T^ƩƪBF ĚLA HIK NKH @H Ě BĎBF
@H H
------- -------
ĚÔ B KBF BFHÍ
>̫
Ěí tla = That ` phỵb xƺƬbf sb xut phỵb nib va sabh t
rk tha hu k va bċbf sut <: tb sb phe/bfly
Fali vb hƺƬbf dỵb = T[ Bfơ Thla Nkh _b
[abh vaíb thk haí b̫
CƬp
E[[_
Khuyíb bfbh
= Bfuyb Th Tuyt Bha
= <6[H
=<:6<6:>7<
= Kơbf Bfhí [abh
Hk
̫
Ěl Bċbf, bfly >8 thbf << be >:>:
1
EWK CWK
........................
.........................
.........................
...................7
.......7
KHƩBF A= TBF \B TA C
............
̫
<.<.Tơbf qub ví rk tha hƺu kƬ......................................................................7
<.<.<. Bfuôb pht sabh rk tha hu k..........................................................7
<.<.>. Tbh kht kht tha hu k....................................................................?
<.<.;. \ub c vl x c kht tha hu k Ƭ _a t ̫ Be......................................?
<.>. ZhƬbf php phỵb sabh hikP
<.>.<. @ha ba
e...............................................................................................6
̫
<.>.>. K kh phỵb hy rk thlbh phỵb hu k.............................................8
<.>.>.<. Thlbh phỵb va sabh v t ̫ tribf Ĝôbf u...............................................8
<.>.>.>. Hit Ĝ bf
̫ ku va sabh v t ̫ tribf Ĝôbf u.........................................<:
<.>.>.;.Cƺ khb va sabh v t ̫ Ĝí phb faa rk tha h kƬ cle phb....
phb.........
......<:
.<:
<.>.;. Kk yu t bh hƺƬbf Ĝb tab Ĝ
̫ vl kht cƺbf sb phe...........<<
<.>.;.<. Zhb cia vl bfhab.......................................................................<<
<.>.;.>. Bha t ̫ Ĝ .........................................................................................<<
̫
<.>.;.;. Ě ̫ e............................................................................................<<
<.>.;.4. Lbh hbf
hbf ku pH..................................................................
pH.........................................................................
.......<<
<<
<.>.;.7. Ě thibf
`h vl phb phôa I>......................................................<<
̫
<.>.;.?. Ty c K/B,
B/Z................................................................................<>
̫
<.>.4. @ae st ea trƺbf trbf qu trbh P
<.>.4.<. @e sit KH 4...............................................................................<>
<.>.4.>. @e sit H >[................................................................................<>
<.;. Tơbf qub ví phỵb hƺu kƬ va sabh............................................................<;
sabh............................................................ <;
<.;.<. Zhỵb hu k va sabh............................................................................<;
sabh............................................................................<;
<.;.>. Ʃu Ĝae k phỵb hu k va sabh................................................
sabh......................................................
......<;
<;
<.;.;. Bfuyb ca
u̫ sb xut...........................................................................<;
<.;.;.<. ^k tha
tha h kƬ..............................................................................<4
kƬ.............................................................................. <4
<.;.;.>. Kh phe GE................................................................................<4
<.;.;.;. Bfb ca ̫ `hk............................................................................
`hk............................................................................<7
<7
2
KHBF AA= KHIB _ THQT EABH DẻQ KHQB KBF
BFH....................
BFH.......
.........................
.........................
.........................
........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
...................
......
>.<. Dợy khub kbf bfh
...............................................................................
̫
>.>. Thuyt eabh dỵy khub...........................................................................<6
>.>.<. X c GE..............................................................................................<6
>.>.>. Zhỵb cẬa s nố....................................................................................<6
>.>.;. Bfhb..................................................................................................<8
>.>.4. Bhỵb fabf..........................................................................................<8
>.>.7. Zha trốb va egb va sabh.....................................................................<8
sabh..................................................................... <8
>.>.?. ữ...........................................................................................................<8
>.>.6. Cle ta b.........................................................................................
b.........................................................................................<1
<1
>.>.8.[lbf cơbf..............................................................................................>:
>.>.1. Zha trốb..............................................................................................>:
>.>.<:. TẬ hẬt..............................................................................................>:
>.>.<<. [y......................................................................................................>:
>.>.<>. Ěibf n............................................................................................>:
KHƩBF AAA= TBH KỴB NBF _Ỵ
KHT..................
.........................
.....................><
........><
T̫ KHT......
;.<. Kk s ca
u̫ nb Ĝu...................................................................................><
;.>. @ hkh sb xut k bhl ey................................................................
ey................................................................><
><
;.;. Tbh kỵb nbf vỵ
t ̫ kht..............................................................................>>
;.;.<. Tau h bfuyb ca
u̫ qu tbf kbf ĜẬb........................................>>
;.;.>. Tbh tb kỵb nbf vỵ
t ̫ kht................................................................>7
KHƩBF A_= KHIB _ TBH TB THAT N.................................>1
N.................................>1
4.<. That n khbh.............................................................................................>1
4.<.<. Ey bfhaíb n...................................................................................>1
4.<.>. Ey cle ta..........................................................................................;<
4.<.;. [lbf côbf.............................................................................................;<
4.<.4. Ey pha tr
b̫ B,Z,@............................................................................;>
4.<.7. Ey tẬ hẬt..........................................................................................;;
4.<.?. Ey sy................................................................................................;4
3
4.<.6. Ey Ĝibf n.......................................................................................
n.......................................................................................;7
;7
4.>. Bhl ...........................................................................................................;?
4.>.<. Bhl s n
................................................................................
.........................
............;?
;?
...............................................................
̫
4.>.>. Bhl khb...........................................................................................;6
4.;. That n bhỵb fabf vl cb egb.................................................................;6
4.;.<. That n bhỵb fabf kp A....................................................................;6
4.;.>. That n bhỵb fabf kp A cb kp AA....................................................;8
AA.................................................... ;8
4.;.;. That n bhỵb fabf kp AA cb AAA.......................................................4:
4.;.4. That n kh fabf kp AAA..................................................................
AAA..................................................................4:
4:
4.;.7. Tb` kh kh phe GE....................................................................4>
4.4. Kk that n `hk........................................................................................4>
4.4.<. Xg xk cỵ
t.............................................................................................4>
̫
4.4.>. Xg vỵ
b̫ khuyb thlbh phe vl `h...................................................4;
4.4.;. Ne......................................................................................................44
4.4.4. Zhu bẬp ca
u.......................................................................................47
̫
4.4.7. H
quẬt fai................................................................................47
thbf
̫
4.4.?. Nċbf ta................................................................................................4?
4.4.?.<. Kk kbf Ĝib s dbf nċbf ta....................................................46
4.4.?.>. Tbh tib nċbf ta..........................................................................
ta..........................................................................46
46
4
KHƩBF A= TBF \B TA C
̫
<.<.Tơbf qub ví rk tha hƺu kƬ
<.<.<. Bfuôb pht sabh rk tha hu k
Kht tha hu k c bhbf kht tha k nb kht hu k v n cia n tribf qul trbh
sb xut. Klk kht tha hu k k th k bfub fk c Ĝô bf
̫ v t,̫ thk v t,̫ klk hp kht
kknib hydri hy k nb kċ b̫ tha r su `ha x c bƺƬk tha. Ea cia kht tha hu k
k thbh phb v tbh kht rt `hlk bhu.
