A discourse analysis of coffee advertisements in english and vietnamese

THE UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

LÊ HOÀNG UYÊN MY

A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF
COFFEE ADVERTISEMENTS
IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
Major: ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
Code: 822.02.01

MASTER THESIS IN
LINGUISTICS AND CULTURAL STUDIES
OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES

Da Nang, 2020


THE UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

LÊ HOÀNG UYÊN MY

A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF
COFFEE ADVERTISEMENTS
IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
Major: ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
Code: 822 02 01

MASTER THESIS IN
LINGUISTICS AND CULTURAL STUDIES

OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES

SUPERVISOR: Dr. HUỲNH NGỌC MAI KHA

Da Nang, 2020


i

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
Except for the references in the thesis, this thesis contains no material
published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have
qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma.
No other person‘s work has been used without due acknowledgements in the
thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in
any other tertiary institution.
Da Nang, October 2019

Lê Hoàng Uyên My


ii

ABSTRACT
This study examines the features of Systemic Functional Grammar in
English and Vietnamese Coffee Advertisements by employing discourse analysis.
The objective of this research is to apply a Systemic Functional Linguistics model
of three meta-functions to the analysis of the clauses and their constituents in order
to track some common features in the structural frameworks of Coffee

Advertisements. It aims to examine the Interpersonal and Ideational functions of the
Coffee Advertisements in English and Vietnamese to provide the Vietnamese
teachers and students of English with an insightful knowledge concerning how
language functions and organized in the Coffee Advertisements in English and
Vietnamese. Certain points of similarity and difference of the Functional Grammar
aspects were also highlighted in English and Vietnamese Coffee Advertisements.
Altogether fifty-five Coffee Advertisements in English and fifty-five ones in
Vietnamese were pinpointed in order to determine the common features that result
in producing the systemic constructs of the Coffee Advertisements discourse. The
Systemic Functional Linguistics analysis shows that Declarative Mood is preferred
over Interrogatives and Imperatives in English and Vietnamese Coffee
Advertisements. The research also points out that both English and Vietnamese
Coffee Advertisements dominate Material and Relational clause as major processes.
The implication arises from this study, based on which suggestions are made for
teaching, learning and advertising.


iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ................................................................ i
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................... iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................... ix
Chapter One. INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
1.1. RATIONALE ............................................................................................. 1
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ....................................................................... 2
1.2.1. Aims................................................................................................... 2

1.2.2. Objectives .......................................................................................... 2
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS........................................................................ 2
1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 3
1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ........................................................... 3
1.6. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY ........................................................ 3
Chapter

Two.

LITERATURE

REVIEW

AND

THEORETICAL

BACKGROUND ............................................................................................. 5
2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 5
2.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ........................................................... 6
2.2.1. Discourse Analysis ............................................................................ 6
2.2.1.1. Concepts of discourse .................................................................. 6
2.2.1.2. Features of discourse ................................................................... 6
2.2.1.3. Discourse and context .................................................................. 7
2.2.2. An overview of Functional Grammar ............................................... 7
2.2.3. Meta-functions ................................................................................... 8


iv

2.2.3.1. Clause as exchange ...................................................................... 9
2.2.3.2. Clause as representation............................................................ 20
2.3. SUMMARY ............................................................................................. 33
Chapter Three. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES ........... 34
3.1. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 34
3.2. RESEARCH PROCEDURE .................................................................... 34
3.2.1. Data Collection ................................................................................ 35
3.2.2. Collecting samples........................................................................... 36
3.2.3. Data analysis .................................................................................... 37
3.3. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ........................................................... 38
3.4. SUMMARY ............................................................................................. 39
Chapter Four. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................... 40
4.1. CLAUSE AS EXCHANGE IN THE COFFEE ADVETISEMENTS IN
ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE ................................................................... 40
4.1.1. Clause as exchange in the Coffee Advertisements in English ........ 40
4.1.1.1. Analysis of Mood ........................................................................ 40
4.1.1.2. Analysis of Modal Auxiliary....................................................... 46
4.1.1.3. Analysis of Pronoun System ....................................................... 48
4.1.1.4. Analysis of Tense........................................................................ 50
4.1.2. Clause as exchange in the Coffee Advertisements in Vietnamese . 51
4.1.2.1. Analysis of Mood ........................................................................ 51
4.1.2.2. Analysis of Modal auxiliary ....................................................... 54
4.1.2.3. Analysis of Pronoun System ....................................................... 55
4.1.2.4. Analysis of Tense........................................................................ 56
4.1.3. Similarities and differences in Interpersonal meaning of the Coffee
Advertisements in English and Vietnamese.................................................... 57
4.2.CLAUSE AS REPRESENTATION IN THE COFFEE ADVERTISEMENTS . 59


