Tài liệu Megacities and Climate Change ppt

LEAD International 2008
Megacities
and Climate Change
Sustainable urban living in a changing world
1

Preface2
Foreword3
Introduction5
Chapter 1Energy 8
Chapter 2TransportandUrbanMobility 20
Chapter 3WaterandSanitation 30
Chapter 4LanduseandUrbanPlanning 38
Key Messages 49
Useful Links 50
Authors 53
About LEAD 55
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The publisher is not responsible for possible damages,
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publication.
This publication was prepared for LEAD with
contributions from the following LEAD Fellows
Patricia Avila LEAD Mexico
Bharati Chaturvedi LEAD India
Nick Harrison LEAD Europe
Tiyok Prasetyoadi LEAD Indonesia
Melita Rogelj LEAD Europe
Theresa Subban LEAD South Eastern Africa
Erin Silsbe LEAD Canada
Edited by Fernando Monteiro, Boris Graizbord,
Manuela Bucciarelliand Nick Harrison
Contents
Megacities and Climate Change
Sustainableurbanlivinginachangingworld
2Megacities and Climate Change
3

thedevelopedanddevelopingworldpose
difficultquestionsabouthowtomanage
urbangrowthinthe21stcentury.Avoiding
themistakesmadeinNorthAmericancities,
whereurbanisationcoincidedwithalove
affairwiththecarisprovingtobeoneofthe
mostcomplexchallenges.Foodshortages,
naturaldisastersandwidespreadinequality
poseevengreaterthreatstothe40percent

oftheworld’spopulationlivingonlessthan
US$2aday.Themostvulnerableliveinthe
developingworld,wherethoseleastableto
protectthemselvescontributetheleastto
theworldwidetotalemissionsof
greenhousegases.TheUN’sHuman
DevelopmentReportcitesthatonan
averageannualbasis,onein19people
livinginthedevelopingworldwasaffected
byaclimatedisasterinthefirstyearsofthe
21stcentury.
Temperatureincreasesanddepletionofthe
earth’snaturalcapitalwillonlyexacerbate
theintensityandfrequencyofclimate
disasters.Thatbetterlivingconditionscan
beamelioratedbyadvancesinsustainable
urbandevelopmentispoorlyunderstood.
Toooftenpolicymakers,practitionersand
communityactivistslacktheknowledgeand
skill-settocreatemoresociallyand
economicallycohesivecommunities.Thisis
becauseofthedeepfragmentationthat
existswithintheprofessionsandbetween
variouslevelsofgovernment,butalso
becausetheplanningprocessand
developmentpoliciestypicallydonot
adequatelyintegrateenvironmental
considerationsorprioritisesocial
infrastructureearlyenough.Ittakesa
multi-sectorapproach,onesynthesising

financialandsocialimperativesaswellas
theenvironmentandphysicalform,to
respondtotheunpredictablechallenges
causedbyclimatechange.
Thebirthofthe21stcenturyinauguratedthe
firstageofcities,theUrbanAge.Withover
halftheworld’spopulationnowlivinginan
urbancentre,questionsabouthowwelive,
work,andmoveareincreasinglyfocusedon
thephysicalformofcitiesandtheirgreater
metropolitanregions.Ascentresfor
knowledge,citiesareincubatorsforchange.
Theyarealsothetestinggroundforcultural
regenerationandsocialintegration,
providingjobs,accesstoeducationand
healthcareforalargepercentageofthepoor
andtheemergingmiddleclass.Asthe
largestemitterofcarbonemissions,cities
exertanenormousinfluenceon
environmentalpressuresresultingfrom
climatechange.Andwiththeintuitive
rural-urbanmigrationcontinuingunabated,
citiesarethebattlefieldonwhichthefuture
ofhumanitywillbefought.
Whichurbanformsbestaccommodatethe
increasinglydiverseconstituencieslivingin
citiestoday?Andhowcantheruleoflaw
reconcilethetensionsbetweenspatialand
socialdisorder?UrbanAge,ajointinitiative
oftheLondonSchoolofEconomicsand

PoliticalScienceandDeutscheBank’sAlfred
HerrhausenSociety,isestablishinganew
agendaforthefutureofcitiesinorderto
promotethegrowthandsustainable
developmentofglobalcitiesinthe
developedanddevelopingworld.This
agendaisbeingcreatedinpartnershipwith
governmentagencies,researchinstitutions,
privatecorporationsandcivilsociety
organisationsattheinternational,central,
regional,stateandlocallevels.By
integratingtransversalthemessuchas
housing,migration,transportinfrastructure,
inequalityandviolence,includingthe
impacttheseissueshaveonthecreation
andmaintenanceofpublicspace,UrbanAge
ischartingthefutureofcitiesandclimate
changeisattheforefrontofthisagenda.
Urbangrowthpatternsandnetworksdefine
theglobalpoliticaleconomy.UnitedNations
projectionsforaworldpopulationofnine
billionby2050couldseeasmanyas75per
centlivingincities.AfricaandAsiaarethe
maindriversofthisincreaseasLatin
America,EuropeandNorthAmericahave
beenover75percenturbanisedsince2000.
Evenso,bothsmallandlargecitiesacross
For the first time in human history, more people are living in urban
areas than rural ones. This unprecedented and ongoing transition
coincides with alarming degradation of the natural environment.

With so many cities already experiencing the early impacts of
climate change there is an urgent need for action.
As climate change becomes more apparent it will have massive
implications for urban living across the world. Key urban services
like transport, water, energy and land use will all be adversely
affected. But while “business as usual” points to a disastrous future,
there are opportunities to be had from a different approach. With
the right leadership, cities offer the potential to be critical leverage
points for achieving a transition towards a more sustainable future.
If we can work towards making cities respond to the coming
challenges in a radical and far sighted way, the implications for
sustainability could be deep and profound.
How can cities adapt to the coming changes? How can cities point
the way to a different kind of low-carbon future? What lessons
can be learnt from experiences in the South and North? What
kind of leadership is required to identify, promote and deliver
the required changes?
Building on the diversity of experience, which is the trademark
of the global LEAD network, this publication brings together LEAD
Fellows who are working in the front line of efforts to promote
sustainability and urban living in very different contexts around
the world, to explore some of the challenges and potential solutions
to what needs to be done.
Focussing on the importance of leadership, LEAD’s main aim is to
contribute to the debate by promoting an exchange of views about
the role leadership plays in addressing climate change in large cities
and urban areas. We hope we can inspire and inform stakeholders and
decision makers to rise to the leadership challenge and act to secure
a sustainable future for our cities and the people who live in them.
LEAD International

Preface
Foreword
4Megacities and Climate Change
5

lowerrates(typically2%to3%).These
countriesareusuallybetterfinanciallyand
organisationallyequippedtorespondtothe
governanceandinfrastructurechallenges
ofsuchgrowthandprovideserviceslike
transportation,water,energyandsecurity.
2

Inbothcases,publicadministrationsface
considerablechallengesdue,notonlyto
lackofresources,butalsotolackofcapacity
whereitmattersmost,atthelocalthelevel.
Inthenext50years,whenglobalpopulation
growthstabilisesduetoadrasticreduction
inbothbirthanddeathrates,themost
denselypopulated,populousandsocially
fragmentedoftheseurbanagglomerations
willbelocatedinthedevelopingworld.
Alreadymorethanhalfoftheworld’s
populationnowliveinurbanareasandat
thebeginningofthiscentury,almostonein
tenofuswaslivinginoneof35megacities,
20ofwhicharelocatedinAsia,teninthe
Americas,threeinEuropeandtwoinAfrica.
3

Thisscenarioraisesconcerns,particularly
whenweconsidertheanticipatedimpact
ofclimatechange.Climatechangewill
requireadaptationsinthewaycitiesare
managedinordertoensuretheymaintain
livingstandardsandremainattractivetothe
investmentandhumanresourcesnecessary
tosupportsustainabledevelopment.
Megacities,aswellasrapidgrowingcities
intheSoutharemorevulnerabletosuch
impactsandarelesswellequippedto
adapt,bothorganisationallyandfinancially.
Competitiveness and vulnerability
of Megacities
Twointerrelatedfactorswillaffecttheway
megacitiesinthedevelopingworldmay
respondtothechallengesposedbyclimate
changeinthecomingyears.Ononehand,
megacitiesaretheenginesofglobalisation,
drivingtheflowofpeople,goods,
knowledge,andmoneyaroundtheworld.
Ontheotherhandtheyalsoembodyhuge
inequalitiesinthedistributionofwealth,
economicopportunityandexposureto
risks.Tenoftheworld’smosteconomically
importantcitiesareresponsiblefor20%of
theglobalgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)and
inseveralcountriesmegacitiescontribute
toaconsiderableportionofthecountry’s
output.Forexample,Tokyoishometo28%

oftheJapanesepopulation,andaccountsfor
40%ofthecountry’sGDP.Inthedeveloping
world,Lagosishometo8%ofNigeria’s
populationbutcontributes30%ofthe
country’soutput.Consideringtheir
“Whenweseeverydarkcloudsupthehills,
weexpectheavyrainstocome.Soweget
ourselvespreparedbytransferringour
valuablethingsonourveryhighbedswhich
arereachedbyclimbingladders.Also
childrenwhosleeponthefloorare
transferredtothehighbeds.”
MrsFatuTuray,KrooBaycommunity,
Freetown,SierraLeone.
1
Duringthepast50yearsmostlowand
middle-incomenationshaveexperienced
exceptionaldemographicgrowthwith
somecitiesundergoingmassivephysical
expansion.Thisprocesshasbeen
accompaniedbyalargeincreasein
thenumberofurbandwellerslivingin
povertyandlackingprovisionofthebasic
infrastructureandservicesthatshould
protectthemfrommostoftheearly
impactsofclimatechange.Morethanone
billionurbandwellersliveinpoor-quality,
overcrowdedhousingin‘slums’orinformal
settlements,andahighproportionofthese
settlementsareonsitesatriskfromflooding

orlandslides.
Manylowandmiddleincomecountries
arenowundergoingrapidurbanisation,and
duetotheirparticularsocialandeconomic
developmentcharacteristics,thisprocess
posesdistinctivechallengestopolicy
makers.Lowincomenationsarefacedwith
urbanisationintheformofemergingcities
whichhavehighpopulationgrowthratesin
largelyinformalsettlementsandareoften
unsupportedbyestablishedinfrastructure
orservices.Withgrowthratesbetween3%
to6%peryear,theseemergingcitiesare
typicallyfoundwithincountriesundergoing
demographictransitionfromruraltourban
areas.Peoplelivinginthesecitiestendto
beyounger,predominatelymalewithlow
levelsofeducationandtheyexperience
considerableinequalitiesinwealth,health,
educationandpoliticalpower.Inmiddle
incomenations,establishedcitiesalso
facecontinuedpopulationgrowthbutat
Coordinatedaction,pairedwithimmediate
interventionsandlong-termgoals,offers
convincingresultsabouttheeffectiveness
ofintegrateddevelopmentplans.Evidence
isfoundintheAlexandraRenewalPlan
inJohannesburg,whereaccountabilityto
jointadministrativeandpoliticalbodies
recognisesthatregenerationfails

whenapproachestocitybuildingare
uncoordinated.Congestionchargingin
Londonprovidesanexemplarymodel
forsustainableurbandevelopment,with
privatecarownershiptamedinfavourof
increasedinvestmentinpublictransport
andpublicspace.Furtherevidencecanbe
foundinthecaseofBogotá’sTransMilenio
busrapidtransitsystem,firstimplemented
inthesmallerscaledCuritibaandthen
adoptedinthemega-metropolisofMexico
City,whichcutcommutingtimesinhalf.
Thisboldmovedemonstratedhowsocial
andeconomicmobilitycanimprovequality
oflifewhilealsoreducingtheimpactof
humanactivityontheearth.
Citiescontributeover80percentofthe
world’scarbonemissions.Pollutionfrom
industrialactivityandtransport,inefficient
buildingperformanceorfuelefficiency
standards,andpoormanagementof
theearth’snaturalcapitalcanseemlike
insurmountabletasks.Yetasrecentlyas
20yearsago,NewYorkCitydumpedthe
majorityofthecity’srawhumanwaste
directlyintoitsrivernetwork.Although
thispracticecontinuesincitiesacrossthe
globe,localandinternationalenvironmental
groups,recognisingtheirroleaswatch-
guard,arehelpingtochangebehaviour.

