the electric power engineering handbook pdf

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Grigsby, L.L. “Frontmatter”
The Electric Power Engineering Handbook
Ed. L.L. Grigsby
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2001

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THE

ELECTRIC POWER
ENGINEERING
HANDBOOK

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The Electrical Engineering Handbook Series
Series Editor

Richard C. Dorf
University of California, Davis

Titles Included in the Series
The Avionics Handbook, Cary R. Spitzer
The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, Joseph D. Bronzino
The Circuits and Filters Handbook, Wai-Kai Chen
The Communications Handbook, Jerry D. Gibson

The Control Handbook, William S. Levine
The Digital Signal Processing Handbook, Vijay K. Madisetti & Douglas Williams
The Electrical Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, Richard C. Dorf
The Electric Power Engineering Handbook, L.L. Grigsby
The Electronics Handbook, Jerry C. Whitaker
The Engineering Handbook, Richard C. Dorf
The Handbook of Formulas and Tables for Signal Processing, Alexander D. Poularikas
The Industrial Electronics Handbook, J. David Irwin
Measurements, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook, John Webster
The Mechanical Systems Design Handbook, Osita D.I. Nwokah
The RF and Microwave Handbook, J. Michael Golio
The Mobile Communications Handbook, 2nd Edition, Jerry D. Gibson
The Ocean Engineering Handbook, Ferial El-Hawary
The Technology Management Handbook, Richard C. Dorf
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The Electromagnetics Handbook, Aziz Inan and Umran Inan
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THE

ELECTRIC POWER
ENGINEERING
HANDBOOK

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

L.L.GRIGSBY
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama

CRC PRESS

®

IEEE PRESS

A CRC Handbook Published in Cooperation with IEEE Press

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The electric power engineering handbook / editor-in-chief L.L. Grigsby.
p. cm. -- (The electrical engineering handbook series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-8578-4 (alk.)
1. Electric power production. I. Grigsby, Leonard L. II. Series.
TK1001 .E398 2000
621.31′2--dc21

00-030425

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is
quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume
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© 2001 by CRC Press LLC
No claim to original U.S. Government works
International Standard Book Number 0-8493-8578-4
Library of Congress Card Number 00-030425
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
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Preface

The generation, delivery, and utilization of electric power and energy remain among the most challenging
and exciting fields of electrical engineering. The astounding technological developments of our age are
highly dependent upon a safe, reliable, and economic supply of electric power. The objective of The

Electric Power Engineering Handbook is to provide a contemporary overview of this far-reaching field as
well as a useful guide and educational resource for its study. It is intended to define electric power
engineering by bringing together the core of knowledge from all of the many topics encompassed by the
field. The articles are written primarily for the electric power engineering professional who is seeking
factual information and secondarily for the professional from other engineering disciplines who wants
an overview of the entire field or specific information on one aspect of it.
The book is organized into 15 sections in an attempt to provide comprehensive coverage of the
generation, transformation, transmission, distribution, and utilization of electric power and energy as
well as the modeling, analysis, planning, design, monitoring, and control of electric power systems. The
individual articles within the 15 sections are different from most technical publications. They are not
journal type articles nor are they textbook in nature. They are intended to be tutorials or overviews
providing ready access to needed information, while at the same time providing sufficient references to
more in-depth coverage of the topic. This work is a member of the Electrical Engineering Handbook
Series published by CRC Press. Since its inception in 1993, this series has been dedicated to the concept
that when readers refer to a handbook on a particular topic they should be able to find what they need
to know about the subject at least 80% of the time. That has indeed been the goal of this handbook.
In reading the individual articles of this handbook, I have been most favorably impressed by how well
the authors have accomplished the goals that were set. Their contributions are, of course, most key to
the success of the work. I gratefully acknowledge their outstanding efforts. Likewise, the expertise and
dedication of the editorial board and section editors have been critical in making this handbook possible.
To all of them I express my profound thanks. I also wish to thank the personnel at CRC Press who have
been involved in the production of this book, with a special word of thanks to Nora Konopka and Ron
Powers. Their patience and perseverance have made this task most pleasant.
Leo Grigsby
Editor-in-Chief