v

IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE ............................................................. 59
4.2.1. Clause as representation in the Coffee Advertisements in English 59
4.2.1.1. Process types .............................................................................. 59
4.2.1.2. Circumstantial elements............................................................. 70
4.2.2. Clause as representation in the Coffee Advertisements in
Vietnamese ...................................................................................................... 71
4.2.2.1. Process types .............................................................................. 72
4.2.2.2. Circumstantial elements............................................................. 77
4.2.3. Similarities and differences in Ideational meaning of the Coffee
Advertisements in English and Vietnamese.................................................... 78
4.3. SUMMARY ............................................................................................. 82
Chapter Five. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .......................... 83
5.1. CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................... 83
5.2. IMPLICATIONS...................................................................................... 86
5.3. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ........................................................... 87
5.4. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCHES................................ 87
REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 88
DATA SOURCES
QUYẾT ĐỊNH GIAO ĐỀ TÀI LUẬN VĂN (Bản sao)


vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Number Abbreviations

Explanation

1.

A

Adjunct

2.

C

Complement

3.

Cj

Conjunction

4.

D

Disjunct

5.

ECAs

English Coffee Advertisements

6.

F

Finite

7.

O

Object

8.

P

Predicator

9.

S

Subject

10.

SFG

Systemic Functional Grammar

11.

SFL

Systemic Functional Linguistics

12.

VCAs

Vietnamese Coffee Advertisements


vii

LIST OF TABLES
Number

Name of tables

Page

2.1

Structure of a clause

9

2.2

Speech functions and desired responses

11

2.3

Relationships between speaker/ writer and listener(s)/ reader(s)

12

2.4

Mood and the Subject – Finite order

13

2.5

Speech functions and typical Mood in clause

15

2.6

Vietnamese Mood structure

15

2.7

Mood types in Vietnamese

16

2.8

Mood structures in Vietnamese

17

2.9

English Modal verbs

18

2.10

English Personal pronouns and grammatical roles in the clause

19

2.11

True pronouns in Vietnamese

20

2.12

Clause as Process, Participants and Circumstances

22

2.13

Material clause with Circumstance

24

2.14

Material clause with Recipient

25

2.15

Examples of verbs serving as Process in Mental clauses

26

2.16

Inner and outer experience construed by different types of Processes. 28

2.17

Subject – Complement; Token – Value and Carrier – Attribute

29

3.1

The Structural division of the analysis

37

4.1

The Mood categories as realizations of speech functional categories

40

4.2

Mood of the clause, speech functions and speech roles

42

4.3

Relative frequencies of Mood selection in relation to speech
function English data)

43

4.4

The frequency of Modal auxiliary (from English data)

47

4.5

The frequency of Personal pronouns (from English data)

48

4.6

Relative frequencies of Mood selection in relation to speech

52

function (from Vietnamese data)


viii

Number

Name of tables

Page

4.7

The frequency of Modal auxiliary (from Vietnamese data)

54

4.8

The frequency of Personal pronouns (from Vietnamese data)

55

4.9

The similarities and differences in the ECAs and the VCAs in

59

terms of Interpersonal function
4.10

Creative and Transformative in Material clauses (From English data)

61

4.11

Actor and Goal in Material clauses (From English data)

63

4.12

Circumstantial elements in the ECAs

70

4.13

Creative and Transformative in Material clauses (From Vietnamese data)

74

4.14

Actor and Goal in Material clauses (from Vietnamese data)

74

4.15

Circumstantial elements in the VCAs

77

4.16

Process distribution in the ECAs and the VCAs

78

4.17

Actor and Goal in Material process in the ECAs and the VCAs

80

4.18

Circumstantial elements in the ECAs and the VCAs

80


ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Number

Name of figures

Page

2.1

The Mood System Network

7

2.2

Transitivity structure

21

2.3

The grammar of experience: types of Process in English

23

4.1

Relative frequencies of Mood selection in the fifty- five English

43

Coffee Advertisements
4.2

Tense (from English Data)