Civicparticipation,inamultitudeofforms,
isfundamentaltoeffectivegovernance.
Participatorybudgetingandcommunity
advocacyfacilitateincreasedcommunication,
individualaccountabilityandcollective
activismtosupportacultureofshared
responsibility.
Introduction
OppositeAs recently as 20 years ago, New York City
dumped the majority of the city’s raw human waste
directly into its river network.
Integratedplanning–allowingpeopleto
liveclosertowheretheywork,providing
publictransportnearhousing,jobsand
therequisitesocialinfrastructure–arevital
elementsforthecreationofsustainable
cities.Compact,mixed-use,well-connected.
Thesequalities,pairedwithashared
responsibilityamongmultiplegovernment
agencies,businessleaders,policymakers,
academicsandurbanpractitionersand
facilitatedbyintergenerationalexchange,
willproducedynamicandrewardingresults
intheworld’sfinancialandculturalnerve
centres.Ourcommontaskistofulfilthe
hopefulpromiseofurbanlife,andnotlet
ourcitiesbecomehopelessfailures.The
nextgenerationmustbebroughtintothis
effortearly.Throughthepushandpull
betweengovernmentsandcitizens,private

interestsandpublicintervention,public
participationthroughallthestagesofcity
makingwilleasethechallengeofgetting
thedetailsright.
Urban Age Programme
London School of Economics and
Political Sciences – Deutsche Bank’s
Alfred Herrhausen Society
Policieswhichcombatsprawlandinstitute
betterwatermanagementandlanduse
policiescancreatemorecohesiveurban
environmentsandimprovequalityoflife.
Sincebuildingsconsumeclosetohalfthe
world’senergy,technologicalinnovations
andmaterialapplications,aswellas
increasedself-sufficiency,canhelp
reduceenergydemandsandeachcitizen’s
ecologicalfootprint.Butwedonothave
tostartfromscratch.Recyclingspaces,
materialsandinfrastructure,remediating
brownfieldsandincreasingdensityare
readilyavailabletoolswhichhelpretrofit
oururbanenvironmentsforincreased
populationgrowthandbetterdesigned
environments.Recyclingincreasesthe
wealthofallurbancitizens.Conservation
strategiesneednotbeacharacteristic
onlyofthepoor,bornoutofnecessity
orpublicmandate.Itcanbeacultural
valuesharedbyall.

Leadership,ofcourse,makesthedifference.
Bettergovernedcitiesarebetterequipped
todealwiththethreatsofclimatechange
sincethemostvulnerablecitiesarethose
inwhichdevelopmentdoesnotwork.Yet
thechallengeconfrontingpolicymakers
andpractitionersisnottogetdevelopment
rightfirst,andadjustfortheimpactof
climatechangeafter.Policiesandagencies
mustbealignedandgovernmentleaders
mustensurethatdevelopmentpriorities
areintegratedandmonitoredthroughout
allstagesofaproject.Ecologicallyand
economicallysustainablecommunities
canonlybecreatedthroughtheactive
participationfromawiderangeof
communitystakeholdersfromthe
beginning.Governmentsmustbe
willingtoshareinformationandideas,
andallowforcontinuousinvestmentin
aflexible,adaptiveurbaninfrastructure.
6Megacities and Climate Change
7
1Douglas,Ian,KurshidAlam,MaryAnneMaghenda,
YasminMcdonnell,LouiseMcLeanandJackCampbell(2008),
‘Unjustwaters:climatechange,floodingandtheurbanpoor
inAfrica’,EnvironmentandUrbanization,Vol.20,No.1.
2Foracomprehensivedescriptionofmegacitiesarchetypes
seethereport‘MegacitiesChallenges–astakeholderperspective’
byGlobescanandMRCMcLeanHazel.

3Graizbord,B.‘Megacities,MetropolitanAreasandLocal
Governments’LEADMexico,ElColegiodeMexico.
4Satterthwaite,D.etal‘AdaptingtoClimateChangeinUrbanAreas:
Thepossibilitiesandconstraintsinlow-andmiddle-incomenations’
HumanSettlementsGroupandtheClimateChangeGroupatthe
InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment(IIED)2008.
5Satter thwaite,D.etalop.cit.
6Satter thwaite,D.etalop.cit.

Equally,leadershipisrequiredfromthe
privatesectorbecauseoftheimportant
contributionsthatbusinessesandinvestors
canmakeinenablingtheimplementation
ofadaptationmeasures.Thisincludesnot
onlyadaptingtheirownoperationsand
infrastructurebutalsoindevelopinggoods
andservicesthatenableindividuals,
communitiesandgovernmentstoadapt.
Extendingappropriatefinancialservices
(particularlytolower-incomegroups)can
helphouseholdstoinvestinsaferhomes
andbuildbetterlivelihoodswhichinturn
strengthenresilienceandtheabilityto
adapt.Insurancewhilstnotonlyprotecting
buildingsandinfrastructure–ifappropriately
structured–canalsobeusedtoencourage
riskreduction.
6

Finally,civilsocietyandcitizensorganisations

haveanimportantroletoplay.Participation
mustfullytakeintoaccount,andallowfor,
theinvolvementofdiversecommunities
andthoserepresentingexcludedgroups
suchaswomen,theelderlyandtheyoung.
Newtechnologiesandmethodsof
communicationcanencourageandsupport
moreinteractivepolicyenvironments;
bringinggovernmentclosertothepeopleit
serves.Theinstitutionalandfinancial
arrangementsrequiredtocopewithclimate
changemustbedesignedtoensureahigha
degreeofequityandequalopportunity
amongthediversesocialgroupswhich
makeupurbanpopulations.Thiswillalso
requiregreaterpoolingofresources.
What lies ahead: challenges and
constraints in addressing urban
vulnerability to climate change
Someinnovativepoliciesandpractices
(largelydevelopedbycommunitybased
andurbanpovertyorganisations)have
shownthatitispossibletoreduce
vulnerabilitytotheimpactsofclimate
changeatrelativelylowcost.Therearealso
anincreasingnumberofexampleswhere
localgovernmentsworkinginpartnership
withlow-incomegroupshavesuccessfully
improvedinfrastructure,housingconditions,
anddevelopednew,good-quality

settlements.Eventhoughclimatechange
oftencompeteswithotherdemandsplaced
oncitygovernmentsandnationalministries,
liketheprovisionofbasicinfrastructure,
servicesandadequatehousing,webelieve
theseissuesshouldbeapproachedfroman
integratedperspectiveandaddressedtaking
climatechangeintoconsideration.
Thispublicationexploreshowmegacities
andrapidlygrowingcitiesarerespondingto
theurbandevelopmentchallenges
presentedbyclimatechange.Itprovides
examplesandcasestudiesofsuccessful
initiativeshighlightingtheleadership
requiredtotacklethisglobalproblem.The
followingchaptersofferarangeofinsights
andexamplesofinnovativesolutionsto
challengesinfourareasofurban
developmentthatwillbesignificantly
affectedbyclimatechange:waterand
sanitation;energy;transportandurban
mobility;landuseandurbanplanning.
havetoliveinsitesmoreexposedtodanger
fromclimatechangeimpacts.Theyare
oftenunabletomovetolessdangerous
areasasthemorevulnerablesitesare
oftentheonlyplaceswheretheurbanpoor
canfindaffordablehousingorbuildtheir
ownhomes.Majorchangesaretherefore
urgentlyrequiredinhowgovernments

(particularlythoseinlowandmiddle
incomecountries)improvetheresilience
oftheirinfrastructureandeconomiesto
dealwiththescaleofanticipatedclimate
changeimpacts.Nationalandcity
governmentsneedtofocusnotonlyon
improvingtheirabilitytorespondtothe
earlyimpactsofclimatechange,butalso
supportmeasureswhichreducetheir
vulnerabilitytofuturerisks.
Leadership and climate change
in rapidly urbanising settings
Leadershiptocopewiththechallenges
presentedbyclimatechangehavetotake
placeacrossallsectorsandlevels.Local
authorities,businessesandcommunitiesall
haveacrucialroletoplayinthisprocessas
adaptationtoclimatechangerequireslocal
knowledge,localskillsandlocalcapacity
toensuresolutionsareassustainable
aspossible.Weneedhouseholdsand
communityorganisationswiththe
knowledge,capacityandwilltoactanda
willingnessamonglocalauthoritiestopay
specialattentiontothevulnerabilityof
lower-incomegroups.Tobesuccessfulin
adaptingtoclimatechange,aprofoundshift
needstohappeninthewaylocalauthorities
engagewithlow-incomeurbandwellers,
whoaretheonesmostseverelyaffectedby

itsimpacts.
How climate change will increase urban
vulnerability and affect the poor
Thevulnerabilityofurbanpopulationsto
extremeweathereventshasbeenvividly
highlightedinrecentyearsbytheincrease
incausalitiesandmajoreconomiclosses
resultingfromhurricanes,stormsandfloods.
Scientificevidencepredictsthatsuchevents
willreoccurwithincreasingfrequency
andbeaccompaniedbyotherimpacts
suchasheatwaves,reductionsinfreshwater
availabilityandsea-levelrise,whichisa
particularchallengeforcoastalcities.The
majorityofdamagecausedbysuchevents
hashadfargreaterimpactonlowand
middleincomepopulations,largelydue
totheirincreasedvulnerabilityfrom
livinginhazardousconditionswithpoor
infrastructureandinadequatehousing.
AccordingtoSatterthwaite
5
,lowerincome
groupswillbeaffectedhardestbecause
theyaremoreexposedtohazardsand
possesslesscapacitytoadapt.Theyhave
lessstateprovisiontohelpthemcope,less
legalprotectionandlessprotectionfrom
insurance.Inurbanareas,suchgroupsoften
Themajorityofdamagecausedby

climatechangehashadfargreater
impactonlowandmiddleincome
populations,largelyduetotheir
increasedvulnerabilityfromliving
inhazardousconditions.
importancefornationaleconomies
andgrowth,megacitieshavetoremain
competitiveinordertoattractinvestment.
Toattractinvestment,thesecitiesneed
modern,efficientinfrastructures.They
requireeffectivetransportationsystems,
moderninformationandcommunication
technology(ICT)andprovisionofbasic
servicessuchaswaterandsanitation,access
toqualityhousing,education
andelectricity.Equallyimportantisthe
availabilityofskilledlabourandgovernance
systemsthatensureanenvironment
attractivetoinvestors.
How Climate Change may affect
urban competitiveness
Themostinfluentialdriverforurbanisationis
whereneworincreasingprivateinvestment
flows.Theflowofinvestmenthasastrong
influenceonhowindividualurbanareas
develop,andtheircompetitivenesslargely
dependsonhowattractivetheyareto
investors.Urbanareasvulnerableto
disruptionfromtheimpactsofclimate
changewillclearlybelessattractiveas