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

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Editor-in-Chief

Leonard L. (“Leo”) Grigsby received BSEE and MSEE degrees
from Texas Tech University and a Ph.D. from Oklahoma State
University. He has taught electrical engineering at Texas Tech,
Oklahoma State University, and Virginia Tech. He has been at
Auburn University since 1984, first as the Georgia Power Distinguished Professor, later as the Alabama Power Distinguished Professor, and currently as Professor Emeritus of Electrical
Engineering. He also spent nine months during 1990 at the University of Tokyo as the Tokyo Electric Power Company Endowed
Chair of Electrical Engineering. His teaching interests are in network analysis, control systems, and power engineering.
During his teaching career, Professor Grigsby has received 12
awards for teaching excellence. These include his selection for the
university-wide William E. Wine Award for Teaching Excellence
at Virginia Tech in 1980, his selection for the ASEE AT&T Award
for Teaching Excellence in 1986, the 1988 Edison Electric Institute
Power Engineering Educator Award, the 1990–91 Distinguished
Graduate Lectureship at Auburn University, the 1995 IEEE Region
3 Joseph M. Beidenbach Outstanding Engineering Educator
Award, and the 1996 Birdsong Superior Teaching Award at Auburn University.
Dr. Grigsby is a Fellow of IEEE. During 1998–99 he was a member of the Board of Directors as Director
of Div. VII for power and energy. He has served the Institute in 27 different offices at the chapter, section,
region, or national level. For this service, he has received seven distinguished service awards, the IEEE
Centennial Medal in 1984, and the Power Engineering Society Meritorious Service Award in 1994.
During his academic career, Professor Grigsby has conducted research in a variety of projects related
to the application of network and control theory to modeling, simulation, optimization and control of
electric power systems. He has been the major advisor for 35 M.S. and 21 Ph.D. graduates. With his
students and colleagues, he has published over 120 technical papers and a textbook on introductory
network theory. He is currently Editor for CRC Press for a book series on electric power engineering. In
1993 he was inducted into the Electrical Engineering Academy at Texas Tech University for distinguished
contributions to electrical engineering.

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

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Editorial Board

Pritindra Chowdhuri

James H. Harlow

Saifur Rahman

Tennessee Technological
University
Cookeville, Tennessee

Harlow Engineering Associates
Largo, Florida

Virginia Tech
Alexandria, Virginia

Richard G. Farmer
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

L.L. Grigsby
Auburn University

Auburn, Alabama

S.M. Halpin
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State, Mississippi

George G. Karady
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

Rama Ramakumar
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma

William H. Kersting
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, New Mexico

Gerald B. Sheblé

John D. McDonald

Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa

KEMA Consulting
Norcross, Georgia

Mark Nelms
Auburn University

Auburn, Alabama

Robert Waters
Alabama Power Company
Birmingham, Alabama

Andrew Hanson

Arun Phadke

Bruce F. Wollenberg

ABB Power T&D Company
Raleigh, North Carolina

Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Blacksburg, Virginia

University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

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Contributors

Rambabu Adapa

Philip Bolin

Kristine Buchholz

Electric Power Research Institute
Palo Alto, California

Mitsubishi Electric Power
Products Inc.
Warrendale, Pennsylvania

Pacific Gas and Electric
San Francisco, California

Bajarang L. Agrawal
Arizona Public Service Co.
Phoenix, Arizona

Hirofumi Akagi
Tokyo Institute of Technology
Tokyo, Japan

Antonio Castanheira
M.H.J. Bollen
Chalmers University of
Technology
Gothenburg, Sweden

Anjan Bose
Alex Apostolov

Alstom T&D
Los Angeles, California

John Appleyard
S&C Electric Company
Sauk City, Wisconsin

Miroslav Begovic
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia

Washington State University
Pullman, Washington

Trench Ltd.
Scarborough, Ontario, Canada

Wilford Caulkins
Sherman & Reilly, Inc.
Chattanooga, Tennessee

William Chisholm
Ontario Hydro Technologies
Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Simon W. Bowen
Alabama Power Company
Birmingham, Alabama

Pritindra Chowdhuri

John R. Boyle

Tennessee Technological
University
Cookeville, Tennessee

Power System Analysis
Signal Mountain, Tennessee

George L. Clark
Alabama Power Company
Birmingham, Alabama

Gabriel Benmouyal

Wolfgang Breuer

Schweitzer Engineering
Laboratories, Ltd.
Boucherville, Quebec, Canada

Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen
GmbH
Regensburg, Germany

Patrick Coleman

Steven R. Brockschink

Craig A. Colopy

Michael J. Bio
Power Resources, Inc.
Pelham, Alabama

Pacific Engineering Corporation
Portland, Oregon

Alabama Power Company
Birmingham, Alabama

Cooper Power Systems
Waukesha, Wisconsin

Al Bolger
BC Hydro
Burnaby, British Columbia,
Canada

Richard E. Brown

Robert C. Degeneff

ABB Power T&D Company
Raleigh, North Carolina

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

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Don Delcourt

James W. Feltes

Nouredine Hadjsaid

BC Hydro
Burnaby, British Columbia,
Canada

Power Technologies
Schenectady, New York

Institut National Polytechnique
de Grenoble (INPG)
France

Scott H. Digby

Southern Engineering
Atlanta, Georgia

Waukesha Electric Systems
Goldsboro, North Carolina

Dieter Dohnal
Maschinenfabrik Reinhausen
GmbH
Regensburg, Germany

M.K. Donnelly
Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory
Richland, Washington

D.A. Douglass
Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
Niskayuna, New York