50

4.3

Relative frequencies of Mood selection in the fifty-five VCAs

52

4.4

Tense (from Vietnamese data)

57

4.5

Distribution of Mood choices in Coffee Advertisements in
English and Vietnamese

57

4.6

The distribution of Process types in the ECAs

60

4.7

Shows the distribution of the two modes in Relational clauses in

65

the ECAs
4.7

The frequency of Attributive and Identifying in Relational
clauses (From English data)

65

4.8

Perception, Emotion, Cognition and Desideration in Mental
clauses (from English data)

67

4.9

The distribution of Process types in the VCAs

71

4.10

Shows the distribution of the two modes of Relational clauses in
the VCAs

73

4.10

The frequency of Attributive and Identifying in Relational

73

clauses (From Vietnamese data)
4.11

Perception, Emotion, Cognition and Desideration in Mental
clauses (from Vietnamese data)

75

4.12

The difference in Process distribution between the ECAs and
the VCAs

79

4.13

The difference in Circumstances between the ECAs and the VCAs

81


1

Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
This first chapter states the rationale of the study, together with the aims,
objectives, scope, methods and the significance of the whole study. Above all, it is
in this chapter that the research questions are set out to work as the guidelines for
the whole research.
1.1. RATIONALE
In our daily life, communication, which is an interactive process by means of
language, plays a vital role in every activity of human. Therefore, it is very
necessary for us to investigate the meanings realized through spoken and written
language that we use every day in terms of grammar and meanings. For the last

decades, studying the meanings lying behind the cover of language has been given
much attention by linguists all over the world.
The utterances we produce are dictated by our individual experiences, our
perception of the world, or the circumstances, and are based on linguistic choices.
As a result, this is not a simple work due to the complex meanings of the speaker(s)
or writer(s) in their ways of using language as well as the various interpretations of
the listener(s) or reader(s), especially in writing. Unlike oral communication, in
writing, there is no face-to-face interaction between the writer(s) and the reader(s).
So, it is important for linguists to find out the way that writers use language to
express their idea and attitude toward the issue mentioned as well as the way that
they communicate with readers through language.
Nowadays, advertising language has become an important part in the society
because it is highly informative and has been widely accepted by the public. For this
reason, I decided to carry out the study on the Coffee Advertisements in terms of
Functional Grammar analysis, with the aim to investigate how advertisers
communicate with their customers by means of language. It is obvious that
language is a crucial part of advertisements, which helps consumers be well-


2

informed about products as well as make decision on their choice. Therefore, the
use of language should be paid attention to create a good advertisement. However,
still little research has been written about this topic, particularly in the Coffee
Advertisements in English and Vietnamese.
Due to this fact, it is necessary to clarify the essence of language in the Coffee
Advertisements. An investigation into Systemic Functional Grammar of the Coffee
Advertisements in English and Vietnamese language will be a contribution to the
present knowledge of the field; and the findings of a contrastive analysis between
English and Vietnamese will be beneficial for both Vietnamese and English

learners.
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1.2.1. Aims
This study aims to examine the functional aspects of the Coffee
Advertisements in English and Vietnamese to provide the Vietnamese teachers and
students of English with an insightful knowledge concerning how language
functions and organized in the advertisements in English and Vietnamese.
1.2.2. Objectives
To achieve the aim of the study, the following objectives are intended:
- To find out the functional aspects of the Coffee Advertisements in English
and Vietnamese in view of Systemic Functional Grammar and Discourse Analysis
- To discover the similarities and differences of the Coffee Advertisements in
English and Vietnamese in terms of the meta-functions of Systemic Functional
Grammar and Discourse Analysis
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
To achieve the aims and objectives mentioned above, the study seeks the
information for the following research questions:
1. What is the Interpersonal function of the Coffee Advertisements in terms
of the analysis of clause as exchange in English and Vietnamese?
2. What is the Ideational function of the Coffee Advertisements in terms of
the analysis of clause as representation in English and Vietnamese?