theyrepresentahigherinvestmentrisk.
Suchdisruptionalsoposesathreattourban
economiesasexistingbusinessesand
investorsmaydecidetomoveelsewhere
tomitigatedisruptiontotheiroperations
andrisktotheirinvestments.Evenifsuch
operationsarenotdirectlyaffectedbyan
extremeweatherevent,theindirect
impactsanddisruptiontoinfrastructure
andsupply-chainsorinconvenienceto
staffmayencouragemovementelsewhere
orthechoiceofnewlocationswhen
enterprisesexpand.
4
While every region of the world has a number of cities with over
1 million inhabitants, new megacities with over 10 million people
are developing across Asia, Africa, Central and South America.
©UrbanAge,LondonSchoolofEconomics,www.urban-age.net
Energy
1
10Megacities and Climate Change
11
Chapter1 Energy
Fortunatelymanysolutionstothese
problemsalreadyexist.Fordecades
now,peopleacrosstheplanethavebeen
workingtodevelopandimplementthem.
Newtechnologies,economicandpolicy
toolsalongwithnewapproachesto
influenceandchangesocial,organisational

andindividualbehaviourallexistandhave
demonstratedthattheycanwork.Sowhat
arethechallengesweneedtoovercome
toimplementthesesolutionsincities
acrosstheworld?
Thesupplyandcontroloffossilfuelshas
playedadefiningroleinshapingthepolitical
andeconomiclandscapeoftheworldover
thepasttwocenturies.Manyoftoday’s
mosteconomicallyandpoliticallypowerful
countriesconsumemoreenergyand
producemoregreenhousegasemissions
perpersonlargelybecauseharnessing
theenergyreleasedthroughburningfossil
fuelsiswhatenabledthemtobecome
sopowerfulinthefirstplace.Thepivotal
rolefossilfuelenergyhasplayed–through
industrialisation–inenablingtherapid
economicandsocialdevelopmentofa
fortunateminority,hasthereforeledto
thewidespreadbeliefthatsuchsources
ofenergyareaprerequisiteforeconomic
andsocialdevelopment.

However,ithasbecomeincreasingly
apparentevenforthefortunateminority,
thatthisfossilfuelpoweredapproachto
developmentsuffersfromtwomajorflaws.
Firstly,fossilfuelsarebecomingscarcer,
moreexpensiveandwillsoonbeunable

tosatisfytheincreasingenergydemands
ofagrowingglobalpopulation.Secondly
theprocessweusetotransformthese
fuelsintoproductsandserviceswevalueis
causingdestabilisationoftheglobalclimate
makingpartsoftheplanetincreasingly
inhospitableforhumanbeingstosurvive.
Thesetwoflawsarecurrentlyamongthe
mostdemandingdevelopmentchallenges
wefaceasaglobalcommunity.Weknow
theenergysourceswe’veusedtoenable
economicandsocialdevelopmentare
finiteandweknowthatusingtheminthe
wayswehave,andonthescalewehave,is
causingdangerous(andpossiblyirreversible)
imbalancesinglobalecosystems.Yetwe
continuetogrowinnumber,andsotoo
doesourthirstforenergy.
3

Ourcurrentpathisclearlyunsustainable
andthisislargelybecausewearemaking
amessofhowwemanageenergy.
4

Therefore,amajorpartofhowwesolve
theseproblemsmustinvolvechanging
howwemanageenergy.Inparticular
howwemanageitinourcities.We
needpracticalsolutionsandweneed

toimplementthemveryquickly.We
needtostopthereleaseofgreenhouse
gasesfromburningfossilfuelsand
switchtosuppliesofenergywhichare
environmentallybenignandsustainable.
Weneedtoreducedemandforenergy
byimprovingefficiencyinend-use
technology;
5
andweneedtodecentralise
ourgenerationandsupplyinfrastructure.
6
Weuseenergyincitiesinamultitudeof
ways.Someareobvioussuchasillumination,
heatingandcooling,motivepower,and
electricity.Andsomearelessobvioussuch
asenergywhichishiddenor‘embedded’
intheproductionofbuildings,infrastructure,
food,clothingandalltheotherstuffwe
usetosatisfyourneedsanddesiresfor
security,comfortandfulfilment.Ofallthese
uses,providingelectricityandheatingis
responsibleforaroundonequarterofall
human-inducedgreenhousegasemissions.
1

Itwillcomeaslittlesurprisethatthereis
considerablevariationintheintensitywith
whichenergyisusedacrosstheplanet.
Aswithgreenhousegasemissions,energy

usegenerallycorrelateswithacountry’s
incomeandlevelofdevelopment.For
example,during2004apersonlivingin
oneoftheworld’shighestincomecountries
usedaround22timesasmuchenergyas
someonelivinginoneoftheworld’slowest
incomecountries.Similarly,inthatsame
year,someonelivinginahighincome
countrywasresponsibleforemitting
around14timesasmuchcarbondioxide
assomeonelivinginalowincomecountry.
3
Nick Harrison and Melita Rogelj
Ofallhumanactivityknowntocontribute
toclimatechange,satisfyingourdemand
forprimaryenergyisbyfarthegreatest.
Generatingover70%ofthisenergyby
burningfossilfueloil,coalandnatural
gas,
1
energygenerationofthiskindis
nowresponsibleforaround60%ofour
greenhousegasemissionsworldwide.
2

Withthemajorityofour(fastgrowing)
populationandenergydemandnow
concentratedinurbanareas,thewaywe
useenergyinourcitiescurrentlyrepresents
oneofthesinglebiggestcausesofglobal

climatechangetoday.Henceanyone
consideringtheroleofcitiesinclimate
changeneedstobeginbyconsidering
howcitiesuseenergy.
Context
Apersonlivinginoneoftheworld’s
highestincomecountriesusesaround
22timesasmuchenergyassomeone
livinginoneoftheworld’slowest
incomecountries.
PreviouspageMost of the energy demanded in cities is used
within and by buildings and the relatively high initial cost of
energy efficient buildings has historically acted as a strong
disincentive to widespread deployment. Tokyo, Japan.
©NickHarrison
12Megacities and Climate Change
13
Chapter1 Energy
Intheremainderofthechapterwe
examinesomespecificchallengesfaced
inimplementingsolutionstomanaging
energybetterinourcities.Weillustrate
withexamplesdrawnfromtheworkof
LEADFellowshowthesechallengesare
beingsuccessfullyovercometoensure
moresustainableenergyuseincities
aroundtheworld.
Supplying Clean Sustainable Energy
Wehaveatourdisposalmanymethodsof
supplyingenergy(inusefulformslikeheat

andelectricity)whichwouldconsiderably
reduceourgreenhousegasemissions.
Theyincludethosecommonlyreferred
toas‘renewables’(Biomass,Geothermal,
Hydro,Ocean,SolarandWind)andNuclear
fission.Eachhasrelativeadvantages
anddisadvantagesandallfacevarious
challengestoplayingalargerroleinthe
globalenergysupplymix.Carboncapture
andstoragealsohasasignificantand
immediateroletoplayasatransition
technologyenablingustocontinueusing
energyreleasedfromburningfossilfuelsin
wayswhichcurtailemissionsofgreenhouse
gasesintheprocess.
8
Oneofthebiggestchallengestodeveloping
thesupplyofsustainableenergyhas
beentoovercomeitscostdisadvantage
against(oftenheavily-subsidisedand
environmentallypolluting)fossilfuelenergy
supplies.Establishing‘PowerPurchase
Agreements’and‘Feed-inTariffs’which
placealegalobligationonutilitycompanies
tobuyelectricityfromsustainablesources
atapremiumrateoveraguaranteed
periodareapproacheswhichhaveproved
successfulinanumberofcountriesalready.
Theymaketheinstallationofsustainable
energysystemsamoresecureandviable

investmentandoftenleadtothecreation
ofwholenewdomesticindustries.In
Germanyforexample,theintroductionof
Feed-inTariffscatalysedthedevelopment
ofitssolarindustryleadingthecountry
tobecomeaworldleaderwith40,000
nowemployedinthesector.
9
Withoutthe
supportofsuchlegislation,whileinvestment
maybeavailableforlargeprojectswith
evidentprofitmargins,itisnotalways
easytosecuresuchinvestmentforearly
projectdevelopment(suchascapacity
measurements,communityassessments
orskillstraining)allofwhicharenecessary
toenableequitabledeploymentof
renewableenergytechnology.Asa
resultoflegislativechangessuchasthese,
globalinvestmentinsustainableenergyis
growingrapidly.In2007theamountofnew
investmentincreased60%ontheprevious
yearto$148.4billion
10
andrecentreports
indicateanincreasingnumberofcountries
arenowputtingtheminplace.
11

Legislationcanalsobeachallengeto

implementingsustainableenergyandone
suchexampleistheobligationoftenplaced
onpublicauthoritiestodeliverservicesat
thelowestfinancialcosttothetax-payer.
Thisisoftencitedasabarriertoaction,but
canbeovercomethroughchangesinhow
wevalueecosystemservices.Forexample,
anapproachbeingtakenbyMexico’s
state-runelectricitycompanyCFE,isto
pursueprinciplesoffullcostaccounting
whichemphasisecosttothetax-payer
notonlyinfinancialtermsbutalsointerms
ofcosttosocietyandtheenvironment.
12
Acrosstheworld,mostcitiesalready
haveorareintheprocessofdeveloping
strategies,policiesandplansaddressing
climatechangeandfutureenergyneeds.
Butimplementingthesemanyandvaried
frameworks–inwaysleadingtoactual
emissionsreductions–isstillgenerally
atanearlystage(EPC,2008).Clearlythe
scaleandtypeoftransformationdemanded
byourcurrentsituationrepresentshuge
challengesbothorganisationallyand
politically.Challengessuchasthetendency
toobfuscatethecausesandpotential
solutions;poorleadership;silo-working;
andabsentordysfunctionalincentives
mustallbeovercomeifwearetosucceed.