Richard Dudley

Shelia Frasier

Rulon Fronk
Andrew Hanson

Dudley L. Galloway

James H. Harlow

ABB Power T & D Company
Jefferson City, Missouri

Michael G.
Giesselmann

Texas Tech University
Lubbock, Texas

Jay C. Giri
ALSTOM ESCA Corporation
Bellevue, Washington

M.E. El-Hawary

L.L. Grigsby

Dalhousie University
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama

Ahmed Elneweihi

Charles A. Gross

BC Hydro
Burnaby, British Columbia,
Canada

Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama

James W. Evans

Alabama Power Company
Birmingham, Alabama

John V. Grubbs

James H. Gurney
Richard G. Farmer
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

Mississippi State University
Mississippi State, Mississippi

Fronk Consulting
Cerritos, California

Trench Ltd.
Scarborough, Ontario, Canada

Detroit Edison Company
Detroit, Michigan

S.M. Halpin

BC Hydro
Burnaby, British Columbia,
Canada

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com

ABB Power T & D Company
Raleigh, North Carolina

Harlow Engineering Associates
Largo, Florida

David L. Harris
Waukesha Electric Systems
Waukesha, Wisconsin

Tim A. Haskew
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Robert Haas
Haas Engineering
Villa Hills, Kentucky

J.F. Hauer
Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory
Richland, Washington

Ted Haupert
TJ/H2b Analytical Services
Sacramento, California

William R. Henning

Waukesha Electric Systems
Waukesha, Wisconsin


Felimón Hernandez

John R. Kennedy

Arizona Public Service Company
Phoenix, Arizona

Georgia Power Company
Atlanta, Georgia

Philip J. Hopkinson
Square D Company
Monroe, North Carolina

Stan H. Horowitz
Consultant
Columbus, Ohio

Gary L. Johnson
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas

Anthony J. Jonnatti
Loci Engineering
Palm Harbor, Florida

Gerhard Juette

William H. Kersting

Universitat Politecnica de
Catalunya
Barcelona, Spain

New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, New Mexico

John D. McDonald

Tibor Kertesz

KEMA Consulting
Norcross, Georgia

Hydro One Networks, Inc.
Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Shirish P. Mehta

Alireza Khotanzad

Waukesha Electric Systems
Waukesha, Wisconsin

Southern Methodist University
Dallas, Texas

Christopher J. Melhorn

Prabha Kundur

EPRI PEAC Corporation
Knoxville, Tennessee

Powertech Labs, Inc.
Surrey, British Columbia,
Canada

Siemens
Munich, Germany

Stephen R. Lambert

Danny Julian

Shawnee Power Consulting, LLC
Williamsburg, Virginia

ABB Power T & D Company
Raleigh, North Carolina

Einar Larsen

Tonia Jurbin

GE Power Systems

Schenectady, New York

BC Hydro
Burnaby, British Columbia,
Canada

John G. Kappenman
Metatech Corporation
Duluth, Minnesota

George G. Karady
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

Juan A. MartinezVelasco

Hyde M. Merrill
Merrill Energy, LLC
Schenectady, New York

Roger A. Messenger
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, Florida

William A. Mittelstadt
Bonneville Power Adminstration
Portland, Oregon

W.H. Litzenberger
Bonneville Power

Administration
Portland, Oregon

Harold Moore

Andre Lux

Kip Morrison

ABB Power T&D Company
Raleigh, North Carolina

Powertech Labs Inc.
Surrey, British Columbia,
Canada

H. Moore & Associates
Niceville, Florida

Yakout Mansour
Richard P. Keil
Dayton Power & Light Company
Dayton, Ohio

BC Hydro
Burnaby, British Columbia,
Canada

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com

Dan Mulkey
Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
Petaluma, California


Randy Mullikin

Saifur Rahman

Douglas B. Seely

Kuhlman Electric Corp.
Versailles, Kentucky

Virginia Tech
Falls Church, Virginia

Pacific Engineering Corporation
Portland, Oregon

Paul I. Nippes

Kaushik Rajashekara

Michael Sharp

Magnetic Product and Services,
Inc.

Holmdel, New Jersey

Delphi Automotive Systems
Kokomo, Indiana

Trench Ltd.
Scarborough, Ontario, Canada

N. Dag Reppen
Robert S. Nowell

Gerald B. Sheblé

Georgia Power Company
Atlanta, Georgia

Niskayuna Power Consultants,
LLC
Niskayuna, New York

Carlos V. Núñez-Noriega

Manuel Reta-Hernández

Glendale Community College
Glendale, Arizona

Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona

Alan Oswalt

Charles W. Richter

Waukesha Electric Systems
Waukesha, Wisconsin

ALSTOM ESCA Corporation
Bellevue, Washington

John Paserba

Francisco de la Rosa

Mitsubishi Electric Power
Products Inc.
Warrendale, Pennsylvania

DLR Electric Power Reliability
Houston, Texas

Anne-Marie Sahazizian
Paulette A. Payne
Potomac Electric Power Company
Washington, DC

Hydro One Networks, Inc.
Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Juan Sanchez-Gasca

Dan D. Perco
Perco Transformer Engineering
Stoney Creek, Ontario, Canada

GE Power Systems
Schenectady, New York

Peter W. Sauer
Joe C. Pohlman
Consultant
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois

Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa

Raymond R. Shoults
University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington, Texas