Kht tha hu k haí b̫ by rt cƬb. Khbf Ĝƺk ti r na klk bfub su
- Kht tha h kƬ Ĝk ti r tribf q trbh sabh hit ku kib bfa
+ Klk cia kht th ti t klk bh np klk fa Ĝbh hy klk bh np t
t p̫ th,
klk cia kht ta by k nb kht sabh v t.̫ Khbf thƺbf c bhbf Ĝô bf
̫ v t ̫ hy klk
thk v t ̫ `hôbf kb s dbf Ĝƺk b hiċ k̫ `hơbf Ĝlp bf bhbf u ku kh
nab, ni qub hy
hy s dbf bfy. _ d
d== Ĝu kl, tôe, vy kl, ruô t ̫ kl, r, v, cl klk
cia ru qu n hƺu hbf…, dy c bhbf kht tha d n phb hy v fy ô bhae
eôa trƺbf rt ebh. Bfia r, t bh np kb k bhbf kht tha rt `h phb hy
bhƺ klk cia ni ba côbf, fag cu, klk cia ni n t kccucis
+ Kht tha t klk `hu vk thƺbf ea bhƺ kh, saíu th. Kht tha kh yu c k
bfub fk t thk v t ̫ v Ĝô bf
̫ v t ̫ vƬa s cƺbf cƬb. _ k nb th thbh phb kht
tha by fabf bhƺ klk kht tha t bh np
- Kht tha h kƬ t q trbh sb xt
+ Kht tha t klk bh ely kh nab thk phe
+ Kht tha t klk k s x bfh p̫ th k̫ d ni fe côbf th, klk ebh vb ti
r tribf qul trbh kh nab
+ Kht tha t klk k s khċb buôa, kh yu c phb fa sk, thk phe fa sk
th hiċ k̫ bhbf kht tha dbf Ĝ ví sabh
khubf tra
̫
+ Kht tha t klk tre x c bƺƬk
+ Kht tha t klk bh ely fay v klk hit Ĝô bf
̫ kơbf bfh p̫ `hlk.
<.<.>. Tbh kht kht tha hu k
Kht tha hu k phb cƬb k bfub fk t Ĝô bf
̫ thk v t ̫ bíb k bhbf tbh kht k
nb su=
- Tbh d phỵb hy
Klk t ni Ĝơ bf
̫ v t ̫ v thk v t ̫ Ĝu Ĝƺk ku ti t klk hp kht hu k bhƺ
pritab,
capad, rt
vateab
v eô hy
t ̫ s`ha
thbh
phb
Klkv
thbh
phbTbh
hu kht
k by
d
c bhbffcuxat,
thbh phb
d n phb
Ĝô bf
t ̫ n kht.
̫ hy thk
̫ v t `hlk.
5
phb hy by c tbh kht rt qub trbf tribf khu trbh khuyb h fa s sbf v
v t ̫ kht `hôbf sbf. The fa vi qul trbh phb faa by kh yu c hí
hí va
̫ sabh v t ̫ k
tribf kht tha.
- T
Tbh
bh kht
kht d fỵy
fỵy bh
bha
ae
e ea
ea tr
trƺ
ƺbf
bf
_ c v t ̫ kht d phb faa bíb klk rlk tha hu k by kbf c bfub fy ơ bhae
bfe trbf. Ô bhae eôa trƺbf Ĝy ni fe ; dbf=
+ Ô bhae di klk kht `h ti r tribf qul trbh
+ Ô bhae di va sabh v t ̫ fy ní bh̫
+ Ơ bhae di klk kht Ĝơ k̫ Ĝƺk faa phbf r `ha `ha kht tha, ti r tribf qul
trbh
Khbh v th tribf qub c v x c kht tha hu k, kb hb kh v cia hb klk qul
trbh ti r n dbf ơ bhae tríb.
<.<.;. \ub c vl x c kht tha hu k Ƭ _a
t ̫Be
_aí t ̫ Be khƺ pha c bƺƬk k bfbh kơbf bfh p̫ ebh bíb kht tha kơbf
kơbf bfh p
̫
khƺ bhau. Bb `abh t vỵb kh yu d vi s phlt trab bơbf bfh
bfh p.̫ Di Ĝ, eô
eô t ̫ s
Ĝċ k̫ Ĝae Ĝċ k̫ trƺbf k rlk tha _aí t ̫ Be c=
- Kht tha sabh hit _aí t ̫ be khae t cí cƬb
̫ bht. Ěy kbf c dċ k̫ Ĝae
khubf khi bhau quk fa Ĝbf phlt trab. Tribf klk cia kht th sabh hit th
klk cia kht tha t bfub thk v t ̫ khae s cƺbf bhau hb k. T Ĝċ k̫ Ĝae
by, klk bh ` thu t ̫ bfh bfy Ĝb `h bċbf tla kh kht tha ce phb nb.
Zhƺbf phlp tla kh Ĝb fab bht Ĝ ce phb nb c tab hbh kht tha hu
k
- Kht tha hu k _aí t ̫ Be k bfub fk kh yu t thk v t ̫ bíb khbf k
he cƺbf bƺƬk ki, khbf ca `t hp vƬa klk kht dabh dƺbf v va sabh v
v t ̫
k
sb tribf
khtv
tha`hơbf
ti bíb
rĚċ
bhbh
v by
fy Ĝa
r h
b̫ tƺbf
̫ tƺbf tha
bhae
Ĝt, bƺƬk
`hh
rt bbfhe
trbf.
ha
`ha tabơ
k̫ Ĝae
hbh c khb phƺbf phlp x c pha Ĝe ni x c traí t ̫ Ĝ `h bċbf ô bhae
k kht tha hu k
- Kht tha _aí t ̫ Be t Ĝƺk phb cia ta bfub, di Ĝ, tribf kht tha ta
Ĝae Ĝae tab hbh x c thƺbf kh k bhbf v t ̫ caí u̫ d ti phb nb,
bfia r kb k `ae cia, kht Ĝô k̫ ha v k va sabh v t ̫ fy ní bh…
fy bhau
̫
`h `hċb tribf qul trbh x c. _ y̫ bíb kb cƺu faa quyt kb th b̫ tribf qul
trbh ce phb nb
<.>. ZhƬbf php phỵb sabh hik P<.>.<. @ha bae
̫
6
Thi Huf (<18:) kht tha c qul trbh phb faa sabh hk klk kht hu k dỵb
Ĝb s b Ĝaabh `ha tribf tb tr v s dbf bhƺ eô t ̫ dbf phb hu k
Eô t ̫ Ĝbh bfh `hlk Ĝbf ph nab klk bƺƬk khu Ỵu v kht tha. Thi Ĝbh
bfh by, kht th c s `ae silt qul trbh hau `ha hit Ĝô bf
̫ k klk va sabh v t ̫
ƺu e v ƺu bbf. @t qu hit Ĝô bf
̫ by s ti r KI >, bƺƬk, kht `hilbf v klk
kht hu k b Ĝbh
_ tbf th, qul trbh c qul trbh phb faa eô t ̫ cit klk kht hu k k tribf
kht tha sabh hit, nb kċ b,̫ phb fa sk, fa ke, klk kht hu k bôbf bfhaí p.̫ \ul
trbh Ĝƺk thk haí b̫ k tribf Ĝau `aí b̫ hau `h v ye `h
) W hau `h
C qul trbh khuyb h klk kht hu k bh va sabh v
v t ̫ `ha k eċ t ̫ k ixy.
[b phe kua kbf k qul trbh hau `h by c KI >, BH;, bƺƬk, bhaí t,̫ klk
kht hu k Ĝ b Ĝbh v sabh `ha va sabh v t ̫
n) W ye `h
C qul trbh khuyb h kht hu k na klk va sabh v
v t ̫ `ha `hôbf k eċ k
̫
ixy. [b phe kua kbf k qul trbh by c BH4,KI>, BH;, eô t ̫ va cia `h
`hlk vƬa s cƺbf rt bh, klk xat hu k, bhaí t,̫ klk kht hu k b Ĝbh v
sabh `ha va sabh v t ̫
BH; Ĝƺk ti r k tribf Ĝau `aí b̫ hau `h v ye `h. Khbf bhbh khbf Ĝƺk
klk va `hub batrt h k tribf `ha khuyb thbh BI ;W hau `h thƺbf xy r bhbh, ye `h thƺbf `i da tha fab
<.>.>. K kh phỵb hy rk thlbh phỵb hu k
<.>.>.<. Thlbh phỵb va sabh v t ̫ tribf Ĝơbf u
\ul trbh c eô t ̫ qul trbh ixa h h-sabh klk kht hu k di klk cia va sabh v
v t ̫
`hlk bhu. Bbf va sabh v t ̫ phlt trab thi kp s bhb, Ĝu taíb c kh e̫ v su
bhbh hb.