7
Challenges
China has recently surpassed the United States as
the world’s biggest carbon dioxide emitter and it
is developing renewable technologies expected
to supply 10 per cent of its energy needs by 2020.
©RyanPyle-CourtesyofUrbanAge,LondonSchool
ofEconomics,www.urban-age.net
Asidefromchanginglegislation,
governmentsthemselvesalsooffergreat
potentialtoleadthetake-upofrenewable
energytechnologythroughchangesintheir
ownprocurementpolicies.Forexample,
acrossEurope,anincreasingnumberof
governmentsarenowprogressinginthis
waybyfinancingtheconstructionof
renewableenergyprojectsusingpublic
finance.Insomecases,citiesareworking
withlocalmunicipalutilitiestoconstruct
windturbines.Inothercases,theyare
workingwithprivatelyownedutilitiesand
renewableenergydeveloperstoconstruct
solararraysoncitybuildings,schools,and
homes.Anumberofcitiesarebeginningto
incorporaterenewableenergyrequirements
intotheircontractrenewalswithprivately
ownedlocalutilities.PlaceslikeGüssingand
LinzinAustria,ApeldoornintheNetherlands
andFreiburginGermany,areallexamples
ofwherecommunityandgovernmentled

effortsarehavingconsiderablesuccess.
14Megacities and Climate Change
15Lorem ipsum
Leadership which made it possible
Thenewlawcameaboutasaresultofthe
effortsoftheBrazilianSolarCitiesInitiative–
ajointprojectoftheVitaeCivilisInstitute,
anon-governmentalorganisationmanaged
byLEADFellowRubensBornandthe
BrazilianSWHmanufacturersassociation
(DASOLAbrava).ThecreationofSãoPaulo’s
solarlawcoincidedwiththecreationof
otherlawstoboostSWHintheBrazilian
citiesofPortoAlegre,BeloHorizonte,
CampinaGrandeand12others.The
initiativehasalsobegundiscussionswith
manyotherBrazilianmunicipalitieswhoare
nowconsideringfollowingSaoPaulo’slead
andintroducingsimilarlawsthatobligeor
createincentiveprogramsforinstallingSWH.
Theenvironmentalconcernsofcustomers
togetherwiththeintroductionofthesenew
municipallawsandspecialinstallationloans
haveledtoaboominthesalesofSWH
acrossBrazil.Asaconsequence,SWH
manufacturersarebusypreparingtosupply
thegrowingdemand,forecastinggrowthof
morethan30%thisyearwithsome
planningtodoubletheirproductionby2009.
TherapidgrowthinmembershipoftheSolar

CitiesInitiativenetworkandthenumberof
projectsmotivatedbyitsworkisclear
evidenceofitsimpactandimportance.The
initiativeaimstocontinuepromotingSWH
untilatleast2010whenithopestoseesolar
lawsinitiatedacross40Braziliancities.
Further information
www.vitaecivilis.org.br
Case study Solar Cities Initiative
Location Sao Paulo, Brazil
Overview of problem and solution
SãoPauloinBrazilintroducedmunicipal
lawsin2008requiringtheinstallationand
useofSolarWaterHeaters(SWH)inallnew
buildings.Thelegislationisamajorstepto
encourageawidespreadshifttoa
decentralised,sustainableenergysupplyin
oneofthelargestcitiesonearth.
Richinsolarresources,theentirecountry
receivesover2,200hoursofdirectsunlight
eachyear.However,electricityisstillused
considerablymorethanSWHtosupplyhot
water.Showerheadsandwaterheaters
currentlyrepresentaround6%ofBrazil’s
totalelectricityconsumptionandaround
25%ofthesystem’speakdemand.The
electricitytosupplythisconsumptionis
generatedmainlybyhydroelectricfacilities,
whichoftenputpressureonthe
environmentandtraditionalcommunities

re-locatedduringconstruction.The
expansionofthecountry’sgeneration
systemhasrecentlyinvolvedinvestmentsin
diesel,gasandcoal-firedthermoelectric
plantswhichincreasegreenhousegas
emissions,contributingtoglobalwarming
andincreasingairpollution.
Thenewlawswillhelptoovercomesomeof
thebarriersfacedintheimplementationof
SWHtechnologysuchastherelativelyhigh
initialcostofinstallation(comparedto
electricheaters)andthelackoflowinterest
creditforfinancingsuchinstallations.Other
benefits(besidesreducingcarbon
emissions)includebetteruseof
hydroelectricityinBrazil’senergymatrix,the
creationofskilledjobsandthereductionof
resourcesneededforbuildingelectrical
generation,transmissionanddistribution
infrastructure.
Case study 1
OppositeIn Sao Paulo, Brazil, a new legislation
requiring the installation and use of Solar Water
Heaters in all new buildings is a major step to
encourage a widespread shift to a decentralised,
sustainable energy supply. ©NickHarrison
16Megacities and Climate Change
17
Chapter1 Energy
Providingincentivestodothisisshownto

beworkinginmanyplacesaswehaveseen
withFeed-inTariffsmakingthedeployment
oflocalisedenergysupplyinfrastructure
morefinancialviable.Anotherapproachis
directsubsidiessuchasCalifornia’smillion
solarroofscampaign
17
whichhasdramatically
increaseddemandandtake-upofsolar
poweredelectricgenerationtechnology
byproviding$3bnstategovernmentsupport
forinstallation.Otherapproachesfocuson
encouragingtheinclusionoflocaloron-site
generationinnewdevelopments.Agood
exampleofthisisanapproachpioneered
bytheLondonBoroughofMertonintheUK.
TheMertonRule
18
isaplanningpolicywhich
statesthatallresidentialdevelopments
above1,000squaremetersareexpected
toincorporaterenewableenergytechnology
togenerateatleast10%ofpredicted
requirementson-site.Thepolicy,endorsed
bytheUKgovernmentin2006isnow
seeingwidespreadadoptionincities
acrosstheUK.
Settingtoughefficiencystandardsfor
manufacturersofend-usetechnology
suchaslighting,computersandtelevisions

alsoposesasignificantchallengefor
governments,particularlywhenresisting
effortsbyindustrytolobbyforlower
(cheapertoimplement)standards.
Japan’s‘Top-RunnerProgramme’
15
which
wasintroducedin1998isanexampleofa
practicalandeffectiveregulatorymechanism
whichensuresmanufacturerscontinually
worktoimprovetheenergyefficiencyof
theirproducts.Ratherthanjustsetting
minimumefficiencyperformancestandards,
thetop-runnerprogrammecontinually
searchesforthemostefficientmodel
currentlyonthemarketandstipulatesthat
thisbecomethecountry’sindustrystandard
minimuminagivennumberofyears.
Coveringproductsinover21categories,
theprogrammeisaworldleadingapproach
indrivingupefficiencystandards.
Anotherkeychallengetoreducingdemand
ispromotingbehaviourchangeamong
energyend-usersandinmanycountries
considerableeffortsarebeingmade
toinfluenceuserbehaviourwithsome
degreeofsuccess.Forexample,inTokyo
morethan2millioncitizenshavevoluntarily
pledgedtoreducetheirpersonalenergy-use
throughanovelonlineschemewhichis

havingconsiderableimpact.Nonetheless
changinguser’sbehaviourparticularlyin
highincomecountrieswhereadoctrineof
highconsumptionprevailsisaformidable
challengeandrelyingonvoluntary
reductionsaloneisunlikelytosucceed.
Decentralising Energy Supply
Climatechangeisanenergyissue,
energyisaninfrastructureissue,therefore
climatechangeisaninfrastructureissue,
accordingtoenergyexpertWaltPatterson
16

whoarguesthatchangingourenergy
infrastructureiskeytotacklingclimate
change.Conventionalenergyinfrastructure
tendstogenerateelectricityinlarge
centralisedpowerstations,transmitting
itoverlongdistancestoitsend-useina
waywhichisnotonlyinefficientbutalso
lacksflexibilityandmakesusersdependent
andvulnerabletowidespreadpower-outs.
Soweneedtomakeatransitiontomore
decentralisedenergyinfrastructureandthis
requiresnewemphasisinthedevelopment
andregenerationofourtownsandcities.
Inplaceswherelittleornoexisting
infrastructurecurrentlyexists,itmaysimply
beaquestionofensuringdevelopment
followsadecentraliseddesign.What

maybemorechallengingisretrofitting
adecentraliseddesigntoexisting
(centralised)infrastructures.

Whilstthisisbecominganincreasingly
effectivemechanismtodrivedemand
andinnovation,ashortageofskills
andknowledge(inbuiltenvironment
professions)neededtomeetthisdemand,
remainsachallengeintheshort-term.
Whatisperhapsevenmorechallengingis
howtoimprovetheefficiencyofexisting
buildings.IntheCityofBerkeley,California
thegovernmenthassuccessfullyusedits
legislativepowerstointroduceEnergy
ConservationOrdinances
13
ensuringwhen
apropertyissoldonitlegallyhastobe
refittedwithenergyconservationmeasures.
Theseordinancesareprovingtobean
excellentapproachtohousingstockrenewal,
ensuringarapidtransitiontowidespread
improvementsinenergyuseefficiency
inbuildingsacrossthecity.
Butit’snotjustthebuildingsthemselves
whichuseenergyit’salsotheend-use
technologieswithinbuildingswhichneed
improving.Manyinnovationsinend-use
technologiessuchasairconditioningand

refrigeratorsexistbuttheirhigherinitial
costisoftenabarriertowidespreadadoption.
InMexicoCity,aprogrammeoperatedby
agovernmentbackedtrustfund(FIDE)
andthestate-runelectricitycompany(CFE)
hasdemonstratedhowinnovativeuseof
subsidiescanhelpovercomethischallenge
makingsuchend-usetechnologiesmore
pricecompetitive.
14
Theapproachusesthe
costsavingsaccruedfromoperatingnew,
energyefficienttechnologytopayoffa
loanprovidedtocovertheadditionalcostof
purchasingthenewtechnology.Thescheme
coverslighting,insulation,refrigerationand
airconditioningandoverthepast15years,
hasfundedthereplacementofovereight
millionrefrigeratorswithnewenergy
efficientversions.
Improving Energy Efficiency
& Reducing Demand
Mostoftheenergywedemandincitiesis
usedwithinandbybuildingsandwhilemany
innovativeexamplesofenergyefficient
buildingsnowexist,theirrelativelyhigh
initialcosthashistoricallyactedasastrong
disincentivetowidespreaddeployment.
Governmentshavebeguntoaddressthis
challengebyimplementingstandardsand

targetsrequiringnewbuildingsbedesigned
andconstructedtouseenergymuchmore
efficiently(e.g.theUK’sgovernment’s
energyperformancecertificatesandtargets
forallnewbuildingstobezero-carbon
by2016).Insomecasesgovernments
areusingtheirownbuildingstoshowcase
goodpractice(e.g.theCaliforniaState
DepartmentofWaterandPowerand
DepartmentofTransporthaveincorporated
energyefficiencyandrenewableenergy
technologyintonewandexisting
officebuildings).
Weneedtomakeatransitiontomore
decentralisedenergyinfrastructure
andthisrequiresnewemphasisin
thedevelopmentandregeneration
ofourtownsandcities.
California Department of Transport building
showcases cutting edge low-energy design
©2007NickHarrison
18Megacities and Climate Change
19
Chapter1 Energy
Thechallengeshighlightedherearejusta
fewamongmanythatneedtobeovercome
ifwearetotackleclimatechangeand
ensuresustainableenergysupplyinour
cities.Manyarenowdedicatedtothistask
andrecenteconomicandpolicyshiftsare

alsohelping.Thegrowingglobalpriceof
fossilfuelsismakingalternativeenergy
sourcesandreductionstodemandallthe
morepoliticallyandeconomicallyattractive.
Meanwhile,thegrowingstabilityofthe
carbonmarketsandprogresstowards
morewidespreadlegislative‘caps’to
greenhousegasemissionsisdrivingmore
investmentin,anddemandfor,innovative
renewableenergyandenergyefficiency
(‘greentech’)technologythaneverbefore.
21

Sowheresomeseeachallenge,others
seeopportunity.
Leadership which made it possible
Themunicipalgovernment,drivenbythe
leadershipofitschiefengineerAllenJones,
pioneeredthedevelopmentofanetwork
ofover60localgeneratorswhichincluded
photovoltaicarraysandahydrogenfuelcell
stationtopower,heatandcoolmunicipal
buildingsandsocialhousing.Decentralising
theirenergysupplyhasenabledWoking
counciltoslashtheirenergyusebynearly
half,andCO2emissionsbyover75%,
since1990.
Developingaprivate,locallyowned
electricitynetworkenabledtheESCO
toavoidchargesusuallyassociatedwith

theuseofthenationalelectricitygrid.
Bycircumventingthesecosts,ithasbeen
abletofundwiresandgenerationtodeliver
lowemissionelectricitywhichiscost
competitivewithconventionalsuppliers.
LocalESCOsofthiskindarecurrentlybeing
developedacrosstheUK,mostnotablyin
LondonwhereWoking’spioneeringchief
engineerwassubsequentlyrecruitedby
themayorofLondontoimplementthe
UKcapital’senergystrategy.
20

