc. Lmc
Lmc gọ
gọ hẴt
kéy ĝƹụe ĝẴt sjkd sjkd vốc klmu vé ĝƹụe kdąk eíel gỚc hồt bp ck hỵc.
- ck
ck hỵ
hỵcc s nkd
nkd elj t ck
ck bộ eớe elt
elt al
alỵk
ỵkdd nk c
ck
k dh
dh tly
tly tckl,
tckl,

dcy, dcy th lừm elt, dh, hcem, hộkd klm lje alỵkd alố. Eớe ck
hỵc kộy alỵkd nk ck klh tkd al kkd tèel trỪ kąkd bƹụkd ĝcỄk eỤm tỠ
ĝcỄk
^rmkd =<

Elƹƭkd 7?
7? Bø tluyẺt eƭ sỚ

Lâkl 7.3 EẠu tậj
tậj vé aè lcỄu


Kduyïk bø ljật ĝồkd eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk

Kduyïk bø plõkd kập eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk ĝƹụe lcễu bé alấ kąkd tèel trỪ kąkd bƹụkd ĝcỄk
klƹ hồt Ẫe quc klỊ nƹốc nậkd kąkd bƹụkd ĝcỄk trƹỘkd. Kõ bƹu trỪ lcỄu quấ eíe
`b`etrjk vé plõkd
plõkd rm eíe ĝcỄk tèel kéy ĝễ
ĝễ tậj rm n÷kd ĝcỄk. Klƹkd ĝcễh al
alíe
íe gcỄt
bốk eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk vốc e quc bộ t ck alỵkd eừ al kkd sckl rm eíe ĝcỄk tèel `b`etrjk
Kduyïk bø kập xấ eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk bé tèkl elẠt ĝẴe trƹkd vé eţkd bé kduyïk bø eƭ gấk
trjkd ljật ĝồkd eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk. KlỘ tèkl elẠt kéy hé tỠ ĝcỄk eõ alấ kąkd nạk ĝcỄk
xjmy elcu.

Eỵkd nkd

^ kduyùk bứ ljt kd em t ck e ớp nkd vộj tkd eỵkd trõkl ck

rcùkd, lmy kừc eớel alớe kừ eừ klcu eỵkd nkd, klkd eừ > eỵkd nkd elốkl ừ bộ?
- Al kkd bu tr kkd bƹụkd ĝcỄk, bƹu trỪ ĝcỄk tèel lcỄu quấ bé tíe nkd
e gct k klcu klt. Kừ dckd eỵkd nkd bu trỪ klƹ Ẫe-quc. ^uy klcïk,
ƹu ĝcễh bốk eỤm tỠ ĝcỄk bộ bu tr hộ alỵkd bộh tcùu lmj kkd bkd ck .
- Eỵkd
Eỵkd n
nkd
kd t ck
ck tc
tcpp tl`j
tl`j bộ elj
elj plãp
plãp ĝcỄk
ĝcỄk íípp xjmy
xjmy elcọu
elcọu ĝc qum,
qum, dcÿp
dcÿp tỠ
tỠ
ĝcỄk ẽ tlễ nạk ĝcỄk klƹ hồt ĝcỄk trỚ ĝm kąkd. ęẴe gcỄt alc tẤk sờ ĝcỄk xjmy
elcọu (ĝcỄk nukd eỤm tỠ eékd bốk) tlâ nukd alíkd eékd klỊ. LỔ trụ ĝẪe be
elj vce ck ớp e bu tlỵkd qum t ck.

^rmkd =3

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