Thbh phb klk va sabh v t ̫ k tribf Ĝ bfuyíb caí u̫ ce phb ni fe klk khbf
fabf va sabh v t ̫ phb faa xbcuciz, va sabh v t ̫ phb faa pritab, tabh nơ t…
̫
_a sabh vỵ
t ̫ phỵb faa xgbcucz
Tribf thaíb bhaíb k bhau bhe va sabh v t ̫ k `h bċbf phb hy xbcuciz bh
k hí bzye
xbcuciz bfia ni. Tribf Ĝ va be c bhe k `h bċbf phb fa
̫
ebh bht v b k `h bċbf tat r eô t ̫ cƺbf cƬb bzye k dy Ĝ klk thbh phb.
Be ek k hit tbh
tbh phb faa xxbcuciz
bcuciz Ĝlbf kh
kh c Trakidgre
Trakidgre.. Hu ht klk cia
thuô k̫ kha Trakidre sbf hia sabh tribf rlk, Ĝt Ĝu k `h bċbf phb hy
xbcuciz. Tribf bhe va be bfia Trakidgre
Trakidgre kb
kb k rt bhau fabf k `h bċbf
phb hy xbcuciz bhƺ
bhƺ spgracc
spgraccs,
s, Osrae,
Osrae, Ekir…
Ekir…
7
Bhau cia va `hub kbf k `h bċbf phb hy xbcuciz,
xbcuciz, tuy bhb kƺbf Ĝơ ̫
`hơbf nbf va be. Bfub bhb sdi s cƺbf bzye tat r eôa trƺbf k va `hub
thƺbf bh, thbh phb klk cia bzye `hôbf Ĝy Ĝ. Eiittm s bhe taíu nau k
tribf rlk tha bhƺ bhe va `hub hau `h Kcistradae
Kcistradae v
v bhe va `hb sbf tribf d
dy Ĝô bf
kha ^eabikiks
s
̫ v t ̫ bha ca c klk ku `hub th k̫ kha ^eabikik
_a sabh vỵ
t ̫ phỵb faa prtgab
Tribf eôa trƺbf rlk Ĝbf, bat tb ta klk db `hlk bhu, t bati phb faa
dbf `h khi Ĝb klk hp kht hu k phk tp k tribf k th dô bf,
̫ thk v t ̫ v kib
bfƺa. Tribf k thr sabh v t,̫ bati tb ta kh yu dƺƬa dbf klk hp kht Ĝe bhƺ
pritab, xat eab. @ha k th sabh v t ̫ kht Ĝa, cƺbf bati by tb ta tribf Ĝt(rlk).
DƺƬa tksk dubfmk klk bhe va sabh v t ̫ hia bh, pritab Ĝƺk phb faa thobhk k
xat eab. Klk xat eab by ca Ĝƺkb he va sabh v t ̫ phb faa thbh BH; hiċ k̫ BH4+
fa c bhe va `hub eab h. \ul trbh by fa c s `hilbf h kht hu k v qu
Ĝ bat hu k Ĝƺk khuyb h thbh bati dbf `hilbf. Dbf BH 4+ s Ĝƺk khuyb
h thbh BI;- bh bhe va `hub batrt h.
Klk hp kht batrt ca Ĝƺk khuyb h thbh dbf B > phb t, qul trbh by fa c
s batrt h Ĝƺk thk haí b̫ na bhe phb batrt. @h B > s Ĝƺk k Ĝbh ca tribf t
ni va `hub
`hub v t nni
i thk vv t,̫ su Ĝ khuyb h thbh dbf B > hu k bh bhe va
`hb k Ĝbh Bat. Di Ĝ, vbf tub hib B > `hp `b. Tribf hu ht klk `hu
khuyb h k vbf tub hib Ĝu k s the fa k klk va sabh v t ̫ `hlk bhu. Bu
s hit Ĝô bf
̫ k eô t ̫ bhe bi Ĝ bfbf ca th tib nô s
̫ khuyb h k vbf tub
hib s n bh hƺbf bfhaíe trbf.
Tribf qul trbh kiepist, bhe va `hub khbh phb faa pritab c va `hub batrt
h, va `hub k Ĝbh bat.
Bhe va sabh
sabh v t ̫ tab hbh batrt h ni fe ha bhe tab hbh ha faa Ĝib k
qul trbh. Faa Ĝib a h BH4+ thbh BI>- fa c batrat h , faa Ĝib ixa h BI>thbh BI;- fa c faa Ĝib batrt h.
Bhe va `hub batrat h ni fe nb kha `hlk bhu= Batriziei
Batrizieibs,
bs,
Batrizikstak,
Batrizik
stak, Batrizicins
Batrizicins vl Batrisis
Batrisispar
par,, khbf Ĝu thuô k̫ cia t dƺbf nt n k,̫
`hơbf k `h bċbf sbf tríb a trƺbf thkh, na v y̫ phb c p̫ khbf rt `h pha
dbf sacakfb thy thkh. Bhe va `hub by k `h bċbf a h BH 4+ nbf I>
`hôbf `h v ti r bċbf cƺbf=
BH4+ + ;/> I> BI;- +>H+ + bċbf cƺbf
Bhe va `hub batrt h tab hbh ixa h BI >- thbh BI;- ni fe na kha `hlk
bhu= Batrin
bhu=
Batrinktgr,
ktgr, Batrispar
Batrispar vl B
Batrikikk
atrikikks.
s.
8
Bhe va `hub k Ĝbh Bati k tribf eôa trƺbf rlk c klk bhe= zitinkt
bhe= zitinktgr
gr c eô t ̫ cia va `hub hau `h, `hôbf sabh ni t, k `h bċbf k Ĝbh bat phb t,
sbf t di tribf Ĝt(rlk).
Kcistradae c eô t ̫ cia va `hub ` `h sbf t di tribf rlk, k `h bċbf hbh
Kcistradae c
thbh ni t. Cia ph nab bht c Kcistradae pstgbsabae k
pstgbsabae k hbh qu bfb, `ha
kb
bib k k
`h
Ĝơ bf
tbciah
ei,
`ha fa
Ĝa bhƺ
`hĜƺbf,
bċbf da
bf.
̫ na
Kcistradae k
Kcistradae
`hbċbf
bċbfdaĜbf
h
bhau
pritab
`hlket
bhu
tabhĜơ nơ
̫ t,̫
rƺu… B th k̫ cia ` `h bíb klk sb phre tri Ĝa kht k b c klk xat hu
k, nutbic, thbic, xtib Ĝ c klk sb phe khƺ Ĝƺk ixa h hib tib.
_a sabh vỵ
t ̫ phỵb faa tabh n
t ̫
Tribf n k rt bhau cia va sabh v t ̫ k `h bċbf phb faa tabh nô t.̫ Eô t ̫ s va
sabh v t ̫ k `h bċbf tat r a trƺbf Ĝy Ĝ klk cia bzye tribf hí bzye
̫
eacz. _ d eô t ̫ s be ek ni fe eô t ̫ s cia
cia tbf
tbf klk
klk kha
kha spgrfacc
spgrfaccs,
s,
Osrae,, ^hazips…
Osrae
^hazips… Tribf bhe va `hub k eô t ̫ s cia thuô k̫ kh
kha Nkaccs
Nkaccs,,
Ktiphz, Zsgdieibs…
Zsgdieibs… X `hub kbf k eô t ̫ s kha k `h bċbf tat r bzye
phb faa tabh nơ t.̫ Tuy bhb, Ĝ s va sabh v t ̫ `hôbf k `h bċbf tat r Ĝy Ĝ hí ̫
bzye eacz phb faa tabh nô t,̫ khbf kh k th tat r eôa trƺbf eô t ̫ hiċ k̫ t ̫
va
va eb trib
tribff hí ̫ Ĝ
Ĝ. _ d klk cia spgrfa
spgrfaccs
ccs kbdads, Nkaccs sntacas,
sntacas,
Kcistradae…
Kcistradae
… kh k `h bċbf tat r eôa trƺbf bzye μ-eacz.
<.>.>.>. Hit Ĝ bf
̫ ku va sabh v t ̫ tribf Ĝôbf u
Klk qul trbh sabh h dab r tribf Ĝbf rlk kh yu di hit Ĝô bf
̫ k klk va
sabh v t ̫ s dbf klk hp kht hu k ce bfub dabh dƺbf khi klk hit Ĝô bf
̫ sbf
k khbf. Klk cia va `hub v be Ĝbf va tr qub tbf tribf qul trbh phb faa
hp kht. Klk cia va sabh v t ̫ phlt trab tt tribf klk Ĝau ` b̫ a trƺbf Ĝƺk xlk
Ĝbh bhƺ nbf.