Further information
Examplesofmanyofthesystemsinstalled
canbefoundontheWokingwebsite:
www.woking.gov.uk/environment/
Greeninitiatives/sustainablewoking
Case study Decentralising
Urban Energy Supply
Location Woking, UK
Overview of the problem and solution
Tocombattheinefficienciesand
vulnerabilitiesofacentralisedenergy
supplyinfrastructure,itisessentialwefind
waystodecentralise.WokingintheUKis
anexcellentexampleofhowitispossible
tomakethetransitiontoadecentralised,
sustainableenergysupplysysteminan
urbansetting.Withapopulationofjust

100,000,ithasinstallednearly10%ofallUK
solarphotovoltaiccapacityandishometo
thefirstfuelcellcombinedheatandpower
systeminthecountry.
Partofthesolutionwastoestablisha
networkofprivateelectricitywiresowned
andoperatedbyalocalEnergyService
Company(ESCO)whichwasestablished
andmajorityownedbythelocal
government,WokingBoroughCouncil.
Theseprivatewiresconnecttogether
thedispersedgeneratorscreatingalocal
supplynetworkandby2003thecouncil’s
electricityinfrastructurebecameover
99%independentofthenationalgrid.
Wokingwasabletoraisecapitalforenergy
infrastructuredevelopmentinitiallythrough
energyefficiencysavings.Thiswasachieved
byestablishingafundintowhichsavings
(belowabenchmarkofexpectedenergy
expenditure)accruedfromenergyefficiency
measureswerereinvested,yearonyear,
intofurtherenergy-savingmeasures.
Thesubstantialfinancialsavingsaccrued,
allowedthecounciltoinvestmillionsin
energysupplyinnovation.TheESCO
(ThamesweyEnergy)
19
subsequently
attractedinvestmentfrompension

companieswhorecognisedthesteady
low-riskreturntheinitiativeoffers.
Case study 2
Yetthescaleofthetaskbeforeusremains
hugeanditrequiresleadershipbothto
initiatethesolutionsandtoovercomethe
challengesifwearetomakethetransition
tocitiesofthefuturewhereenergyis
generatedandusedlocally,efficiently
andsustainably.
1WorldEnergyOutlook2006.InternationalEnergyAgency.
www.worldenergyoutlook.org
2WorldGreenhousegasemissionsbysector.UNEP.http://maps.
grida.no/go/graphic/world-greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-sector
3Fightingclimatechange:Humansolidarityinadividedworld.
UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeHumanDevelopment
Report2007/2008. />4 Patterson,W(2008).ManagingEnergyWrong.ChathamHouse.
www.chathamhouse.org.uk/publications/papers/view/-/id/629/
5 Froggett,A(2008).TheInternationalClimateAgenda:
OpportunitiesfortheG8.ChathamHouse.
www.chathamhouse.org.uk/publications/papers/view/-/id/620/
6 Patterson,W.(2007).Transformingourenergywithina
generation.ChathamHouse.www.chathamhouse.org.uk/
research/eedp/papers/view/-/id/496/
7 Baserman,Max,H.(2006)ClimateChangeasaPredictable
Surprise.Negotiation,OrganisationsandMarketsResearchPapers.
HarvardUniversity. />cfm?abstract_id=785990&rec=1&srcabs=869644
8 Nature(2008).ElectricitywithoutCarbon.Vol.454.p816-823
www.nature.com/news/2008/080813/pdf/454816a.pdf
9 Lander,M(2008).GermanyDebatesSubsidiesforSolarIndustry.

NewYorkTimes. />10 GlobalTrendsinSustainableEnergyInvestment2008Report.SEFI
/UNEP/BASE/UNF. />11 Renewables2007GlobalStatusReport.REN21.www.ren21.net/
globalstatusreport/default.asp
12 www.energypolicyclimate.org
13 ResidentialEnergyConservationOrdinances,Berkeley,USA.
www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/sustainable/residents/ResSidebar/RECO.html
14 TheElectricPowerSavingTrustFund,Mexico
www.fide.org.mx/index2.html
15 TheTop-RunnerProgramme,Japan
www.eccj.or.jp/top_runner/index.html
16 Patterson,W.(2007).Keepingthelightson:towards
sustainableelectricity.ChathamHouse/Earthscan.
17 MillionSolarRoofsCampaign.California,USA.
www.environmentcalifornia.org/energy/million-solar-roofs
18 TheMertonRule,UK.www.themertonrule.org
19 www.woking.gov.uk/environment/climate/Greeninitiatives/
sustainablewoking/thamesweyenergy
20 Examplesofdecentralisingsupplyonalargerscalecan
befoundontheLondonClimateChangeAgency’swebsite:
www.edfenergy.com/lesco
21 Carbon2008:Post-2012isnow.PointCarbon.www.pointcarbon.
com/research/carbonmarketresearch/analyst/1.912721
OppositeEnergy use in Mexico City: in 2000,
Mexico City demanded 17% of the country’s
total energy fuels output. ©NickHarrison
21Lorem ipsum
Transport
and Urban Mobility
2
22Megacities and Climate Change

23
Chapter2 Transport and urban mobility
Adaptingtotheimpactsofclimatechange
caneitherbereactiveoranticipatory.Given
thatinfrastructureandlandusedecisions
beingmadetodaycouldhaveanimpact
onthefootprintofaregionforthenext
hundredormoreyears,incorporating
climatechangeconsiderationsintodecision
makingprocessesisanurgentpriority.
Dependingonhowquicklyglobalemissions
arestabilised,theclimateimpactswecould
faceoverthecomingcenturycouldbe
significant.Citiesthataredesignedandbuilt
toprovidemultipletransportationchoices
foritscitizenssuchasplanningwhichallows
peoplethechoicetowalk,bike,ortake
transit,tomeettheirbasicneedswillenable
thatcitytobemoreresilientinthefaceof
newchallengesassociatedwiththe
changingclimate.Thistypeofholisticurban
planningstrategywillhelplocal
governmentsdefinemoresustainable
pathwaysfortheirfuturegrowthandin
doingsofacilitateahostofotherbenefits
likeimprovedairquality,improved
liveabilityandenergysavings.Specific
transportationadaptationstrategiesthat
maybeincorporatedintoanoverall
sustainabilityplanmightinclude:storm

waterretentionponds;highercapacity
drainage;perviouspavingmaterial;building
standardsthatoptimizenaturalheatingand
cooling;coolingcentres;information
campaignsandfloodwarningsystems.
Giventhatadaptationisarelativelynew
conceptformostlocalgovernments,the
developmentofnewmodels,tools,and
dataaboutthepotentialimpactsand
vulnerabilitiesfromclimatechangeonthe
transportationsector,areurgentlyneeded.
Infactseverallocalgovernments
8
around
theworldareleadingthewayonthis
emergingissue(seeToronto,Canadacase
study).Withcriticalinformationinhand
includingnewlydevelopedbestpractices,
urbangovernmentswillbeinabetter
positiontobuildtheirresiliencyinadvance
ofanymajororenduringclimaterelated
events.Whileavailabilityofinformationisa
significantchallenge,itisonlyoneofmany
beingfacedbylocalgovernments
attemptingtoimplementmoresustainable
policyoptions.Thefollowingsection
outlinesinmoredetailsomeoftheother
keychallenges.
ascitiesgrow,averageincomestendto
growwhichinturnleadstoincreasesin

carownership–andurbandevelopment
patterns.Megacities,mostcommoninthe
developingworld,areoftencharacterised
bysprawling,disconnected,low-density,
landusepatternswithrapidlygrowing
populations.Thispatternoftenmakes
theprovisionofabalancedtransportation
networktoocostlytomaintainand
subsequentlyencouragestheuseofprivate
vehicles.Bothofthesefactorscanalso
contributetoweakeningdemandforpublic
transportandaconsequentdeclinein
servicelevels,patronageandfinancial
viability.Infrastructureforpedestrianand
othernon-motorizedtransportalsosuffers
aspublicfundstendtobefocussedon
roadmaintenanceandexpansion.
Vehicleuseisalsoencouraged,either
directlyorindirectly,throughsuchthingsas
propertytaxes,fuelsubsidies,andnear-term
planninghorizons.Forexample,politicians
tendtofocusonshorttermfixessuchas
expandingroadwaystoalleviatetraffic
congestioneventhoughthisisabattlethat
cannotbewongiventherapiddevelopment
ofcities.ArecentstudyintheUnitedStates
foundthatthroughtheimplementationof
sustainablelandusepolicyalone(i.e.policy
thatfocusesoncompactdevelopment
featuringamixoflanduses,interconnection

ofstreets,pedestrianandtransit-oriented
design)totalUStransportationrelatedCO2
emissionscouldbereducedby7–10percent
by2050.
3
GiventhattheUSisamongstthe
world’stopgreenhousegasemitter,this
analysishighlightsthecriticalimportance
oftraveldemandmeasures,suchas‘Smart
growth’,inthefightagainstclimatechange.
Transit-orienteddevelopmentisagood
exampleofsustainablelanduseplanning.
Thisisaregionalplanningconceptdeveloped
byPeterCalthorpe,about15yearsago
duringthestartofthe‘newurbanism’
movementintheUnitedStates.Itchannels
growthintodiscretenodesalonglight-rail
andbusnetworksandexploitsabasic
relationshipbetweentransportationand
landuse:putmoreoriginanddestination
pointswithinaneasywalkofatransit
stopandmorepeoplewillusetransit
4

(SeeJakarta,Indonesiacasestudy).
Coupledwithothertransportationmitigation
strategiessuchasfuelandvehicleefficiency,
roadtolls,congestionpricing,establishing
no-drivedaysorno-drivezones,other
feesandtaxesondrivingorparking,the

transportationsectorcanandmustplay
asignificantroleinclimatechange
mitigationstrategies.
Transportation & Adaptation
Thetransportationsector,bothits
infrastructureandusers,arehighly
vulnerabletoclimatechange.
5
Changes
inprecipitationpatternsforexample,may
leadtoincreasederosion,landslides,and
floodingwhichcaninturncausedamageto
roadways,bridgesandseawalls.Incoastal
regions,portactivitywillbeaffectedby
risingsealevels,stormsurgesandflooding.
Airportsareoftendisruptedbysevere
stormsandfloodingespeciallyinlow-lying
areas.Floodingofurbanundergroundrail
systemshasalreadycausedseriousdamage
anddisruptiontoserviceincitiesaroundthe
worldincludingPrague,Boston,NewYork,
Seoul,andTaipei.Onwarmerdays,non
air-conditionedpublictransportationcan
beunbearableformanyandcaninturn
beanincentivefordriving.Warmer
temperaturesalsoleadtothecreation
ofmoresmog,asignificantpublichealth
concern,whichisfurtherexacerbated
byincreasedvehicleusage.
AstudycarriedoutintheGulfCoastof

theUnitedStatesontheimpactsofclimate
changeandvariabilityontransportation
systemsandinfrastructure,foundthatthe
region’sentiretransportationnetwork
wouldbeexposedtopotentiallydevastating
consequencesifanysignificantsealevel
riseweretooccur.Impactsincluded:75%
oftheportfacilitieswouldbevulnerable;
eightmajorairportswouldbeinundated;
and25%oftheinterstatehighwaywould
beflooded.
6
Thestudyconcludedthat
practicalstepsneededtobetakento
buildtheresiliencyofthetransportation
systemsuchashardening,raising,or
evenrelocatingstructuresandexpanding
redundantsystems.
7

vehicles(motorcycle,truck,car).Road
transportationisresponsibleformostofthe
transportsector’simpactonhumanhealth
andtheenvironmentinOECDcountries
andisattheheartoftwodailychallenges
beingfacedbycities:airpollutionandtraffic
congestion.Inmostcities,theimpactofthe
transportationsectoronclimatechange
(andviceversa)isgenerallynotthegreatest
concerngiventheseotherseeminglymore