3

3. What are the similarities and differences of the Coffee Advertisements in
English and Vietnamese in terms of the meta-functions of Systemic
Functional Grammar and Discourse Analysis?
1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study was limited to the analysis of the meta-functions of Systemic

Functional Grammar of the Coffee Advertisements in English and Vietnamese such
as Ideational function, Interpersonal function and Discourse analysis. In more detail,
clause as representation of Ideational function and clause as exchange of
Interpersonal function in the Coffee Advertisements would be looked into. Such
Textual functions as theme, rheme would not be examined and they were put
beyond the scope of this study.
1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study adopted Hallidayan Functional Grammar as the theoretical basis
to investigate the advertising language in the English and Vietnamese Coffee
Advertisements in written discourse. Functional Grammar was no longer a strange
field to grammarians and linguistic researchers all over the world. It has been
studied by many Vietnamese linguists and researchers for many recent years.
Hopefully, the research would be a contribution to the teaching and learning English
and Vietnamese, especially, helping language users have a better insight into the
linguistic features at the Systemic Functional level for language performance. In
addition, the findings of the research would provide learners with knowledge or
understanding about the similarities and differences of language choice in English
and in Vietnamese advertisements.
1.6. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
The study is presented in the following parts:
Chapter 1: Introduction
The introduction chapter introduces background and rationale of this study,
and summarizes research questions and outline of this paper.
Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Background


4

Chapter 2 is theoretical background which clarifies some important concepts
in the study. In this chapter, some of the previous researches relating to functional

grammar analysis were presented.
Chapter 3: Research Methods and Procedures
Methodology and procedures of this study is introduced in chapter 3, which
describes data collection and data analysis in detail.
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussions
Chapter 4 focuses on the results and discussion. In this chapter, answers to
research questions raised in the Introduction section are provided though
quantitative analysis.
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications
Conclusions are drawn to general findings of this study, limitations of this
study stated and suggestions put forward for the future research.


5

Chapter Two
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In this chapter, I review some of the previous researches relating to Systemic
Functional Grammar perspective in English and Vietnamese, in order to gain an
overall view in this research area, and to pinpoint what further research needs to be
conducted. This chapter is arranged as follows: 2.1 Literature Review. 2.2
Theoretical Background. 2.3 Summary. I will represent Discourse Analysis in 2.2.1
and Systemic Functional Grammar in 2.2.2 and Meta-functions in 2.2.3.
2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW
The study ―Transitivity Analysis of Hiroko‘s Character in Burnt Shadows‖
by Rashid (2016) is an experiment in the application of Transitivity as a tool of
grammatical analysis developed in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) to
uncover the process of construction of Hiroko‘s central character in this novel. Not
only is this investigation significant to literary stylistics but it also stretches
Transitivity analysis to the extreme limits of applying to study specific aspects of a

character‘s ‗dynamism‘ through comparison and contrast in fiction.
―Processes‖ is also explored by Khumairoh (2017) in her master thesis. The
researcher analyzed how processes are used in a narrative text titled ―The goose
girl‖ to denote the most dominant process type. It is concluded that the most
frequent process type is material process on the grounds that material processes are
used to reveal what happens in the world.
On the basis of Hallidayan Functional Grammar, Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Mai
(2015) carried out the research on analyzing Interpersonal meaning in „The World is
Flat‟ by Thomas L. Friedman, which has a significant effect on the view of
traditional grammar in particular. The research finds out the way the writer
establishes relationship with the readers and expresses his attitude and opinion
through Interpersonal function. In addition, it also investigates the expressions of
Interpersonal meaning in the Vietnamese version „Thế Giới Phẳng‟ by Nguyễn
Hồng Quang.


6

Besides that, Đặng Thị Cẩm Ngọc in her study An investigation into
linguistic features of material processes in “Perfect spy” by Larry Berman versus
its Vietnamese translational version by Đỗ Hùng provides us with detailed
description one of the three main processes of Ideational meaning, that is Material
process, based on the basic theory of Hallidayan Functional Grammar.
However, there is still little concern about the analysis concerning Systemic
Functional Grammar in advertising language in English and Vietnamese.
Accordingly, a study of the Coffee Advertisements in English and Vietnamese
becomes a new item for language learners.
2.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.2.1. Discourse Analysis
2.2.1.1. Concepts of discourse

Discourse is one of those elastic terms which one sometimes encounters in
linguistics. It is used in somewhat different ways by different scholars. Discourse is
used beyond the boundary of isolated sentences. It means that any sequence of
language in written or spoken form is concerned with the use of language in
stretches larger than a sentence. Briefly, all concepts of discourse stress the
communicative dynamics of language. Therefore, there is a strong tendency for
discourse analysts to rely more heavily on observation of language use during
interactions in natural sequences of sentences.
2.2.1.2. Features of discourse
- Every discourse has a specific target.
- Every discourse must be completed both in form and in content.
- Every discourse has its unity.
- Language use may be categorized according to register (the type of activity
engaged in through language), level of formality, attitudes to the other participants
or to the communication, relationships between participants and the situational
context.