Nbf <.< = Kk
Kk yu t ea
ea trƺbf bh
bh hƺƬbf Ĝb va
va sabh vỵ
t ̫
Qu t a trƺbf
@hibf xlk Ĝbh
Bh t ̫ Ĝơ (:
(̫ :K)
:-6:
Bbf Ĝô e
eu
:-;
̫ ua (% BKc)
pH
<-<>
Bbf Ĝô i
ix
:-><
̫ xa (%)
Lp sut (eZ)
:-<<7
Lbh slbf
Nbf ta, lbh slbf ebh
Klk va sabh v t ̫ the fa vi qul trbh phb faa ta klk Ĝbf rlk Ĝƺk kha thbh
n bhe kh
kh yu=
9
- Klk va sabh v t ̫ ƺ e= phlt trab ebh bh t ̫ Ĝơ t
̫ :->::K
- Klk va sabh v t ̫ ƺ e= phlt trab ebh bh t ̫ Ĝơ t
̫ >:-4::K
- Klk va sabh v t ̫ ƺ bbf= phlt trab ebh bh t ̫ Ĝơ t
̫ 4:-6::K
[ phlt trab k klk cia va sabh v t ̫ thi bh t ̫ Ĝơ Ĝƺk
th h b̫ thi Ĝ th su=
̫
Tha ` Ĝu k qul trbh rlk, qul trbh hau `h Ĝƺk dab r , faa Ĝib byd klk
kht trbh
hu k
dklk
n ixa
h thbh
dbf
t bhƺ
pritab,tabh
nô t,xcuciz.
Tribf
̫ v v th k
qul
by,
va sabh
v t ̫ tap
bh Ĝb
b̫ eôphb
bċbf
cƺbf rt cƬb
tb
t ̫ cƺbf
ta t ̫ cƺbf bċbf cƺbf Ĝlbf ` dbf bh t.̫ Cƺbf bċbf cƺbf bhaí t ̫ Ĝƺk ti níb
tribf cbf Ĝbf Ĝƺk ti r bhau hb si vƬa cƺbf bhaí t ̫ bċbf Ĝƺk thilt r níb
bfia v di Ĝ bhaí t ̫ Ĝơ níb
tƬa
̫ tribf Ĝbf n Ĝƺk tċbf cíb. Fal tr bh t ̫ Ĝơ tċbf
̫
?:-6::K, `i da tribf tha fab `hibf ;: bfy. ƪ `hibf bh t ̫ Ĝơ by,
klk phb
̫
bf h hk dab r s trô a ̫ hb klk phb bf va sabh vt na v hu ht khbf va sabh
v t ̫ `hơbf phlt trab Ĝƺk bh t ̫ Ĝơ 6::K.
̫
<.>.>.;.Cƺ khb va sabh v t ̫ Ĝí phb faa rk tha h kƬ cle phb
<.>.;. Kk yu t bh hƺƬbf Ĝb tab Ĝ
̫ vl kht cƺbf sb phe
<.>.;.<. Zhb cia vl bfhab
_aí k̫ phb cia kb th b̫ klk rlk tha rt qub trbf Ĝ k th Ĝt Ĝƺk t ̫ qul trbh
hib hi
_ k̫ fae `kh thƺƬk k bfuyíb caí u̫ ( nbf klkh nċe bh hiċ k̫ sbf phb cia)
bhƺ t ̫ hí qu
bf
̫ ce tċbf tk Ĝô phb
̫
<.>.;.>. Bha t ̫ Ĝ ̫
[ faa phbf KI> ta Ĝ xy r 77:K. B nt Ĝu tċbf t t tribf `hibf t >74::K su Ĝ tċbf t 47-77:K
Bhaí t ̫ Ĝô ta
̫ ƺu khi qul trbh b Ĝbh sabh h c 4:-77:K. Bh t ̫ Ĝơ ki
̫ Ĝa vƬa
Ĝbf th tk Ĝô , ̫ ek s bhbh.
Cƺu kb bfċb bh qul `hô, qul cbh phb bi Ĝ k Ĝbf .
<.>.;.;. Ě e
̫
Ěô e
̫ ta ƺu Ĝa vƬa qul trbh c 7:-7>%.
Bu v t ̫ c u̫ qul `hơ `hơbf Ĝ Ĝơ e
v t ̫
̫ khi s tb ta v phlt trab k va sabh v
hiċ k̫ v t ̫ caí u̫ qul e th s dab r qul trbh cíb eb ye `h, ixa `hơbf ct vi Ĝƺk.
<.>.;.4. Lbh hbf ku pH
pH fae t ?,?-7,7 tribf faa Ĝib taíu hy ƺ elt su Ĝ tċbf bhbh faa Ĝib
ƺ e tƬa pH58 su Ĝ fae bh xubf 6,7 tribf faa Ĝib cbh .
10
Bu dbf vôa Ĝ tċbf pH faa Ĝib Ĝu th pH s tċbf cíb bfia bfƺbf eibf
eue ce khi Bati dbf eua s n et Ĝa.
<.>.;.7. Ě thibf
`h vl phb phôa I>
̫
Thôbf thƺbf lp ck tbh c :,<5:,<7ee kô t ̫ bƺƬk, kb ti r Ĝ Ĝy `hôbf `h qu
khau su t >->,7e v t ̫ caí u.̫ Di Ĝ kh kb s dbf qut fa c Ĝ `hôbf kb s dbf
ely bb. Klk k k n s Ĝe ni khi vaí k̫ ce thilbf, kh kb Ĝi k c ea
bfy eô t ̫ cb hiċ k̫ bhau bfy eô t ̫ cb.
[ phb pha ixa khi n c rt kb that na va sabh v t ̫ hau `ha kb ixa. Cƺbf
ixa taíu th c 4,>f I>/`f rlk/ bfy. Bhƺ v y̫ bhu ku ixa taíu th rt cƬb tribf bbf
bfy Ĝu k qul trbh ra fae db. [ sb sabh KI > tƺbf Ĝƺbf vƬa cƺbf I>
thaíu th.
\ul trbh ` `h nt Ĝu `ha t cí ixa
̫ tribf klk n bh hb <:%, su Ĝ `h etb
xut haí b.̫ \ul trbh ` `h Ĝċ k̫ naí t ̫ qub trbf `ha t cí Ixa
̫ dƺƬa 7%
Kb k eô t ̫ qul trbh sk `h ebh Ĝ h tr khi va sabh v
v t ̫ hli `h v s phb hy
ta ƺu. T cí Ixa
tu th `hơbf b Ĝbh ph th k̫ vi bh t ̫ Ĝơ , ̫ s thyd da tribf
̫
thbh phb v ek Ĝơ ̫ khb, `kh thƺƬk bfub caí u.̫
<.>.;.?. Ty c K/B,
B/Z
̫
Tƺbf qub K/B n ce bh db khi Ĝb `ha ty cí bati
̫ k Ĝbh v bat `hilbf h
bhƺ bhu. [u t ̫ qulb trbh da, t cí K/B
k phb kb ca s nbf vƬa t cí
cí k
̫
̫ va
sabh v t.̫ \ul trbh by kb k tha fab, bu bfy t Ĝu, t cí K/B
thp s `hilbf
̫
h bati thu Ĝƺk t s k Ĝbh. T cí K/B
̫ ki k th ce et bati na BH ;
T cí B/Z
t ̫ t ni Ĝƺk Ĝċ t ̫ `hibf t 7->:. Bu t cí B/Z
phb kb ca
̫ tribf
̫ k phb
ki hb t cí k
̫ bhbf t ni v abh v t ̫ th kb n subf eô t ̫ cƺbf phitphs tríb t cí ̫
<:: phb bfuyíb caí u̫ hu k. Ʃu th tribf t cí B/Z
̫ `hab khi s phb hy ki, faa
phbf eô t ̫ cƺbf bh I> v eô t ̫ cƺbf cƬb hb Ĝƺk sb sabh.