H. Jin Sim
Waukesha Electric Systems
Goldsboro, North Carolina

James H. Sosinski
Consumers Energy
Jackson, Mississippi

K. Neil Stanton
Stanton Associates
Bellevue, Washington

Robert P. Stewart
BC Hydro
Burnaby, British Columbia,
Canada

C.M. Mike Stine
Raychem Corporation
Menlo Park, California

Leo J. Savio
William W. Price
GE Power Systems
Schenectady, New York

ADAPT Corporation
Kennett Square, Pennsylvania

Mahesh M. Swamy
Yaskawa Electric America
Waukegan, Illinois

Kenneth H. Sebra
Jeewan Puri
Square D Company
Monroe, North Carolina

Baltimore Gas & Electric
Company
Baltimore, Maryland

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com

Glenn W. Swift
APT Power Technologies
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada


Larry D. Swift

James S. Thorp

Giao N. Trinh, Jr.

University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington, Texas

Cornell University
Ithaca, New York

Log-In
Boucherville, Quebec, Canada

Carson W. Taylor

Ridley Thrash

Vijay Vittal

Carson Taylor Seminars
Portland, Oregon

Southwire Company
Carrollton, Georgia

Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa

Rao S. Thallam

Robert F. Tillman, Jr.

Loren B. Wagenaar

Salt River Project
Phoenix, Arizona

Alabama Power Company
Birmingham, Alabama

America Electric Power
Pickerington, Ohio

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com


Contents

1

Electric Power Generation: Non-Conventional Methods
1.1
1.2
1.3

2

Electric Power Generation: Conventional Methods
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

3

Saifur Rahman

Wind Power Gary L. Johnson
Advanced Energy Technologies Saifur Rahman
Photovoltaics Roger A. Messenger

Rama Ramakumar

Hydroelectric Power Generation Steven R. Brockschink, James H. Gurney, and
Douglas B. Seely
Synchronous Machinery Paul I. Nippes
Thermal Generating Plants Kenneth H. Sebra
Distributed Utilities John R. Kennedy

Transformers

James H. Harlow

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19

Theory and Principles Harold Moore
Power Transformers H. Jin Sim and Scott H. Digby
Distribution Transformers Dudley L. Galloway
Underground Distribution Transformers Dan Mulkey
Dry Type Transformers Paulette A. Payne
Step-Voltage Regulators Craig A. Colopy
Reactors Richard Dudley, Antonio Castanheira, and Michael Sharp
Instrument Transformers Randy Mullikin and Anthony J. Jonnatti
Transformer Connections Dan D. Perco
LTC Control and Transformer Paralleling James H. Harlow
Loading Power Transformers Robert F. Tillman, Jr.
Causes and Effects of Transformer Sound Levels Jeewan Puri
Electrical Bushings Loren B. Wagenaar
Load Tap Changers (LTCs) Dieter Dohnal and Wolfgang Breuer
Insulating Media Leo J. Savio and Ted Haupert
Transformer Testing Shirish P. Mehta and William R. Henning
Transformer Installation and Maintenance Alan Oswalt
Problem and Failure Investigations Harold Moore
The United States Power Transformer Equipment Standards and Processes
Philip J. Hopkinson
3.20 On-Line Monitoring of Liquid-Immersed Transformers Andre Lux

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com


4

Transmission System

George G. Karady

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

Concept of Energy Transmission and Distribution George G. Karady
Transmission Line Structures Joe C. Pohlman
Insulators and Accessories George G. Karady and R.G. Farmer
Transmission Line Construction and Maintenance Wilford Caulkins and
Kristine Buchholz
4.5 Insulated Power Cables for High Voltage Applications Carlos V. Núđez-Noriega
and Felimón Hernandez
4.6 Transmission Line Parameters Manuel Reta-Hernández
4.7 Sag and Tension of Conductor D.A. Douglass and Ridley Thrash
4.8 Corona and Noise Giao N. Trinh
4.9 Geomagnetic Disturbances and Impacts upon Power System Operation
John G. Kappenman
4.10 Lightning Protection William A Chisholm
4.11 Reactive Power Compensation Rao S. Thallam

5

Substations
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13

6

Distribution Systems
6.1
6.2
6.3

7

John D. McDonald

Gas Insulated Substations Philip Bolin
Air Insulated Substations — Bus/Switching Configurations Michael J. Bio
High Voltage Switching Equipment David L. Harris
High Voltage Power Electronics Substations Gerhard Juette
Considerations in Applying Automation Systems to Electric Utility Substations
James W. Evans
Substation Automation John D. McDonald
Oil Containment Anne-Marie Sahazizian and Tibor Kertesz
Community Considerations James H. Sosinski

Animal Deterrents/Security C.M. Mike Stine and Sheila Frasier
Substation Grounding Richard P. Keil
Grounding and Lightning Robert S. Nowell
Seismic Considerations R.P. Stewart, Rulon Frank, and Tonia Jurbin
Substation Fire Protection Al Bolger and Don Delcourt