7

2.2.1.3. Discourse and context
Context plays a very important role in Discourse Analysis. A discourse and
its context are in close relationship: the discourse elaborates its context and the
context helps interpret the meaning of utterances in the discourse. The knowledge of
context is a premise of the analysis of a discourse. When we study and analyze a
discourse, we should bear in mind that no context, no discourse and we should not
neglect the related context of a discourse.
2.2.2. An overview of Functional Grammar
Functional Grammar is a theory of grammar concerned with the social and
pragmatic functions of language, relating these to both formal syntactic properties

and prosodic properties. This is a grammar which is considered as the resource for
creating meanings by means of wording. Function is considered to be ―a
fundamental property of language itself‖ (Halliday, 1985, p.17). The functional
description of the language involves identifying all the various functions that are
incorporated into the grammar and all the structures which serve to express some
meaning in the language. According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004, p.23) ―a
language is a resource for making meaning, and meaning resides in systemic pattern
of choice‖. Due to the language system, people have the available options to choose
when using language in order to fulfill a communicative purpose. In other words,
the grammar of a language is manipulated to suit the occasion.
The Mood system is taken as follow to present a ‗network of systems‘ of
language,

(Halliday, 1973, p.23)
Figure 2.1. The Mood System Network


8

The above figure shows that a clause is either major or minor in status. If it is
major, its structure includes a Predicator and it is either Indicative or Imperative. If
the clause is Indicative, it is either Declarative or Interrogative. The structure of a
Declarative clause is Subject followed by Finite (S+F). If the clause is Interrogative,
it is either a Yes/No type or Wh-type. A Yes/ No type has the structure of Finite
followed by Subject (F+S); a Wh- one has a Wh-element in its structure. Here, we
find that each system contributes to the formation of the structure. The structural
operations are explained as realizing systemic choices. ―So, when we analyze a text,
we show the functional organization of its structure, and we show what meaningful
choices have been made, each one seen in the context of what might have been
meant but was not.‖(Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004, p.24).

For Halliday, the object of language is text, not sentence, and the reference
feature is its usage, not the grammaticality. He believes that the general
characteristic of language is not syntax but functions which are performed
systematically.
Unlike traditional grammar which assumes that sentence only has one
structure (through the system of sentence elements such as Subject, Predicate,
Complement, Adverbial complement, etc.) to carry out different functions,
Functional Grammar believes that every sentence has three configurations and each
of them has its own specific meta-function. The first configuration expresses the
Ideational meta-function in which sentence is analyzed as Process, Participant and
Circumstance. The second one manifests the Interpersonal meta-function where the
organization of a sentence includes Mood and Residue. The third one shows the
Textual meta-function where the sentence is organized into theme and rheme.
2.2.3. Meta-functions
Halliday (2014) argues that three main kinds of meanings are used
simultaneously in the structure of language: Ideational, Interpersonal, and Textual.
These three elements are also known as meta-functions which are about different
aspects of the world, and are concerned with different modes of meaning of clauses.
We use language to enact our personal and social relationships (Interpersonal meta-


9

function), to construe our experience of the world and our consciousness (Ideational
or Experiential meta-function), and to organize discourse and create continuity and
flow in our texts (Textual meta-function).
Meta-functions are groups of semantic systems that make meanings of a
related kind. The three meta-functions are mapped onto the structure of the clause;
therefore, a clause can be analyzed from three perspectives.
Kees Hengeveld of the University of Amsterdam (Netherlands) at the Ninth

International Conference on Functional Grammar in 2000 proposes that there are
three levels of analysis for each discourse unit to be analyzed: Interpersonal,
Representational and Expression level (Mackenzie, 2004). Ruqaiya Hasan argues
the meta-functions ―are not hierarchized; they have equal status, and each is
manifested in every act of language use: in fact, an important task for grammatics is
to describe how the three meta-functions are woven together into the same linguistic
unit‖ (Hasan, 2009). According to Eggins, each meta-function has its own systems
of choices, each choice resulting in a structure. However, realizations of these 3
meta-functions occur simultaneously, allowing language to create different
meanings at the same time (Suzzanne, 2004). Table 2.1 shows the three metafunctions simultaneously existing in a clause and the components of each type.
Table 2.1. Structure of a clause
(1) Starbucks®
Plus coffee
Ideational meta-function
Interpersonal meta-function
Textual meta-function