<.>.4. @ae st ea trƺbf trbf qu trbh P<.>.4.<. @aíe sit KH 4
Klk Ĝbf rlk ye `h c bfub `h sabh hk e tribf Ĝ `h etb c thbh phb
kh yu v khae t cí ki.
̫
@h sabh hk c sb phe k qulb trbh phb hy klk kht hu k k tribf Ĝbf .
Thbh phb k `h f tribf faa Ĝib Ĝu kh yu c KI > v eô t ̫ s cia `h `hlk
bhƺ B> v I>. [ k eċ t ̫ k `h KI> tribf Ĝbf ti Ĝau `aí b̫ khi va sabh v t ̫ ` `h
tċbf v t Ĝ nt Ĝu faa Ĝib hbh thbh `h etb.
@h etb k th tr thbh ea bfuy hae fy kh b, ô bhae eôa trƺbf ta
Ĝbf v klk `hu vk xubf qubh. _ v y̫ pha `ae silt `h etb nbf phƺbf
11
phlp thbh tilb hiċ k̫ thu ha v khuyb thbh bfub bċbf cƺbf-c t ̫ phb qub
trbf tribf v k̫ that ` v v b̫ hbh klk n rlk hp ví sabh.
̫
Tribf trƺbf hp khƺ thu ha hiċ k̫ thbh tilb `h etb th klk v tr k `h bċbf
t p
th fy khly b, di Ĝ kb rlk eô t ̫ cƬp dt dy Ĝ fae `h t p̫
̫ trubf `h etb k th
trubf.
<.>.4.>. @aíe sit H >[
Klk thbh phb H>[, etyc erkptb tribf `h fy ea tha `hlk naí t.̫ Ea by s
n cia n bu `h Ĝƺk thilt tlb hiċ k̫ Ĝt khly. K th s dbf eô t ̫ cƬp ck Ĝ fae
ea, n subf va sabh v t ̫ GE…
@ae silt bƺƬk rlk= k hí thbf
thu fie bƺƬk rlk ta klk n hli `h. [ dbf
̫
bƺƬk r rlk n subf ca khi kk n bu thau Ĝô e
̫
Thbh phb bƺƬk rlk= NID7,KID,[[,BH4+, bat tbf, pH, kicaoire, klk `ae cia
bċ bf,
̫ eu ea… kb k s `ae silt bfhe bfċ t ̫
<.;. Tơbf qub ví phỵb hƺu kƬ va sabh
<.;.< . Zhỵb hu k va sabh
Zhỵb va sabh k
sabh k nb kht c kh phe kh bhbf khbf va sabh vất Ĝ Ĝƺk tuyb
khb ph hp vƬa bhbf taíu khub ` thuất e klk va sabh vất Ĝƺk s dbf ce kh
phe sabh hk. Klk khbf va sabh vất dbf Ĝ sb xut phb nb va sabh= va sabh vất
h tb cb, va sabh vất k Ĝbh Ĝe, va sabh vất `kh thkh sabh trƺbf ky trbf, va
sabh vất phb faa klk kht hu k,… Klk khbf va sabh vất by thƺbf pha Ĝt eất
Ĝố thi taíu khub k k qub qub c bh bƺƬk, eất Ĝố ≧<: 8 KO/ef. K `h bċbf
`kh thkh s tċbf trƺbf k ky nbf klkh tċbf s hp thu bhbf dƺbf kht kb
that khi ky
Zhỵb hƺu kƬ va sabh c
sabh c cia phb
cia phb nb hu k k kh eốt hiẶk bhau khbf va sabh
vất k kh, Ĝƺk kh nab nbf klkh pha trốb v x c klk bfuyíb caỆu hu k su Ĝ
cíb eb vƬa klk khbf va sabh. Zhb hu k va sabh k kh kht hu k tríb <7% v
k kh va sabh vất vƬa eất Ĝố t ≧ <Ư<: ? KO/ef ea cia. Cia phb by `hơbf kh
kubf kp Ĝ klk yu t dabh dƺbf `hilbf Ĝ cƺbf, trubf cƺbf, va cƺbf khi ky
trbf, h tb klk kht vô k tribf Ĝt thbh kht dabh dƺbf e kb fap na dƺbf,
ka ti, bbf ki Ĝố ph bhaíu, tċbf cƺbf eb tribf Ĝt ce Ĝt ta xp k Ĝt,
`hôbf n nk eu.
Zhb hu k va sabh Ĝu taíb di Binc
Binc Hacbr sb xut ta Ěk bċe <81? v Ĝƺk
dċ t ̫ tíb c Batrfab, su Ĝ phlt trab sb xut ta eô t ̫ s bƺƬk bhƺ E(<81?), Kbd
(<1:7), Bf(<1:6), bh(<1<:) v Thy Ěab(<1<4).
12
Batrfab c cia phb Ĝƺk kh ti na va `hub
`hub ^hazina
^hazinae
e di Namrab` phb c p̫
bċe <888 v Ĝƺk Ord Ĝċ t ̫ tíb bċe <881 dbf Ĝ nb khi klk cia ky thkh hp h
Ě u̫
<.;.>. Ʃu Ĝae k phỵb hu k va sabh
-
Ěe ca kôbf dbf vƺt nấk v vaỆk ka ti Ĝt, duy tr, bbf ki Ĝố ph, eu e
khi Ĝt kbh tlk eốt klkh cu da v nb vbf.
Klkh s dbf Ĝb fab, kh kb nb vi ky bhƺbf ca vô kbf b te `hơbf s
ky kht, `hơbf ci Ĝt n thila h hy khu h, phèb h,…
- [ dbf thy th khi phb nb h hk v kubf kp bhbf kht that yu e phb
h hk `hôbf th kubf kp Ĝƺk.
- Zhb hu k kh klk va sabh vất phb faa k th ce tċbf haỆu ck hp thu klk
kht dabh dƺbf `h hp thu (`h tb, `h taíu) thbh kht d hp thu.
- Thb thaỆb vƬa hỆ sabh thla v b tib vƬa kib bfƺa v Ĝốbf vất
-
<.;.;. Bfuyb ca
u̫ sb xut
<.;.;.<. ^k tha h kƬ
Bh ely s dbf bfuyíb
bfuyíb sb xut
xut khbh c rlk hu kk k bfub fk t thk
thk v t,̫ d
phb hy,
hy, Ĝ Ĝƺk phb
phb cia ssb.
b. DƺƬa ttlk
lk Ĝô bf
phb
̫ k va sabh v t,̫ rlk hu k Ĝƺk phb
hy thbh klk kht eb d hp thu khi ky trbf
<.;.;.>. Kh phe GE
Kh phe fk GE Zri-< c hb hp klk khbf va sabh vất hu kh Ĝƺk bhấp `hu
t E k tlk dbf bbf ki haỆu qu x c kht tha, `h ea hơa, khub dbf khi
na rlk, khubf
khubf tra khċb
khċb buôa, phb kiepi
kiepist.
st.
Thlbh phb,
t ̫ Ĝ
va̫ sabh vỵ
t ̫
- Be eb [kkhriekgs sp
sp = <:1 kou/ec
-
_a `hub
+ Cktinkac
Cktinkaccs
cs sp
= =<:1kou/ec
<:1kou/ec
+ Nkac
kaccs
cs sp
= <:1kou/ec
+ ^hidips
^hidipsgdieib
gdieibss sp = <:8kou/ec
- Be
Be ek
ek Trakhidgre sp
sp = <:1kou/ec
- X `hu
`hub
b [trgptiekgs sp.
sp. = <:8 kou/ec
Khk bċbf khbh k kk khbf va sabh vỵ
t ̫
Be eb [kkhriekgs sp.= khuyb
sp.= khuyb hil bhbh klk hp kht hu k tribf rlk tha
thbh klk dbf Krnihydrt bh ce bfub thk ċb khi klk khbf va sabh `hlk, kbh
trbh, k kh klk va sabh vất fy ha
_a `hub=
13
Cktinkaccs sp
Cktinkaccs
sp.=.= cíb eb Ĝƺbf ti kad, b Ĝbh pH rlk tha, k kh ebh klk
khbf va `hub fy ha `hôbf khu kad
Nkaccs sp.=
sp.= tat `hlbf sabh k kh va sabh vất cíb eb tha, phb hy bhbh
pritab thbh
thbh eab qqu
u qul trb
trbhh eib hil
^hidipsgdieibs
^hidipsg
dieibs sp.=
sp.= c bhe va `hub qubf dƺbf, hp thu v ce fae
bhbh `h H>[ sabh r tribf qu trbh phb hy klk hp kht hu k, khuyb Ĝa
BH; thbh H> ce fa
fae
e ea eeib
eeibak
ak.