pressingissues.However,strategiesto
reducegreenhousegasemissionsoften
havemanyotherco-benefitsincluding
improvingairquality.
Thischapterwillfocusontheconnections
betweentransportationandclimatechange
andsomeofthechallengesbeingfacedby
citiesinimplementingsustainable
transportationpolicy.
Transportation and Mitigation
Thetransportationsectoraloneisresponsible
for14%oftheworld’sgreenhousegas
emissions,10%ofwhichcomefrom
roadtransportation(theremainingfrom
air,ship,andrail).
2
Emissionsfromroad
transportationaregovernedbythree
factors:vehicleefficiency,fuelefficiency,
andvehiclekilometrestravelled(VKT).
Todate,muchoftheclimatepolicy
discussionandmitigationactivityinthe
transportationsectorhasfocusedon
improvingfuelefficiencyandpromoting
cleanerfuels.Whilethesearenecessary
steps,theemissionsresultingfromthe
steepgrowthinVKT,especiallyinthe
developingworld,willfaroutstripany
reductionsgainedbythesetwomeasures.
By2030thereisexpectedtobemore

vehiclesinthedevelopingworldthanin
developedcountries.Thisrapidrisein
vehicleownershipanduseisparticularly
predominantinemergingeconomiesand
islargelytheresultofrisingincomelevels–
Erin Silsbe and Tiyok Prasetyoadi
AccordingtotheUnitedNations,virtually
allpopulationgrowthfromnowuntil2030
willbeconcentratedintheurbanareas
oftheworld;mostoccurringintheleast
developedregions.
1
Thisdevelopment
trendhassignificantimplicationsfor
climatechangepolicy.Citygovernments
areresponsibleforawealthofpublic
policydecisionscoveringareasasdiverse
asemergencymanagement,landuse
andbuildingscodes,energysupply,public
healthandsafety,waste,water,public
transportationandtransportinfrastructure.
Decisionsaroundtheselocalgovernance
issuescanhavesignificantimpactsona
region’scarbonfootprintaswellasits
abilitytorespondtoclimaterelatedevents.
Ascitiesgrowandbecomemoreinvolved
inglobaltrade,theefficientmovement
ofpeopleandgoodsiscriticaltoits
economicwell-being.Transportation
systemsareseenasoneofthebiggest

challengesinaccommodatingthe
growthofcitiesastheyprovidethe
fundamentalinfrastructurewhichenables
competitiveness.Transportationmodes
canbedividedintotwomajorsystems;
publicandprivate.Publictransportationin
citiesincludestrains(subway,elevated),
busesandtaxis,whileprivatetransportation
modesincludecycling,walkingandmotor
Context
By2030thereisexpectedtobemore
vehiclesinthedevelopingworldthan
indevelopedcountries.Thisrapidrisein
vehicleownershipanduseisparticularly
predominantinemergingeconomies
andislargelytheresultofrising
incomelevels.
PreviouspageThere are an estimated 400 private cars per
1,000 people in Mexico City’s Federal District, a proportion
that drops by almost half in the greater Metropolitan area.
©DanteBusquets–CourtesyofUrbanAge,LondonSchool
ofEconomics,www.urban-age.net
24Megacities and Climate Change
25
Chapter2 Transport and urban mobility
Themainchallengeforacityisdetermining
howitslimitedresourcescanbeshared
equallyandfairlyamongcitizens.Inthe
transportationsector,managingcongestion,
safety,airquality,maintenanceand

expansionofinfrastructureisalready
asignificantchallenge.Growingthe
modeshareofpublictransportationand
non-motorisedmodesaswellasmeeting
thenewchallengesassociatedwiththe
changingclimatewillplaceincreasing
strainonalreadylimitedresources.
Sustainablelanduseplanning,which
includestraveldemandmeasures,
andstrategiestoaddressclimatechange
arenotmutuallyexclusive.
Governmentsneedtoencouragepeopleto
usepublictransportbyprovidingan
efficient,safeandreliablepublic
transportationsystem.Thebasicdifference
betweenprivateandpublictransportationis
willingnesstoshare.Also,whilstpublic
transportationgetspeoplealmosttotheir
destination,privatevehiclesgetpeople
exactlytowheretheywanttogo(doorto
door).Tosuccessfullyencouragepeopleto
changetheirtransportationmodefrom
privatetopublictransport,asafe,reliable,
andconvenientpublictransportationsystem
isneeded.Thisreliesheavilyonpatternsof
landuse,governmentvision,strategic
planningandregulation.
Anotherbarriertopublictransportation
canalsobepublicperception.Busesfor
example,areoftenseenasonlyforthose

whocannotaffordtheirownvehicle.The
convenienceofdrivingaprivatemotorised
vehicleisalsoveryhardtochallenge.Since
themassproductionoftheautomobileand
theincreaseinaverageincome,people
seemtofallinlovewithdrivingtheirown
car.Drivingisalsooftenapparentlycheaper
comparedtotravelusingpublic
transportation.However,likemany
environmentalproblems,thereisahidden
(public)costthatisoftennotaccountedfor
byvehicleownershipanduse.Theair
pollutionfromvehiclesforexample,
contributestoahostofenvironmentaland
healthissues.Clearly,theuseofpublic
transportationoverprivatevehicleswillhelp
reduceairpollution.Thefossilfuelsneeded
formostautomobilesalsocompetewith
otherenergyneeds.Privatevehiclesalso
wastevastlandresourcesforroadand
parkingspaceseventhoughformostofthe
day,a(private)carwilleitherbeparkedon
thestreetorinaparkingbuilding.People
willtypicallyonlyuseacarfor2–4hoursa
day.Thispublicproperty(road)couldbetter
beusedas(green)openspace.
Anotherchallengeisdevelopingadequate
pedestrianareasinthecity.Aspeopleget
offthepublictransportsystemthereneeds
tobeapedestriannetworkthatissafe,

comfortable,andeasytonavigateinorder
toencouragewalking.Pedestrianactivity
isalsoaffectedbytheclimate.Whilethe
provisionofapedestriannetworkwillbe
differentfromonecitytoanother,intropical
areasforexample,itisdesirabletohave
apedestriannetworkwhichisshaded
fromthesun.
Growthoftheworld’smegacitiesseems
inevitableandasaresult,transportation
networkswillhavetoexpandtomeet
growingdemand.Livinginthecityoffers
acompromisedqualityoflifeinmany
countries.Citizenshavetocopewith
congestion,airpollutionandlackof
openspacealongwiththeincreasingly
apparentimpactsfromclimatechange
includingflooding,intenseheat,severe
andunpredictableweather.Asignificant
challengeforlocalgovernmentsisto
balancetheavailabilityofamenitiesin
thecity,ensuringitisnotonlyaplacefor
economicactivities,butalsohasamenities
toenablecitizenstoenjoyagoodqualityof
life.Sustainablelanduseplanning,including
traveldemandmeasures,isessential.
Withincreasingdemandformorehomes
andofficespace,citiestendtosprawlas
developerssearchforcheaperlandtobuild
affordableresidentialhousing.Development

shouldbeconcentratedinthecitycentresto
encourageareductionintraveltoandfrom
economicandrecreationalactivities.The
cityhastogrowanddensityhastobe
controlled.Itisachallengetointegrate
transportationnetworkswithcitylanduse
policy,existingdevelopmentandzoning
regulationsforexample,canbeasignificant
barriertoneworinnovativepolicies.Transit
orienteddevelopmentisoneapproachthat
canhelpaddressthischallenge.
Coordinationbetweenvariousstakeholders
isalsoasignificantchallenge.Citiesare
oftensubdividedintomultiplejurisdictions.
Overlaythiswithmultipleprivateandpublic
sectortransportationoperatingagencies
andthedegreeofdifficultyindeveloping
andimplementingasustainablelanduse
plan,canbecomeparticularlycomplex.
Challenges
Growingthemodeshareofpublic
transportationandnon-motorisedmodes
aswellasmeetingthenewchallenges
associatedwiththechangingclimatewill
placeincreasingstrainonalreadylimited
resources.Sustainablelanduseplanning,
whichincludestraveldemandmeasures,
andstrategiestoaddressclimatechange
arenotmutuallyexclusive.
Cycling is also a growing trend in many urban areas.

People have started to use bicycles for their daily
activities because of the sharp rise in fossil fuel prices.
©ErinSilsbe.
26Megacities and Climate Change
Improvingpedestrianandpublic
transportaccessibilityisanimportant
partofreducingprivatecaruseandthe
greenhousegasemissionswhichcause
climatechange.InJakarta,provisionof
pedestrianthoroughfaresisverylimited
aspavementsareoftensharedwithother
infrastructuresuchaselectricitypoles,
bridgecolumns,telephoneboothsandother
modesoftransportationincluding
motorcycles(usingthepavementto
beatthetraffic),pushcarts;andstreet
hawkers.Withlimitedpavementspaceand
lackofmaintenance,pedestriansareoften
forcedtowalkontheroad,notonlyin
traditionalmarketplacesbutalsoinbusy
mainroads.Thismakescaruseamore
desirableandsafemodeoftransportand
thereforeachallengetoreducing
greenhousegasemissionsandimproving
pedestrianhealth,safetyandqualityoflife.
Althoughthesechallengesneedtobe
addressedthroughdesignimprovements,
theattitudeofpavementusersandeffective
lawenforcementarealsokeyissueswhich
needtobeaddressed.Someofthekey

challengestoprovidingadequatepedestrian
facilitiesinJakartainclude:
1Inadequatespaceforpedestriansto
walk(pavementsoftentoonarrow)
2Noprovisionforpeoplewithdifferent
physicalability(i.e.disabledpeople)
3Uncoordinatedinfrastructurein
pedestrianareas
4Inappropriateuseofthepavement
byothermodesoftransport
(e.g.motorbikes)
5Informalsectors(e.g.Hawkers)
reclaimingpedestrianspace
6Pedestriansecurity
7Lackofshadefromthesun
8Lackofconnectionstoother
pedestriannetworks
9Inconsistentpavementwidth
Case study Integrating pedestrian
corridors with Bus Rapid Transit
Location Jakarta, Indonesia
Overview of problem and solution
JakartaisthecapitalcityofIndonesia,
withanofficialpopulationofaround
8.5millionpeople.Theactualpopulation
isestimatedtobeasmuchas12million
asmanycommuteintothecityduring
theday,fromthesurroundingarea,also
knownasJabodetabek(Jakarta-Bogor-
Depok-Tangerang-Bekasi).Jakartaisacity

ofdramaticallycontrastingimagesand
buildingstandards,whichtothewestern
eyemayappearirrationalandchaotic.
Suchconflictsappearnotonlyinthebuilt
environmentbutalsointhetransport
system,utilitiesandbasicurbanservices.
Varioustypesoftransportareincommon
useacrossthecity,rangingfromthree-
wheeledBajaj(motorisedpassenger/
goodscarriers),totrainsandprivateluxury
automobiles.Thesevehiclescompete
witheachother,withpedestrians,cyclists
androad-sidehawkers(goodssellers)for
increasinglylimitedroadspace.
9
Case study 1
OppositeFragments of informal economic exchange in cities
©RyanPyle-CourtesyofUrbanAge,LondonSchoolofEconomics,
www.urban-age.net
28Megacities and Climate Change
29
Chapter2 Transport and urban mobility
Releasedin2008,Toronto’sfirstadaptation
report‘AheadoftheStorm–Preparing
TorontoforClimateChange’
11
focuseson
short-termadaptationstrategiesincluding
thosethatthecityisalreadyundertaking,
alongwithotherplannedandpotential