William H. Kersting

Power System Loads Raymond R. Shoults and Larry D. Swift
Distribution System Modeling and Analysis William H. Kersting
Power System Operation and Control George L. Clark and Simon W. Bowen

Electric Power Utilization
7.1
7.2
7.3

Andrew Hanson

Metering of Electric Power and Energy John V. Grubbs
Basic Electric Power Utilization — Loads, Load Characterization and Load Modeling
Andrew Hanson
Electric Power Utilization: Motors Charles A. Gross

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com


8

Power System Analysis and Simulation
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

9

Power System Protection
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6

10

11

Arun Phadke

Transformer Protection Alex Apostolov, John Appleyard, Ahmed Elneweihi,
Robert Haas, and Glenn W. Swift
The Protection of Synchronous Generators Gabriel Benmouyal
Transmission Line Protection Stanley H. Horowitz
System Protection Miroslav Begovic
Digital Relaying James S. Thorp
Use of Oscillograph Records to Analyze System Performance John R. Boyle

Power System Transients
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8

L.L. Grigsby and Andrew Hanson

The Per-Unit System Charles A. Gross
Symmetrical Components for Power System Analysis Tim A. Haskew
Power Flow Analysis L. L. Grigsby and Andrew Hanson
Fault Analysis in Power Systems Charles A. Gross

Pritindra Chowdhuri

Characteristics of Lightning Strokes Francisco de la Rosa
Overvoltages Caused by Direct Lightning Strokes Pritindra Chowdhuri
Overvoltages Caused by Indirect Lightning Strokes Pritindra Chowdhuri
Switching Surges Stephen R. Lambert
Very Fast Transients Juan A. Martinez-Velasco
Transient Voltage Response of Coils and Windings Robert C. Degeneff
Transmission System Transients — Grounding William Chisholm
Insulation Coordination Stephen R. Lambert

Power System Dynamics and Stability

Richard G. Farmer

11.1 Power System Stability — Overview Prabha Kundur
11.2 Transient Stability Kip Morrison
11.3 Small Signal Stability and Power System Oscillations John Paserba,
Prabha Kundar, Juan Sanchez-Gasca, and Einar Larsen
11.4 Voltage Stability Yakout Mansour
11.5 Direct Stability Methods Vijay Vittal
11.6 Power System Stability Controls Carson W. Taylor
11.7 Power System Dynamic Modeling William W. Price
11.8 Direct Analysis of Wide Area Dynamics J. F. Hauer, W. A. Mittelstadt,
M. K. Donnelly, W. H. Litzenberger, and Rambabu Adapa
11.9 Power System Dynamic Security Assessment Peter W. Sauer
11.10 Power System Dynamic Interaction with Turbine-Generators
Richard G. Farmer and Bajarang L. Agrawal

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com


12

Power System Operation and Control

Bruce F. Wollenberg

12.1 Energy Management K. Neil Stanton, Jay C. Giri, and Anjan Bose
12.2 Generation Control: Economic Dispatch and Unit Commitment

Charles W. Richter, Jr.
12.3 State Estimation Danny Julian
12.4 Optimal Power Flow M. E. El-Hawary
12.5 Security Analysis Nouredine Hadjsaid

13

Power System Planning (Reliability)

Gerald B. Sheblé

13.1 Planning Gerald B. Sheblé
13.2 Short-Term Load and Price Forecasting with Artificial Neural Networks
Alireza Khotanzad
13.3 Transmission Plan Evaluation — Assessment of System Reliability
N. Dag Reppen and James W. Feltes
13.4 Power System Planning Hyde M. Merrill
13.5 Power System Reliability Richard E. Brown

14

Power Electronics
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4

15

Power Quality

15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6

Mark Nelms

Power Semiconductor Devices Kaushik Rajashekara
Uncontrolled and Controlled Rectifiers Mahesh M. Swamy
Inverters Michael Giesselmann
Active Filters for Power Conditioning Hirofumi Akagi

S.M. Halpin

Introduction S.M. Halpin
Wiring and Grounding for Power Quality Christopher J. Melhorn
Harmonics in Power Systems S.M. Halpin
Voltage Sags M. H. J. Bollen
Voltage Fluctuations and Lamp Flicker in Power Systems S.M. Halpin
Power Quality Monitoring Patrick Coleman

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com


Rahman, Saifur “Electric Power Generation: Non-Conventional Methods”
The Electric Power Engineering Handbook