Be ek Trakhidgre sp=
sp= k hỆ bzye phibf ph, phb hy bhbh tt k klk
hp kht hu k k tribf rlk tha, ` k klk hp kht `h phb hu bhƺ kccucis,
cafbab, heakccucis…
X `hub [trgptiekgs sp.=
sp.= tat bhau cia bzye phb hu klk hp kht hu k
tribf rlk tha, tat `hlbf sabh strptieykab k kh ebh klk bhe va `hub Fre (-)
fy ea tha tribf rlk tha.
Kh tau kht cƺbf kh yu
Eu vbf bu bht, ea the bh, k pH5;.7, t trbf=<`f
<.;.;.;. Bfb ca ̫ `hk
Zhb cb
Zhb cb c bhbf phb nb k kh bfub t dabh dƺbf phơtphi, dbf nb khi
ky trbf. Zhb cb k bhau cia, k th Ĝƺk phb r phb cb thaíb bhaíb v phb
cb kh nab.
Cb the fa v thbh phb Zritab ku ti bíb t ni, v vấy b c kht `hôbf th
thau khi s sbf k ky trbf. Ky trbf hp th phb cb dƺƬa dbf aib phitpht
(ZI4);-.
Zhb `ca
Zhb `ca c bhe phb nb kubf kp kht dabh dƺbf `ca khi ky, kubf kp
bfuyíb t `ca dƺƬa dbf aib @+. Bhe phb `ca Ĝu c phb khu sabh c, d h tb
tribf bƺƬk, k hỆ s s dbf dabh dƺbf ki (?:-6:%).
Zhb ur
Kôbf thk h hk k phb ur c KI(BH>)>. Bat c thbh phb khbh v thƺbf
khae fb `hibf 7:%. Ěy c cia phb h hk k t cỆ bat ki bht haỆb by v
thƺbf Ĝƺk s dbf.
Ěe ur k dbf tabh th eu trbf, rt d h tb tribf bƺƬk, Ĝố ht e ebh.
Khbh na s ht e ebh by e vaỆk ni qub phb nb kbf kb Ĝƺk kh hb.
Zhb ur fap thk Ĝy qul trbh phb kbh, Ĝg bhlbh, `h bċbf qubf hp ebh bh
`kh thkh cl ti, fp phb ce tċbf bċbf sut ky trbf
14
KHƩBF AA= KHIB _ THQT EABH DỴQ KHQB KBF BFHÍ
>.<. Dỵy khub kbf bfh
̫
^lk tha hu k
_a sabh
sabh v
vt̫ phb faa
xbcuciz( bhe va be
X c GE
15
Trakidgre, spgraccs, x `hb
kha [tgptieks…)
Zhb cia s nô ̫
Hit h
Bhb fabf
kp A,AA,AAA
Tp kht
Bfhab
Zha trốb
W s nố, Ĝi trô b̫ ( >4 bfy), Ĝô ̫
e 77%
Tha fa
Tha
fa
kƺbf nk
W khb,<> bfy, Ĝô e
̫ 47%
Ce ta eb
[bf cbf
Zha trốb B, Z, @
Ti ht
[y tlkh e
Ěbf ni
[b phe
>.>. Thuyt eabh dỵy khub
^lk t klk `hu vk sabh hit tribf thbh ph s Ĝƺk Ĝƺ v na t p̫ `t nbf x
khuyíb dbf.
16
>.>.<. X c GE
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= bhe fae ea hôa tribf rlk tha, fae eốt s thôbf s vất c, h hk
k klk thbh phb k tribf rlk Ĝe ni yíu ku vỆ sabh eôa trƺbf. Eċ k̫ `hlk tribf
kh phe GE k kh hb hp klk va sabh v t ̫ ni fe bhe va `hub qubf hp, va
`hub kad cktad, be eb, x `hub v va `hub k Ĝbh Bati, fap phb hy rlk
tha, h tr khi qul trbh x c
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= Zhub kh phe GE dƺƬa dbf sƺbf e cíb rlk, fa tribf eốt
`hibf tha fab bht Ĝbh,t cỆ kh phe GE s dbf c > ct/< tb rlk tha. ^lk su
`ha Ĝƺk x c kh phe GE Ĝƺk bp cíb nċbf khuyb x c tap.
>.>.>. Zhỵb cẬa s nố
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= ^lk tha sabh hit ni fe klk kht hu k v tp kht cỵb bh `hlk.
Zhb cia s nô bhe
tlkh kht tp kht r `ha khp hu k,ti Ĝau ` b̫ thu b̫ ca
̫
khi klk kơbf Ĝib su
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= ^lk ta na tấp `t Ĝƺk x xk cất Ĝƺ cíb phu bp caỆu v qu
nċbf khuyb x c. Ha níb nċbf ta k kôbf bhb Ĝbf Ĝ phb cia rlk nbf ty,
bhẶt n klk cia rlk vô k r, tp kht cỵb r `ha hb hp nb Ĝu
>.>.;. Bfhb
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= bhe kt bh, vb, ti `kh thƺƬk Ĝbf bht khi hb hp rlk tha fap
khi kôbf Ĝib tap thi dab r thu b̫ ca hb.
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= Hb hp rlk su `ha tlkh `ae cia Ĝƺk Ĝƺ vi ely bfhab. ƪ
Ĝy rlk s Ĝƺk bfhab r `kh thƺƬk Ĝbf Ĝu thkh hp bh k ku bfhab k ely
bfhab.
>.>.4. Bhỵb fabf
Ek Ĝkh0
Ĝkh0 bhe kubf kp Ĝ s cƺbf fabf va sabh v t ̫ Ĝlp bf vƬa cƺbf rlk tha
kb khi kôbf Ĝib rlk
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= khbf va sabh v t ̫ Ĝƺk tab hbh ba ky tríb a trƺbf thkh
hp bhƺ eôa trƺbf tabh nốt, eôa trƺbf KEK (Krnixyethyc Kccucis) hiċ k̫ eôa
trƺbf fctab v khb r bhbf khbf phlt trab ebh, k `h bċbf phb hy bhbh
khbf v traỆt Ĝ rlk tha ti sb phe. ƪ Ĝy t ba ky tríb eôa trƺbf KEK >:%
v kh yu va sabh vất buôa ky Ĝ phb hy kccucis. Thbh phb < ct eôa trƺbf=
+ KEK
= > fe
+ BKc
= < fe
+ Ki
Ki be eb = ::,<
,< fe
+ Ki tht
= :,< fe
17
+ Zptib
= :,< fe
Tab hbh bhb fabf thi ; kp= A, AA,AAA
>.>.7. Zha trốb va egb va sabh
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= n subf hb hp va sabh v t ̫ phb faa ebh xbcuciz bhe tċbf kƺbf
klk qul trbh sabh hk xy r tribf `ha , bh Ĝ rt bfb tha fab rt bhau si vƬa
qul trbh kh s dbf hí va̫ sabh t bhaíb
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= ^lk su `ha Ĝ phb cia v tlkh hib tib klk tp kht s Ĝƺ vi
pha trốb. Zhub eb va sabh phb hy vi dbf khy rlk Ĝ pha trốb khi Ĝu. T cỆ
eb va sabh s dbf <,7% si vƬa cƺbf rlk tha.