Participant
Mood
Theme

rich, flavorful

has

taste

Process: Relational

Participant

Residue
Rheme

In this study, only Ideational meta-function and Interpersonal meta-function
are presented. Textual meta-function is beyond the scope of the study.
2.2.3.1. Clause as exchange
Whenever we use language to interact, one thing we are doing with it is
establishing a relationship between the speaker or writer and the listener(s) or


10

reader(s). While construing, language is also enacting: enacting our personal and
social relationships with other people around us.
Interpersonal meaning is defined as ―meaning as a form of action: the
speaker or writer doing something to the listener or reader by means of language.‖
(Halliday, 1994, p.53). When speaking or writing, the speaker or writer is not only
doing something himself, he is also requiring something from the listener(s) or
reader(s). For example,
(2) Speaker: Give me that book!
Listener: All right, I will.
In this example, the speaker is taking on the role of a person requesting the
listener to give him the book and simultaneously requiring the speaker to take on
the role of the supplier of what is requested.
The Interpersonal meta-function of language is concerned with clause as an
exchange in which four speech functions are exchanged in rhetorical interaction:
statements, questions, offers and commands. Halliday indicates that there are two
fundamental types of speech role: Giving and Demanding. Giving means inviting to
receive and Demanding means inviting to give (Halliday, 1994). Therefore, the act

of speaking or writing might be called an interact or an exchange between the
speaker or writer and the listener(s) or reader(s) in which Giving implies receiving
and Demanding implies giving. The commodity to be exchanged here might be
Good-&-Service (G-&-S) or Information.
- When you say something to me in order to ask me to do something for you
i.e. (3) Close the door! or accept what you have offered i.e. (4) Would you like some
coffee?, the commodity exchanged is typically non-verbal: what is being demanded
is an action or an object, and language is brought in to help the process along. This
is an exchange of G-&-S.
- When you say something to me with the aim of getting me to tell you
something i.e. (5) Where did you go?, to affirm or acknowledge what you have said
i.e. (6) Tomorrow morning Mary will be in Los Angeles, the exchanged commodity


11

is verbal: what is being demanded is Information, and it has no existence except in
the form of language.
As a result, there are four speech functions from these two variables when
taken together: Offer, Command, Statement and Question. These correspond to a set
of desired responses. Table 2.2 shows the speech functions and their desired
responses.
Table 2.2. Speech functions and desired responses
Speech Commodity
role

exchanged
G-&-S

Giving

Information

G-&-S
Deman
ding

Information

Speech functions
Offer
(7) Would you like a drink?
Statement
(8) She‟s giving him a cup
Command
(9) Give me that cup!
Question
(10) What is she giving him?

Expected

Discretionary

responses

alternative

Acceptance

Rejection

Acknowledgedment Contradiction

Undertaking

Refusal

Answer

Disclaimer

Beside some expected responses, the listener when moving into the role of
speaker has considerable discretion. When the commodity exchanged is G-&-S, the
choices of response for the listener are limited: accept or reject, obey or refuse. In
contrast, with Information, the responses may be varied: affirm, deny, doubt,
contradict, insist on, accept with reservation, qualify, regret and so on.
When communicating, through the choice of words and sentence structures,
the speaker or writer is establishing some relationship with the listener(s) or
reader(s). The relationships between the speaker/ writer and the listener(s)/ reader(s)
could be as those shown in table 2.3.