Ed. L.L. Grigsby
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2001

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com


1
Electric Power
Generation:
Non-Conventional
Methods
Saifur Rahman
Virginia Tech

1.1 Wind Power Gary L. Johnson
1.2 Advanced Energy Technologies Saifur Rahman
1.3 Photovoltaics Roger A. Messenger

© 2001 CRC Press LLC

www.EngineeringEbooksPdf.com


1
Electric Power
Generation:
Non-Conventional
Methods
Gary L. Johnson
Kansas State University

Saifur Rahman

1.1

Virginia Tech

1.2

Roger A. Messenger

1.3

Florida Atlantic University

1.1

Wind Power
Applications • Wind Variability

Advanced Energy Technologies
Storage Systems • Fuel Cells • Summary

Photovoltaics
Types of PV Cells • PV Applications

Wind Power

Gary L. Johnson
The wind is a free, clean, and inexhaustible energy source. It has served humankind well for many

centuries by propelling ships and driving wind turbines to grind grain and pump water. Denmark was
the first country to use wind for generation of electricity. The Danes were using a 23-m diameter wind
turbine in 1890 to generate electricity. By 1910, several hundred units with capacities of 5 to 25 kW were
in operation in Denmark (Johnson, 1985). By about 1925, commercial wind-electric plants using twoand three-bladed propellers appeared on the American market. The most common brands were Wincharger (200 to 1200 W) and Jacobs (1.5 to 3 kW). These were used on farms to charge storage batteries
which were then used to operate radios, lights, and small appliances with voltage ratings of 12, 32, or
110 volts. A good selection of 32-VDC appliances was developed by the industry to meet this demand.
In addition to home wind-electric generation, a number of utilities around the world have built larger
wind turbines to supply power to their customers. The largest wind turbine built before the late 1970s was
a 1250-kW machine built on Grandpa’s Knob, near Rutland, Vermont, in 1941. This turbine, called the
Smith-Putnam machine, had a tower that was 34 m high and a rotor 53 m in diameter. The rotor turned
an ac synchronous generator that produced 1250 kW of electrical power at wind speeds above 13 m/s.
After World War II, we entered the era of cheap oil imported from the Middle East. Interest in wind
energy died and companies making small turbines folded. The oil embargo of 1973 served as a wakeup
call, and oil-importing nations around the world started looking at wind again. The two most important
countries in wind power development since then have been the U.S. and Denmark (Brower et al., 1993).
The U.S. immediately started to develop utility-scale turbines. It was understood that large turbines
had the potential for producing cheaper electricity than smaller turbines, so that was a reasonable
decision. The strategy of getting large turbines in place was poorly chosen, however. The Department of

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TABLE 1.1
Canada
China
Denmark
India
Ireland

Italy
Germany
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
U.K.
U.S.
Other
Total

Wind Power Installed Capacity
83
224
1450
968
63
180
2874
363
60
834
150
334
1952
304
9839

Energy decided that only large aerospace companies had the manufacturing and engineering capability
to build utility-scale turbines. This meant that small companies with good ideas would not have the

revenue stream necessary for survival. The problem with the aerospace firms was that they had no desire
to manufacture utility-scale wind turbines. They gladly took the government’s money to build test
turbines, but when the money ran out, they were looking for other research projects. The government
funded a number of test turbines, from the 100 kW MOD-0 to the 2500 kW MOD-2. These ran for brief
periods of time, a few years at most. Once it was obvious that a particular design would never be cost
competitive, the turbine was quickly salvaged.
Denmark, on the other hand, established a plan whereby a landowner could buy a turbine and sell
the electricity to the local utility at a price where there was at least some hope of making money. The
early turbines were larger than what a farmer would need for himself, but not what we would consider
utility scale. This provided a revenue stream for small companies. They could try new ideas and learn
from their mistakes. Many people jumped into this new market. In 1986, there were 25 wind turbine
manufacturers in Denmark. The Danish market gave them a base from which they could also sell to
other countries. It was said that Denmark led the world in exports of two products: wind turbines and
butter cookies! There has been consolidation in the Danish industry since 1986, but some of the companies have grown large. Vestas, for example, has more installed wind turbine capacity worldwide than
any other manufacturer.
Prices have dropped substantially since 1973, as performance has improved. It is now commonplace
for wind power plants (collections of utility-scale turbines) to be able to sell electricity for under four
cents per kilowatt hour.
Total installed worldwide capacity at the start of 1999 was almost 10,000 MW, according to the trade
magazine Wind Power Monthly (1999). The countries with over 50 MW of installed capacity at that time
are shown in Table 1.1.

Applications
There are perhaps four distinct categories of wind power which should be discussed. These are
1.
2.
3.
4.

small, non-grid connected

small, grid connected
large, non-grid connected
large, grid connected

By small, we mean a size appropriate for an individual to own, up to a few tens of kilowatts. Large
refers to utility scale.

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Small, Non-Grid Connected
If one wants electricity in a location not serviced by a utility, one of the options is a wind turbine, with
batteries to level out supply and demand. This might be a vacation home, a remote antenna and
transmitter site, or a Third-World village. The costs will be high, on the order of $0.50/kWh, but if the
total energy usage is small, this might be acceptable. The alternatives, photovoltaics, microhydro, and
diesel generators, are not cheap either, so a careful economic study needs to be done for each situation.
Small, Grid Connected
The small, grid connected turbine is usually not economically feasible. The cost of wind-generated electricity is less because the utility is used for storage rather than a battery bank, but is still not competitive.
In order for the small, grid connected turbine to have any hope of financial breakeven, the turbine
owner needs to get something close to the retail price for the wind-generated electricity. One way this is
done is for the owner to have an arrangement with the utility called net metering. With this system, the
meter runs backward when the turbine is generating more than the owner is consuming at the moment.
The owner pays a monthly charge for the wires to his home, but it is conceivable that the utility will
sometimes write a check to the owner at the end of the month, rather than the other way around. The
utilities do not like this arrangement. They want to buy at wholesale and sell at retail. They feel it is
unfair to be used as a storage system without remuneration.
For most of the twentieth century, utilities simply refused to connect the grid to wind turbines. The
utility had the right to generate electricity in a given service territory, and they would not tolerate