short-termactions.Thereportalsodiscusses
itslongertermadaptationstrategyby
outliningkeystepsthecitywilltakeover
thenextfewyearswhichinclude:
1Creatingtheinternalmechanisms
andprocessesforthedevelopment
ofacomprehensive,multi-year
adaptationprocess
2Engagingthepublic,businesses
andotherstakeholdergroups
3Incorporatingclimatechangeadaptation
intocitypoliciesandhighlevelplans
4Usebestavailablesciencetoanalyse
andforecasthowtheclimateis
changinglocally
5UsethisanalysistoidentifyToronto’s
vulnerabilitiestoclimatechange
6Conductariskassessmentto
identifypriorityimpactsrequiring
adaptationaction
7Identifyandassessadaptation
optionstoreducetherisk
8Developandimplementclimate
changeadaptationstrategies
9Monitoringclimatechangeand
evaluatingtheeffectivenessof
adaptationinitiativestoprotect
thecityfromcontinuingchanges,
adjustingstrategieswhennecessary.
Thiscomprehensiveapproachwillinvolve

stakeholdersfromacrossthegovernment,
theprivatesectoraswellasthegeneral
publicandwillensurethatclimatechange
considerationsareincorporatedintoallof
Toronto’spoliciesandprogramsinfuture.
InrecognitionofToronto’sroleasaworld-
leadingenvironmentalcity,MayorDavid
MillerwasappointedchairoftheC40Cities
ClimateLeadersGroupwhichisaglobal
partnershipofmajorinternationalcities
committedtotacklingclimatechange.
Further information
DavidMacLeod,
Sr.EnvironmentalSpecialist
(LEADCanadaCohort12)
TorontoEnvironmentOffice
email:
Toronto’sAdaptationStrategyWebsite,
www.toronto.ca/teo/adaptation.htm
LiveGreenToronto,www.toronto.ca/
livegreen/
Case study A Strategy for Building
Resilience to the Impacts of
Climate Change
Location Toronto, Canada
Summary
In2007,theCityofTorontoadoptedits
ClimateChangeActionPlanwhichincludesa
targetedreductioningreenhousegas
emissionsof80%by2050.Inadoptingthe

plan,theCityCouncilalsocalledforthe
developmentofacomprehensiveclimate
changeadaptationstrategyandisoneofthe
firstcitiesintheworldtodoso.In2008,the
CityofTorontoreleased‘AheadoftheStorm
–PreparingTorontoforClimateChange’,a
documentdesignedtoengagestakeholders
inunderstandingwhatcanbedoneto
prepareforclimatechangeinorderto
minimizeitsimpactonToronto’s
environment,healthandeconomy.Toronto’s
leadingeffortstoaddressadapation
alongsidemitigationwillprovideauseful
casestudyforothercitiesaroundtheworld.
Detail
TorontoCityCouncilhascommittedoverone
billiondollarsoverthenextfiveyearsto
fundprojectsthatwillhelpreduce
greenhousegasemissions.Its
comprehensivestrategytorespondto
climatechange,knownasthe‘Climate
Change,CleanAirandSustainableEnergy
ActionPlan’,focusesonactivitiesthatreduce
greenhousegasemissionsandhelpprepare
forclimatechange(mitigationand
adaptation).Torontounderstandsthat
mitigationandadaptationstrategiesare
oftencomplementaryandshouldbe
developedintandeminordertobestutilise
resourcesandachievemaximumbenefit.

Case study 2
Theprojectaimedtoaddressmanyof
theseissuesthroughprovidingimproved
pedestrianaccessalongthelengthof
Jakarta’snewrapidbustransitsystem.
Themainobjectivewastointroduce
pedestriancorridorswhichencourage
peopletowalkinatropicalclimateand
toprovidelinksconnectingthemto
otherpedestriannetworksandmodes
oftransportacrossthecity.Aswellas
improvingkeytransportinfrastructure,
thislargepublicprojectalsopromised
toattractinvestmentandincreased
commercialactivityalongthenewly
constructedpedestrianareas.Costing
aroundUS$1mandcoveringbothsides
ofa1.4kmstretchofroad,theproject
coversanareaofapproximately2,800
squaremetresaroundamajorthoroughfare
whereapproximately10,000people
liveandwork.
IntegratingwithJakarta’snew‘Transjakarta’
busrapidtransit(BRT)service(whichwas
recognisedbytheC40ClimateLeaders
Group)
10
wasalsoacatalystcontributing
totheproject’ssuccess.Bothcomplement
eachotherasimprovingthepavementarea

increasesuseoftheBRTandviceversa.
Leadership which made it possible
Governmentleadershiphasprovento
becrucialtoavoidpitfallspreviouslyfaced
insimilarprojectsinJakarta.Widening
thepedestrianareadrewstrongresistance
frombuildingownersandakeyelement
ofsuccesswiththisprojecthasbeenthe
effectivenegotiationwithprivateland
owners.Lackofadequatefinancewasalso
aprobleminthepast,particularlywhen
thefinancialcrisishitIndonesia.Lastlyand
perhapsmostimportantlywasthestrong
supportfromthecityGovernorinbacking
uptheagencyresponsiblefortheproject.
Further information
Projectwebsite:
/>(inIndonesian)
Projectpublication/furtherresearch
orcasestudies:
www.thejakartapost.com/news/2003/
01/30/city-plans-widen-jl-thamrin039s-
sidewalks.html
Pedestrian Corridor, Jakarta
TiyokPrasetyoadi
1 www.unpopulation.org
2 WorldResourcesInstitute(2006)ClimateAnalysisIndicators
Tool(CAIT)on-linedatabaseversion3.0.,Washington,DC:
WorldResourcesInstitute,availableat
3 www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/growingcoolerCH1.pdf

4 Calthorpe,Peter.(1993)TheNextAmericanMetropolis:
Ecology,CommunityandtheAmericanDream.NewYork:
PrincetonArchitecturalPress.
5 Onlyahandfulofreportshavebeendoneontheimpactof
climatechangeonthetransportationsector,theUKDepartment
ofTransportationisone:www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/scienceresearch/
key/thechangingclimateitsimpacto1909?page=7#a1007
6 />7 />html/chapter_06.html
8 CCAP’sUrbanLeadersAdaptationInitiative:
www.ccap.org/index.php?component=programs&id=6
9 GilesT.R.Clarke,(1985)PlanningtoSolveUrbanConflicts–
Jakarta,Indonesia.CitiesinConflictStudiesinthePlanning
andManagementofAsianCitieseditedbyJohnP.Lea
JohnM.CourtneyTHEWORLDBANKWashington,D.C.,U.S.A.
10 www.c40cities.org/bestpractices/transport/jakarta_bus.jsp
11 www.toronto.ca/teo/pdf/ahead_of_the_storm.pdf
31Lorem ipsum
Water
and Sanitation
3
32Megacities and Climate Change
33
52
44.8
27.3
21.4
1990
2004
Share of total population (%)
27.1

14.4
14.9
13.5
16.2
8.7
24.1
15.7
Sub-
Saharan
Africa
East Asia
and
Pacific
South
Asia
Arab
States
Latin
America
and the
Caribbean
World
Chapter3 Water and sanitation
averagedifficultiesexperiencedinAfrica
andAsia(figure1).Inmostdeveloping
countries,waterandsanitationcrisisis
consideredaboveall,acrisisforthepoor.
Almosttwooutofthreepeoplewholack
accesstocleanwatergloballyhaveto
surviveonincomesoflessthanUS$2per

day,withoneinthreelivingonlessthan
US$1aday.Morethan660millionpeople
wholacksanitationliveonlessthanUS$2
aday,and385millionliveonlessthan
US$1aday.
2
Incities,thelackofwaterfor
drinkingandsanitationlargelyaffectsthe
poorwhoareforcedtoliveinsettlements
wherewatersupplyisintermittentor
unavailable.Thisforcesmanytobuy
bottledwaterathighrelativecost,placing
additionalfinancialburdenonalready
limitedincomes.
2
Inadditiontothissituation,inthe1990s,
internationalinitiativesintroducedbythe
WorldBankandotherintergovernmental
agenciesadvocatednewformsof
watermanagementencouraginggreater
participationfromtheprivatesector.
Asaconsequence,socialtensionsand
civicmovementsemerged,opposing
theprivatisationofwaterandthe
participationoftransnationalbusinesses
initsmanagement.Oneexampleisthe
WaterWarinCochabambainBolivia,where
protestsaroundhighcostsandinadequate
serviceledtocivilunrestanddemands
fortheprivateoperatortoleave.Another

similarexamplecanbefoundinUruguay
wherewidespreadprotestledtoparliament
passinganamendmenttotheconstitution
preventingfutureprivatesectorparticipation
inthewatersector.

Nevertheless,thecurrenttrendremains
towardagreaterpresenceoftheprivate
sectorintheurbanmanagementofwater,
atrendwhichisofconcerntomanycivic
initiativeswhichmaintainthatfairaccessto
watershouldbeconsideredahumanright.
Patricia Avila
Duringthe20thCentury,manycities
developedinplaceswithlimitedavailability
ofwaterandinordertosatisfytheneeds
ofagrowingpopulation,theyhadtoexploit
surfacesources(e.g.spring,rivers,lakes),
subterraneansources(e.g.aquifers)and
insomecases(e.g.themiddleeast)to
desalinateseawater.Thisresultedin
ongoingwatercrisesinsomecitieswhere
attimes,supplywasn’tavailabletomeet
demand.Suchcitiesarereferredtoas
“thirstycities”
1
andtheyinclude:Mexico
City,LosAngeles,andCairo,whichhave
allsufferedhighwaterstressduetolimited
availabilityandhighdemand.

AccordingtotheUN
2
theproblemsof
inadequatewaterandsanitationaremost
acuteindevelopingcountries.In2004
reportssuggestthataround1.1billion
peoplehadinadequateaccesstowater
and2.6billionlackedsanitationwithabove
Context
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IdiVa/&#&W^aa^dc
Total: 2.6 billion
958.2
925.9
436.7
80.1
119.4
South Asia
East Asia and the Pacific
Sub-Saharan Africa
Arab States