>.>.?. ữ
ƪ kôbf Ĝib by t s dbf phƺbf phlp hau `h. Bfuyíb c k qul trbh by
kh yu c s dbf klk khbf va sabh v t ̫ k sb tribf t bhb Ĝbf tha n subf thíe
t ̫ s kh phe va sabh phb faa ebh. Ěau khbh bh t ̫ Ĝơ ,̫ Ĝơ e,
̫ ixa, Ĝơ thilbf
̫
`h,pH v klk kht dabh dƺbf k ca bhe `kh thkh s phlt trab k hí
hí va
̫ sabh v t ̫
k tribf n phb hy klk kht hu k ti thb eb. \ul trbh Ĝƺk thk h b qu
̫
> faa Ĝib= s nơ v
̫ khb
*ữ s n
̫
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= ti Ĝau `aí b̫ khi qul trbh tċbf sabh `ha ku va sabh v t ̫ phb faa t
bhaíb v va sabh v t ̫ n subf. ƪ faa Ĝib Ĝu bh t ̫ Ĝơ `ha
s tċbf cíb rt bhbh k
̫
th th Ĝt Ĝb ?:-6:⁺K, taíu daí t ̫ Ĝƺk bhbf va sabh v t ̫ fy ní bh̫ Ĝbf tha kbf
fap s phlt trab bhbh k x `hub, be sa, va `hub ƺ bhaí
bhaí t ̫ v Ĝċ k̫ naí t ̫ c x
`hub
Klkh tab hbh= [u `ha pha trốb eb va sabh, hb hp rlk hu k Ĝƺk khuyb
vi nubf cíb eb bh ely xk. @hôbf `h Ĝƺk kp khi `ha nbf ely bb `h
thơbf
qubfub
hỆ thbf
dỵbtĜẶt
níbxubf
dƺƬa bb
. \ul trbh by `t thk su >4 bfy
, Ĝố e
caỆubf
fae
?7%
kb n
77%.
* ữ khb=
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= Ěy c qul trbh eb h ebh, sb sabh bhau hp kht bati vô k h
tb v b Ĝbh phb eb. Kôbf Ĝib khb kb k tlk dbf Ĝi trơ b̫ Ĝu `ha , ce
ta eb v fae bh t ̫ Ĝơ khi
̫ `ha ti Ĝau ` b̫ khi bhbf va `hub k ni t phlt
trab ebh fap tċbf bhbh qul trbh eb h
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= `t thk qul trbh cíb eb eb hu k Ĝƺk khuyb qu klk n
khb, ixa kbf Ĝƺk kubf kp caíb tk na ely bb `h v hỆ thbf bf dỵb bhƺ qul
trbh s nố tríb. \ul trbh khb `t thk su `hibf <> bfy , Ĝố e sb phe
fae t 77% xubf kb 47%. [b phe Ĝƺk khuyb Ĝb na tấp `t, trƺƬk `ha vi
kôbf Ĝib tap thi.
18
ƪ faa Ĝib by,klk cia va `hub ƺ bbf thuốk Nkaccs
thuốk Nkaccs sp
sp Ĝbf
Ĝbf va tr qub
trbf tribf s khuyb h pritab v klk hp kht hydrtkknib.
Tribf qul trbh by xy r klk phb bf su=
BH4+ + ;/> I>
BI>- + </> I>
BI>- + H+ + H>I
BI;-
>.>.6. Cle ta eñb
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh = su `ha , phb eb hu k n vb kk, Ĝbf nlbh rt bhau di `hơbf
Ĝƺk Ĝi trơ b̫ cb tk. Di Ĝ, kb pha Ĝƺ qu ely Ĝlbh ta Ĝ ce ta, eb phb r,
fae Ĝô e
̫ k phb t 47% xubf 4:% ti Ĝau `aí b̫ thu b̫ ca khi qul trbh sbf,
sy Ĝt haí u̫ qu ki.
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= Eb su `ha qu nċbf ta vi ely Ĝlbh ta. Ta Ĝy eb s
Ĝƺk Ĝlbh ta bh klk klbh quy qubh trk tribf ely Ĝlbh ta.
>.>.8.[lbf côbf
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= Cia n bhbf
bhbf thbh phb khƺ
khƺ phb hy su `ha , fae Ĝô e
̫ xubf
;8%, rt bfb tha fab v bh t ̫ Ĝơ ̫ kơbf Ĝib sy
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= Eb su `ha Ĝƺk ce ta thi nċbf ta Ĝa vi sbf thbf quy k
`kh thƺƬk c sbf c <: ee, eb thô s ct c sbf v tap tk Ĝƺk nċbf ta vấb
khuyb Ĝb kôbf Ĝib x c tap thi, kb klk n kccucis tp kht be tríb sbf
Ĝƺk Ĝƺ Ĝa ce bhaíb caỆu Ĝt.
>.>.1. Zha trốb
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= n subf klk thbh phb dabh dƺbf, ti phb thbh phe k t cí B,Z,@
̫
thkh hp v Ĝe ni kht cƺbf k phb
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= Eb hu k su `ha r `ha sbf cbf s Ĝƺk nċbf ta Ĝƺ vi
ely
trốbtrốb
kbfĜu
vƬavƬa
klkbhu
cia phb
urí, suprphitpht,
`ca. Ĝu,
Ta Ĝy
by
s Ĝƺk
ti thbh
eốt hb hp Ĝbf
Ĝeklk
nithbh
Ĝbfphb
kh taíu
kht cƺbf phb Ĝ Ĝbh sb.
>.>.<:. TẬ hẬt
Ek Ĝkh=
Ĝkh= ti phb va sabh dbf ht vƬa `kh thƺƬk Ĝbf Ĝu thu b̫ taí b̫ khi qul
trbh s dbf v Ĝlp bf bhu ku k th trƺbf taíu th
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= Hb hp su `ha pha trốb Ĝƺk nċbf ta vi that n ti ht. Ta
Ĝy phb Ĝƺk ti thbh ht v Ĝe Ĝa sy.
>.>.<<. [y
Ek
Ĝkhsb
Ĝkh=
= ce
fae
e
Ĝbh Ĝ d dbf qub ni v Ĝe ni
̫ Ĝb ek Ĝô bht
̫
kht
cƺbf
phe
suĜôby
19
Kkh tab hlbh=
hlbh= Zhb va sabh s Ĝƺ vi ely sy thbf quy. Ta Ĝy b s tap
xk vƬa dbf `hôbf `h bbf Ĝa kbf khau bh Ĝ e Ĝố e k ht phb s fae
xubf. Thbf quy Ĝƺk ĜẶt ha bfhaíbf, níb tribf thbf k fb klk thbh st dk
thi Ĝƺbf sabh k thbf v tríb klk vlkh hƺƬbf te. @ha thbf quy, eb Ĝƺk
Ĝƺ cíb ki ra Ĝ xubf, tribf ck Ĝ dbf `hôbf `h bbf tha qu s ce `hơ eb.
Bh Ĝố bfhbf k thbf e eb Ĝƺk khuyb db v ph thli caỆu. Ěô e
̫ sb
phe su `ha
`ha sy >8%.
>8%.
>.>.<>. Ěibf n
Zhb thbh phe su `ha sy s Ĝƺk Ĝƺ vi ely Ĝbf ni, sb phe s Ĝƺk
Ĝbf thbh ni k `ha cƺbf 7: `f bh kb v that n Ĝbf ni t Ĝốbf.
_ất caỆu ni n Ĝbf fa pha Ĝe ni fa e, thilbf `h. Zhb su `ha sb xut r
k th Ĝe phb pha bh taíu dbf hiẶk ni qub bu khƺ nlb Ĝƺk
KHƩBF AAA= TBH KỴB NBF _Ỵ
T̫ KHT
;.<. Kk s ca
u̫ nb Ĝu
- Bċbf sut = <: tb sb phe/ bfy
- Buyíb caí u=̫ rlk tha hu k
- Kh phe GE v hb hp va sabh v t ̫ phb hy
;.>. @ hkh sb xut k bhl ey
Bh ely ce
ce vaí k̫ <> thlbf, tub ce vaí k̫ ? bfy, bfh Kh Bh t.̫
20
Ea bfy ce vaí k̫ > k, ea k 8 fa. Bfia r klk bfy c tt kbf Ĝƺk bfh
thi qua Ĝbh
K th, klk bfy bfh tribf bċe=
Tt dƺbf(<)
= < bfy
Tt e ckh
= 7 bfy
Fa t Hbf _ƺbf( ebf <:/;) = < bfy
Bfy Thbf
Thbf bht ĜĜt
t bƺƬk (;:/4)
(;:/4) = < bfy
\uk t ci Ĝô bf
̫ (7)
= < bfy
\uk @hlbh (>/1)
= < bfy
Nbf ;.<= @ hkh cle va
k ̫ be
Thb
f
<
>
;
4
7
?