competition. Then a law was passed that utilities had to hook up wind turbines and pay them the avoided
cost for energy. Unless the state mandated net metering, the utility typically required the installation of
a second meter, one measuring energy consumption by the home and the other energy production by
the turbine. The owner would pay the regular retail rate, and the utility would pay their estimate of
avoided cost, usually the fuel cost of some base load generator. The owner might pay $0.08 to $0.15 per
kWh, and receive $0.02 per kWh for the wind-generated electricity. This was far from enough to economically justify a wind turbine, and had the effect of killing the small wind turbine business.
Large, Non-Grid Connected
These machines would be installed on islands or in native villages in the far north where it is virtually
impossible to connect to a large grid. Such places are typically supplied by diesel generators, and have a
substantial cost just for the imported fuel. One or more wind turbines would be installed in parallel with
the diesel generators, and act as fuel savers when the wind was blowing.
This concept has been studied carefully and appears to be quite feasible technically. One would expect
the market to develop after a few turbines have been shown to work for an extended period in hostile
environments. It would be helpful if the diesel maintenance companies would also carry a line of wind
turbines so the people in remote locations would not need to teach another group of maintenance people
about the realities of life at places far away from the nearest hardware store.
Large, Grid Connected
We might ask if the utilities should be forced to buy wind-generated electricity from these small machines
at a premium price which reflects their environmental value. Many have argued this over the years. A
better question might be whether the small or the large turbines will result in a lower net cost to society.
Given that we want the environmental benefits of wind generation, should we get the electricity from
the wind with many thousands of individually owned small turbines, or should we use a much smaller
number of utility-scale machines?
If we could make the argument that a dollar spent on wind turbines is a dollar not spent on hospitals,
schools, and the like, then it follows that wind turbines should be as efficient as possible. Economies of scale
and costs of operation and maintenance are such that the small, grid connected turbine will always need to
receive substantially more per kilowatt hour than the utility-scale turbines in order to break even. There is
obviously a niche market for turbines that are not connected to the grid, but small, grid connected turbines
will probably not develop a thriving market. Most of the action will be from the utility-scale machines.

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Sizes of these turbines have been increasing rapidly. Turbines with ratings near 1 MW are now common,
with prototypes of 2 MW and more being tested. This is still small compared to the needs of a utility,
so clusters of turbines are placed together to form wind power plants with total ratings of 10 to 100 MW.

Wind Variability
One of the most critical features of wind generation is the variability of wind. Wind speeds vary with
time of day, time of year, height above ground, and location on the earth’s surface. This makes wind
generators into what might be called energy producers rather than power producers. That is, it is easier
to estimate the energy production for the next month or year than it is to estimate the power that will
be produced at 4:00 PM next Tuesday. Wind power is not dispatchable in the same manner as a gas turbine.
A gas turbine can be scheduled to come on at a given time and to be turned off at a later time, with full
power production in between. A wind turbine produces only when the wind is available. At a good site,
the power output will be zero (or very small) for perhaps 10% of the time, rated for perhaps another
10% of the time, and at some intermediate value the remaining 80% of the time.
This variability means that some sort of storage is necessary for a utility to meet the demands of its
customers, when wind turbines are supplying part of the energy. This is not a problem for penetrations
of wind turbines less than a few percent of the utility peak demand. In small concentrations, wind turbines
act like negative load. That is, an increase in wind speed is no different in its effect than a customer
turning off load. The control systems on the other utility generation sense that generation is greater than
load, and decrease the fuel supply to bring generation into equilibrium with load. In this case, storage
is in the form of coal in the pile or natural gas in the well.
An excellent form of storage is water in a hydroelectric lake. Most hydroelectric plants are sized large
enough to not be able to operate full-time at peak power. They therefore must cut back part of the time
because of the lack of water. A combination hydro and wind plant can conserve water when the wind is
blowing, and use the water later, when the wind is not blowing.