12

Table 2.3. Relationships between speaker/ writer and listener(s)/ reader(s)
Speech functions

Speaker/ Writer

Listener(s)/ Reader(s)

Statement

Provider of Information

Recipient of Information

Question

Recipient of Information

Provider of Information

Command

Recipient of G-&-S

Provider of G-&-S

Offer

Provider of G-&-S

Recipient of G-&-S

Interpersonal meta-function embodies all uses of language in order to express
social and personal relations, personalities, personal feelings, and the speaker‘s intrusion
into speech situation and speech act. Halliday further explains the term that ―In the
clause, the Interpersonal element is represented by Mood and Modality.‖ (Halliday,
1973, p.41). Beside Mood, it is also embodied by the Personal pronoun system,
Modality and Tense. The next parts will briefly sketch these three elements to

explain how to realize the Interpersonal meaning in text.
a. Mood
When using language to communicate, people are activating different speech
functions. They are represented by what is called the Mood structure, a fundamental
element of every clause. It is the selection by the speaker of a particular role in the
speech situation, and his determination of the choice of roles for the addresses
(Halliday, 1973). According to Halliday, ―Mood structures express interactional
meanings: what the clause is doing, as a verbal exchange between speaker/ writer
and audience.‖ (Halliday, 1994, p.158).
The Mood element consists of two parts: the Subject, which is a nominal
group, and the Finite operator, which is part of a verbal group.
- The Subject may be any nominal group that the speaker gives responsibility
to for the validity of the clause. After its first occurrence, it is replaced by the
Personal pronoun corresponding to it.
- The Finite element is one of the small numbers of verbal operators
expressing Tense (e.g. is, has), Modality (e.g. can, must) and Polarity (associated
with affirmative and negative). Note, however, that in some instances the Finite


13

element and the lexical verb are ‗fused‘ into a single word, for example continues in
(11) Heavy soaking rain continues across Kansas. This happens when the verb is in
simple past or simple present (tense), active (voice), positive (polarity) and neutral
(contrast): we say gave, not did give; give(s) not do(es) give.
The Subject and Finite element are linked together and they combine each
other to form Mood of the clause. The rest of the clause is called the Residue. An
example of Mood and Residue of a clause is given in the following example,
(12)
You

will

love

it

S

F

P

O

Mood

Residue

The Mood element can be identified in Question tags.
(13)
Mary

is

S

F

Mood

P

the best student of the class

isn‟t

she?

C

F

S

Residue

Mood tag

Mood realizes the selection of Mood in the clause through the sequential
arrangement of the Subject and Finite. Mood in the clause might be Indicative or
Imperative; if Indicative, it is either Declarative or Interrogative; if Interrogative, it
is either Polar Interrogative (Yes/ No type) or Content Interrogative (‗Wh-‘ type)
(Halliday, 1994, p.44). The Mood types in the clause are shown in table 2.4.
Table 2.4. Mood and the Subject – Finite order
Mood

Indicative

Subject (S) and Finite (F)

S+F
Declarative (14) Brash Bluffs [S] is [F] made from Sumatra FT
beans from the northeast corner of Indonesia.
F+S
- Yes/ No type: (15) Do [F] you [S] bleed black?
- Wh-type: (16) What machines are [F] Death
Interrogative
Cups [S] compatible with?
S + F (in case the Wh-element is S)
(17) What [S] is [F] going into each cup of coffee?


14

Mood

Imperative

Subject (S) and Finite (F)
F+S
(18) Don‟t [F] you [S] cry!
F only
(19) Enjoy [F] the richness and wonderful flavor!
S only
(20) Let us [S] have another cup of coffee!
No Mood element
(21) Enjoy!

Each type of Mood of the clause has its own role in expressing different
speech functions. A Declarative clause has the function of representing the act or

state as an objective fact. It realizes statement which indicates something as a single
declaration, or a report of facts or opinions. In an exchange, people when using a
Declarative are often those who take the speech role of Giving Information.
The typical function of an Interrogative clause is to ask a question, i.e.
demanding information, and from the speaker‘s point of view, asking a question is
an indication that he wants to be told something. There are two main types of
questions: one expresses what the speaker wants to know (the Polarity ‗yes or no?‘),
the other expresses that what the speaker wants to know is the identity of some
element in the content – a missing piece of information (the Wh-question).
An Imperative clause has got some basic messages: ‗I want you to do/ not to
do something‘, or ‗I want us to do/ not to do something‘. It inherently realizes a
command and expresses the speech role of demanding G-&-S. This type of clause
may have a Mood element consisting of Finite plus Subject, or Finite only, or
Subject only, or no Mood at all (as shown in table 2.4). An Imperative clause
usually doesn‘t have a Subject, because it addresses to the speaker himself and/ or
the listener(s), who the speaker understands to be the Subject (we or you).
Table 2.5 shows the association between speech functions and their typical
types of Mood in clause.