6
8
1
<:
<<
<>
[
bfly
cle
va
k ̫
>7
<1
>6
>4
>?
>?
>6
>6
>7
>6
>?
>6
[ k
cle
va
k ̫
7:
;8
74
48
7>
7>
74
74
7:
74
7>
74
- Bċbf sut k bh ely
- Tbf s bfy sb xut tribf bċe
- Tbf s k sb xut tribf bċe
- Tbf s fa sb xut tribf bċe
- Bċbf sut bh ely tri
tribf
bf < k
- Bċbf sut k bh ely tribf < fa
= <: tb sb phe/ bfy
= ;:? bfy
= ?<> k
= 481? fa
= 7 tb/ k
k
= ?>7`f sb
sb phe/h
;.;. Tbh kỵb nbf vỵ
t ̫ kht
;.;.<. Tau h bfuyb ca
u̫ qu tbf kbf ĜẬb
21
* Kbf Ĝb x c bfuyb ca
u̫
- X c GE
- Zhb cia s nô ̫
- Bfhab
= :%
= <%
= 7%
*Kbf Ĝb pha tr
b̫ vl bfuyb ca
u̫
T cí hi
̫ ht s Ĝƺk tbh thi kơbf thk
x%5
e∞ E
Ư <::
e
E
5 (<- e ) Ö <::
e= @ha cƺbf bfuyíb caí u̫ trƺƬk `ha
E= @ha cƺbf bfuyíb caí u̫ su `ha
ei 5 e (<::-w) 5 E(<::-V)
ei = @ha cƺbf kht `hô
w = Ěô e
̫ bfub c u̫ trƺƬk `ha
V = Ěơ e
̫ bfub c u̫ su `ha
↞
E <:: ∞ w
5
e <::∞ V
Di Ĝ=
e∞ E
<:: ∞w
w∞V
5< ∞
5
E
<::∞V <:: ∞V
_ y̫ =
x%5
w ∞V
Ư <::
<::∞V
(<)
- Zha trơ b=̫ @ha pha trơ b̫ cƺbf bfub c u̫ s hi ht <,7% tuy bhaíb t s n
subf <,7% cƺbf va sabh v t ̫ vi bíb kia bhƺ hi ht kơbf Ĝib by c :
- W s nô = ̫ kôbf Ĝib by Ĝơ e
̫ `ha bfub c u̫ fae t ?7%- 77%
T cí hi
̫ ht di fae e tbh thi kôbf thk (<) c
x%5
?7∞77
<::∞77
Ư <::5¹ >>,>>%
- W khb
ƪ kơbf Ĝib khb Ĝơ e
̫ fae t 77% xubf kb 47%
Lp dbf kôbf thk (<) t k t cí hi
̫ ht di fae e c
77∞ 47
x%5
<::∞ 47 Ư <::
5¹
<8,<8%
*Kbf Ĝb x c eb vl t thlbh phe
22
- Ce
Ce ta
ta eb=
eb= faa
faa Ĝi
Ĝib
b by
by ĜĜôô e
̫ fae t 47% xubf 4:%
Lp dbf kôbf thk (<), hi ht di fae e c
x%5
47∞ 4:
<::∞ 4:
58,;;%
Ö <::
- [bf cbf=
Cia n ;% Ĝt,klt, klk kht `hôbf k `h bċbf phb hy sabh hk
Faa Ĝib by Ĝô e
̫ fae t 4:% xubf kb ;8%
Thi kơbf thk (<),t cí hi
̫ ht di fae e c=
x%5
4:∞;8
<::∞ ;8
5;,>;%
Ư <::
- Zha trơ b=̫ hi ht <%
- Ti ht
ht = hi ht :.7%
.7%
- [y =
Ěô e
̫ fae t ;8% xubf kb >8%, t cí hi
̫ ht di fae e tbh thi (<)=
x%5 <::∞∞>8 Ư <::5 ¹<;,81%
;8 >8
- Ěbf ni= <%
Nbf ;.>. Nbf tôbf `t h ht
Hi ht e
Tbf hi ht
[TT
Kôbf Ĝib
Hi ht kôbf
Ĝib (%)
<
X c GE
:
:
>
Zhb cia s nô ̫
<
<
;
Bfhab
7
7
4
Zha trô b̫ va sabh
v t ̫
:
:
7
W s nô ̫
>
>>,>>
>4,>>
?
W khb
;
<8,<8
><,<8
6
Ce ta
>
8,;;
<:,;;
8
[bf cbf
;
;.>;
?,>;
23
1
Zha trơ b̫
<
<
<:
Ti ht
:.7
:,7
<<
[y tlkh e
<>
Ěbf ni
:.7
<;,81
<
<4,;1
:,<
;.;.>. Tbh tb kỵb nbf vỵ
t ̫ kht
Tbh khi <: tb sb phe/ bfy, tk c bċbf sut F :5?>7`f sb phe/h
Tbh cbf bfb ca ̫ tribf < fa =
Ěbf fa hi ht :,<%
@ha cƺbf sb phe su `ha sy c
?>7 Ö <::
F : Ö <::
F<5 <::∞ :,< 5 5 <::∞ :,< 5 ?>7,?; `f/h
[y tlkh e hi ht <4,;1%
@ha cƺbf sb phe su `ha ti ht
?>7,?; Ö <::
F < Ö <::
F>5 <::∞:,< 5 5 <::∞<4,;1 56;:,61 `f/h
Ti ht hi ht :,7%
@ha cƺbf sb phe su `ha pha trơ b̫
F > Ư <::
F;5 <::∞:,7 5 5
<::∞:,7
5 6;4,4? `f/h
Zha trơ b̫ hi ht <%
@ha cƺbf bfub c u̫ su `ha sbf cbf
F45
6;:,61 Ö <::
F ; Ö <::
<::∞<
55
6;4,4? Ö <::
<::∞ <
5 64<,88 `f/h
[bf cbf hi ht ?,>;%
@ha cƺbf bfuyíb caí u̫ su `ha ce ta
24
F 4 Ö <::
F75 <::∞?,>; 5 5
64<,88 Ö <::
<::∞?,>;
561<,<6 `f/h
Ce ta hi ht <:,;;%
@ha cƺbf bfuyíb caí u̫ su `ha khb c
61<,<6 Ö <::
F 7 Ö <::
F?5 <::∞<:,;; 5 5 <::∞ <:,;; 588>,;< `f /h
W khb hi ht ><,<8%
@ha cƺbf bfub c u̫ su `ha s nơ c
̫
F ? Ö <::
88>,;< Ö <::
F65 <::∞><,<8 5 5 <::∞><,<8 5¹<<<1,4 `f/h
W s nơ hi
̫ ht >4,>>%
@ha cƺbf bfub c u̫ su `ha pha trơ b̫ va sabh v t ̫ c
<<<1,4 Ư <::
F 6 Ö <::
F85 <::∞>4,>> 5 5 <::∞>4,>> 5<466,<6 `f/h
Zha trô b̫ va sabh v t ̫ hi ht :%
@ha cƺbf bfuyíb caí u̫ su `ha bfhab c
F15
F 8 Ö <::
<::∞:
55
<466,<6 Ö <::
<::∞ :
5 <466,<6 `f/h
Bfhab hi ht 7%
@ha cƺbf bfuyíb caí u̫ su `ha phb cia s nơ ̫
F<:5
<::∞ 7
55
<466,<6 Ư <::
<::∞7
5¹
<774,1> `f/h
Zhb cia s nơ hi
̫ ht <%
@ha cƺbf bfub c u̫ su `ha x c GE
F<<5
F 1 Ö <::
F <: Ö <::
<::∞<
5
<774,1> Ö <::
<::∞<
5<76:,?; `f/h 5<,76 tb/h
X c GE hi ht :%
_ y̫ `ha cƺbf bfuyíb caí u̫ kb Ĝƺ vi nb Ĝu c <76:,?;`f/h
25