When high-temperature superconductors become a little less expensive, energy storage in a magnetic
field will be an exciting possibility. Each wind turbine can have its own superconducting coil storage
unit. This immediately converts the wind generator from an energy producer to a peak power producer,
fully dispatchable. Dispatchable peak power is always worth more than the fuel cost savings of an energy
producer. Utilities with adequate base load generation (at low fuel costs) would become more interested
in wind power if it were a dispatchable peak power generator.
The variation of wind speed with time of day is called the diurnal cycle. Near the earth’s surface, winds
are usually greater during the middle of the day and decrease at night. This is due to solar heating, which
causes “bubbles” of warm air to rise. The rising air is replaced by cooler air from above. This thermal
mixing causes wind speeds to have only a slight increase with height for the first hundred meters or so
above the earth. At night, however, the mixing stops, the air near the earth slows to a stop, and the winds
above some height (usually 30 to 100 m) actually increase over the daytime value. A turbine on a short
tower will produce a greater proportion of its energy during daylight hours, while a turbine on a very
tall tower will produce a greater proportion at night.
As tower height is increased, a given generator will produce substantially more energy. However, most
of the extra energy will be produced at night, when it is not worth very much. Standard heights have
been increasing in recent years, from 50 to 65 m or even more. A taller tower gets the blades into less
turbulent air, a definite advantage. The disadvantages are extra cost and more danger from overturning
in high winds. A very careful look should be given the economics before buying a tower that is significantly
taller than whatever is sold as a standard height for a given turbine.
Wind speeds also vary strongly with time of year. In the southern Great Plains (Kansas, Oklahoma,
and Texas), the winds are strongest in the spring (March and April) and weakest in the summer (July
and August). Utilities here are summer peaking, and hence need the most power when winds are the
lowest and the least power when winds are highest. The diurnal variation of wind power is thus a fairly
good match to utility needs, while the yearly variation is not.

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TABLE 1.2 Monthly Average Wind Speed in MPH and Projected Energy
Production at 65 m, at a Good Site in Southern Kansas
Month

10 m
Speed

60 m
Speed

Energy
(MWh)

Month

10 m
Speed

60 m
Speed

Energy
(MWh)

1/96
2/96
3/96
4/96
5/96

6/96
7/96
8/96
9/96
10/96
11/96
12/96

14.9
16.2
17.6
19.8
18.4
13.5
12.5
11.6
12.4
17.1
15.3
15.1

20.3
22.4
22.3
25.2
23.1
18.2
16.5
16.0
17.2

23.3
20.0
20.1

256
290
281
322
297
203
169
156
182
320
235
247

1/97
2/97
3/97
4/97
5/97
6/97
7/97
8/97
9/97
10/97
11/97
12/97

15.8
14.7
17.4
15.9
15.2
11.9
13.3
11.7
13.6
15.0
14.3
13.6

21.2
19.0
22.8
20.4
19.8
16.3
18.5
16.9
19.0
21.1
19.7
19.5

269
207
291
242

236
167
212
176
211
265
239
235

The variability of wind with month of year and height above ground is illustrated in Table 1.2. These
are actual wind speed data for a good site in Kansas, and projected electrical generation of a Vestas turbine
(V47-660) at that site. Anemometers were located at 10, 40, and 60 m above ground. Wind speeds at
40 and 60 m were used to estimate the wind speed at 65 m (the nominal tower height of the V47-660)
and to calculate the expected energy production from this turbine at this height. Data have been normalized for a 30-day month.
There can be a factor of two between a poor month and an excellent month (156 MWh in 8/96 to
322 MWh in 4/96). There will not be as much variation from one year to the next, perhaps 10 to 20%.
A wind power plant developer would like to have as long a data set as possible, with an absolute minimum
of one year. If the one year of data happens to be for the best year in the decade, followed by several
below average years, a developer could easily get into financial trouble. The risk gets smaller if the data
set is at least two years long.
One would think that long-term airport data could be used to predict whether a given data set was
collected in a high or low wind period for a given part of the country, but this is not always true. One
study showed that the correlation between average annual wind speeds at Russell, Kansas, and Dodge
City, Kansas, was 0.596 while the correlation between Russell and Wichita was 0.115. The terrain around
Russell is very similar to that around Wichita, and there is no obvious reason why wind speeds should
be high at one site and low at the other for one year, and then swap roles the next year.
There is also concern about long-term variation in wind speeds. There appears to be an increase in global
temperatures over the past decade or so, which would probably have an impact on wind speeds. It also
appears that wind speeds have been somewhat lower as temperatures have risen, at least in Kansas. It appears
that wind speeds can vary significantly over relatively short distances. A good data set at one location may

underpredict or overpredict the winds at a site a few miles away by as much as 10 to 20%. Airport data
collected on a 7-m tower in a flat river valley may underestimate the true surrounding hilltop winds by a
factor of two. If economics are critical, a wind power plant developer needs to acquire rights to a site and
collect wind speed data for at least one or two years before committing to actually constructing turbines there.
Land Rights
Spacing of turbines can vary widely with the type of wind resource. In a tradewind or a mountain pass
environment where there are only one or two prevailing wind directions, the turbines can be located
“shoulder to shoulder” crossways to the wind direction. A downwind spacing of ten times the rotor
diameter is usually assumed to be adequate to give the wind space to recover its speed. In open areas, a
crosswind spacing of four rotor diameters is usually considered a minimum. In the Great Plains, the
prevailing winds are from the south (Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas) or north (the Dakotas). The energy
in the winds from east and west may not be more than 10% of the total energy. In this situation, a spacing

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