Latin America and the Caribbean
Source United Nations (2006), Human Development Report
40
People with no access to an improved
water source
People with no access to improved
water in 2004 (millions)
People with no access to improved
sanitation
People with no access to improved
sanitation in 2004 (millions)
PreviouspageAreal view of Florianopolis – Brazil
©LuisCarlosTorres/iStockPhoto
34Megacities and Climate Change
private)andcivicparticipationindecision
makingtoensureequitableaccessto
increasinglystrainedresources.Effective
appraisalofecosystemserviceswillalso
berequiredincityplanning(suchasthe
provisionandtheregulationofwater)
toensureabalanceisstruckbetween
environmentalconservation(e.g.of
forests,mangroveswamps,lakes)and
thedemandforadequatewatersupply.
Overthecomingyears,itwillbenecessary
tomovebeyondthecurrentapproachto
satisfyinggrowingwaterdemandthrough
technologicalapproachessuchasexploiting
deeperaquifers;buildinglargerstorage
facilities,divertingandchannellingwater

frommoredistantsources.Instead,the
challengewillbetoensuremoreefficient
andsustainableuseofexistingwater
supplies.Thismaybeachievedthrough
improvingdistributionnetworks(toreduce
lossesfromleaks),introducingwatersaving
devices,enhancingwaterre-cyclingsystems
andprocessingmoreurbanwastewith
lesswater.Ratherthanfocusonincreasing
supply,itisfundamentalthatwefocusour
effortsonreducingwaterdemandinour
citiesandadoptingacultureofcareand
protectionofwaterresources,aturban
anddomesticlevel.
1 Anton,Danilo(1996),Ciudadessedientas:aguayambientes
urbanosenAméricaLatina,UNESCOCIID-Nordan,Otawa
2UnitedNations(2006),HumanDevelopmentReport:
Beyondscarcity:power,povertyandglobalwatercrisis,UNDP.
3 UNESCO(2006),UrbanWaterConflicts,International
HydrologicalProgram.
4 IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.(2008)
Climatechangeandwater,WMO-UNEP.
5 Marañon,Boris.(2004).‘Participacióndelsectorprivado
enlagestiondelaguaenelDistritoFederal’inTortajada,
Ceciliaetal,HaciaunagestiónintegraldelaguaenMéxico:
retosyalternativas,MiguelAngelPorrúa,México.
6 CNA,Statisticsonwater2005:waterofthevalleyofMexico
andtheCutzamalaSystem:regionXIII,Semarnat,Mexico,2006.
7 Avila,Patricia.(2007)“Lacuestióndelaguaenlasciudades
mexicanas”inCiudades,núm.73,enero-marzo,RedNacional

deInvestigaciónUrbana,Mexico.
8 Castelan,Enrique.(2002)Elmanejodelaguaenlazona
metropolitanadelaciudaddeMéxico,Researchreport,
ThirdWorldCentreforWater,Mexico.
9 Magaña,VíctoryCarlosGayGarcía.(2002)‘Vulnerabilidad
yadaptaciónregionalanteelcambioclimáticoysusimpactos
ambientales,socialesyeconómicos’enGacetaecológica,
núm.65,México.
10 Ávila,Patricia.(2008)Elmanejodelaguaenterritoriosindígenas
enMéxico,SeriedelAguaenMéxico,vol.4,WorldBank,México.
11 TheauthorwasamemberofthejuryoftheLatinAmerican
WaterTribunalinMarchof2006,inwhich13casesofwater
conflictsinLatinAmericawereanalyzed.
Asurbanpopulationsgrowoverthe
comingdecades,sotoowilldemand
forwaterandwheresuppliesarelimited,
thiswillleadtoincreasedwaterstress.
Growingpopulationswillalsoincrease
thevolumeofsewageproducedwhich,
ifnotappropriatelymanaged,could
leadtoincreasedcontaminationofrivers,
lakes,aquifersandoceans.Socialconflicts
willalsoemergeandintensifyincities
whereeconomicdifficultiespreventthe
developmentofadequatewaterand
sanitationservices.
3

Thechallengeofprovidingcleanwater
andsanitationincitiesbecomesmore

complexstillwhenwealsoconsiderthe
impactsofclimatechange.
4
Citieswillbe
moreexposedtoriskfromtheincreasing
frequencyofextremeweatherevents
causingdroughtsandfloods.Risingsea
levelswillpresentparticularchallenges
forcoastalcitiesthreatenedbyfloodingand
salinecontaminationoftheaquifersrelied
onforwatersupply.Climatechangewillalso
affecttheavailabilityofwaterinmanycities
whichrelyonriversformedbytheglacial
meltwaterinmountainousregionslike
theHimalayasandtheAndes.Ingeneral,
vulnerabilitytoclimatechangeimpacts
willlargelydependonthecapacityofeach
cityorcountryatthetechnological,social,
political,andeconomiclevelstomitigate
theirexposuretorisk.Capacitytomitigate
riskandrecoverfromdisasterscausedby
climatechangewillthereforedifferbetween
developedanddevelopingcountries.
Effectivegovernanceofwaterresources
willrequiretheintroductionofnewforms
ofurbanmanagementwhichensurethe
humanrighttowaterismaintainedfor
all.Sustainablewatermanagementwill
requirelongtermvision,effectiveconflict
resolution,jointmanagement(public,social,

Challenges
Ingeneral,vulnerabilitytoclimatechangeimpacts
willlargelydependonthecapacityofeachcityor
countryatthetechnological,social,political,and
economiclevelstomitigatetheirexposuretorisk.
OppositeAreal view of Fish Pounds in
Mai Po Nature Reserve, Hong Kong, China.
©MartinHarvey/StillPictures
36Megacities and Climate Change
37
Chapter3 Water and sanitation
Today,theMAMCconsumesover62
cubicmetresofwatereverysecond(m
3
/s),
42m
3
/sofwhichcomesfromthedeepwell
network(withinthebasin)and20m
3
/s
importedfromtheLermaandBalsasriver
basins.
8
However,almostonequarter(13
m
3
/s)islostthroughleakageinthedrinking
waterdistributionnetwork
5

andlessthan
5%ofthewaterconsumedintheMAMC
isreused.
6

Intermsofwaterstress,theMAMCranks
veryhigh,demandingmorewater(108%)
thanisactuallyavailablewithinitsown
basin.WateravailabilityintheMAMCis
around84m
3
/inhabitant/yearcompared
toaround4,505m
3
/inhabitant/year
nationally.
6
Toremedythisstress,the
amountofwaterimportedfromother
basinsisincreasing.
Thehydraulicmodelimplementedin
theMAMCishavingserioussocialand
environmentalimplicationsbothwithin
andoutsidethebasin.Aquifersarebeing
overexploited(morewaterisextracted
fromdeepwellsthanisbeingreplacedby
rainfall)andthisiscontributingtothecity’s
subsidence(7.5min100years).
8
Importing

waterfromoutsideofthebasinisleading
toecologicaldamageofwetlandsand
increasingpovertyamongtheindigenous
population.Muchofthewastewater
(49m
3
/s)fromtheMAMCisdrainedinto
theCuatitlan-Tulariver(inthePánucoriver
basin)andishighlypollutedbyurbanand
industrialwaste.Thiscausesdamageto
ecosystems,agriculturalproduction,and
publichealthandrequiresaconsiderable
amountofenergytopumpthewastewater
towardsthePánucoriverbasin.
ThetransferofwaterfromtheBalsasriver
basintoMAMCdemandsaconsiderable
amountofenergyforpumpingand
re-pumpingwater.Forexample,inthe
Cutzamalasystemwhichisoneofthe
largestpumpingsystemsintheworld,
waterneedstobepumpedover140km
andraisedover1100mtosupplytheMAMC.
Toachievethis,102pumpingstationsuse
nearly4,000millionKwh/year.
8
Energy
useintheCutzamalasystemcostUS$130m
in2004
6
,representingaround86%of

thesystem’stotaloperatingcost.
Case study Resolving water crisis
and conflict between Mexico City
and its rural surroundings.
Location Mexico City, Mexico
Overview of the problem and solution
ThemetropolitanareaofMexicoCity
(MAMC)isthelargesturbansettlementin
thecountryanddatesbacktopre-Hispanic
times.SettledintheMexicoValleyina
closedbasin,thecitywasestablishedin
anareawhichincludedseverallakessuch
aslakeTexcoco.Inthe17thCentury,in
ordertopreventflooding,thecity’sSpanish
inhabitantsbegantodesiccatethelakes
withtheconstructionoftheNochistongo
TajocanaltodrainwaterfromtheMexico
Valley.Duringthe19thCentury,other
projectswereundertakentodrainthe
lakesandchannelandexportresidual
waterstotheCuautitlan-Tulariver.
5
Thisnew
infrastructurealteredthehydrological
characteristicsbothwithinandoutsidethe
basinandgeneratednumeroussocialand
environmentalchangesincludingtheloss
ofwetlandsandbiodiversity.
FollowingtheMexicanRevolutionof
1910,thecityexperiencedunprecedented

demographicandurbangrowtheventually
coveringmuchoftheformerlakebasin.In
thelate20thcenturytheMAMChadspread
tocoveranareaofover5000km
2
,with
35municipalitiesand20millioninhabitants,
becomingtheworld’smostpopulatedcity.
6

Tosupplywatertothisgrowingpopulation,
thecityadoptedahydraulicmodelthat
madeuseofnewtechnologytoextract
groundwaterfromthedeepwellsinthe
ValleyofMexicoandtoimportitfromthe
nearbyLermaandBalsasriverbasinusing
dams,channelsandpumpingnetworks.
7

Solutionsmustconsidersocialand
environmentalimpactandstrike
abalancebetweentheneedsof
urbanandruralareas.
Ontheirowninitiative,theMazahua
womenhavepromotedanumberof
projectsaspartofaplanforsustainable
regionaldevelopment.Theseinclude
projectssupportingwaterinfrastructure
development,theintroductionoffirewood
savingstoves,greenhouses,organic

agricultureandreforestation.Through
theseinitiatives,Mazahuawomenare
demonstratingtheirlocalcapacityand
theimportanceofmoreinclusivepublic
policieswhichbenefitruralaswellas
urbanpopulations.Theireffortsemphasise
theimportanceoftakinglonger-term
perspectiveswhichguaranteewater
security,forestconservation,and
organicagriculturalproduction.
Insummary,whendealingwithwater
problemssuchastheMAMC’s,itis
importanttotakeintoaccountnotonlythe
likelyimpactsofclimatechangebutalsothe
widersocialandenvironmentalimpactsof
sourcingwaterforexpandingurban
populations.Individualandcollective
leadershipisessentialandsolutionsmust
considersocialandenvironmentalimpact
andstrikeabalancebetweentheneedsof
urbanandruralareas.
TheMAMCishighlyvulnerabletothe
impactsofclimatechange.Decreased
rainfallcanexacerbatewatersupply
shortagesbothwithinitsown,andin
neighbouringbasins.
9
Extremeclimatic
events,suchasstormsandextraordinary
precipitationcouldpotentiallycausethe

collapseofdeepdrainagesystemsand
resultindramaticfloodingtocriticallevel–
asituationaggravatedbythefactthatthe
MAMCissettledinazonethatwaspartof
alakesystemuntiljustacenturyago.The
MAMCisalsovulnerabletoenergycrisis
asitdependsonthenationalelectricity
network,suppliedbyhydroelectricdams
(whicharethemselvesvulnerabletoclimate
change)andthermoelectricplantswhich
aredependentonfossilfuels.Likewise,
theMAMCisvulnerabletochangesinland
useandincreaseddeforestationinside
andoutsidethebasin,whichcanleadto
decreasedinfiltrationandincreasedrunoff.
Thecurrentproblemswithwaterarecritical
andincreasinglybecomingthesourceof
conflictasinhabitantsoftheMAMCandits
surroundingbasinshavediminishingaccess
towater,whichhampersdevelopmentand
increasespoverty.Asaconsequence,water
conflictshavearisen,largelyasaresultof
thetransferanddrainageofwaterbetween
basins.Forexample,inrecentyears
theCutzamalasystemhasbeenasource
ofsocialconflictwiththeindigenous
populationoftheMazahuaregion.With
springsandriversincreasinglypolluted,
theMazahuaaresufferingwaterstress,
withagriculturalwaterusebeingrestricted

tojustrainwater.
10
Asaresult,theMazahua
havemobilisedandconfrontedbothFederal
andStategovernmentinMexicothrough
collectiveactionwhichhasincludedthe
occupationofoffices,foodandwaterstrikes,
streetdemonstrationsandpermanent
protestcampsatwatersystemfacilities.
Leadership which made it possible
Socialmobilisationhasbeensupported
throughthecollectiveleadershipofan
indigenouswomen’smovement.The
womenhavedemandedmoreequitable
accesstodrinkingwater,alongwith
compensationfordamagecausedby
30yearsofhavingtheirwatersupply
diminishedtofeedthegrowingthirst
ofMexicoCity.Theyhavealsobeen
demandingbetterecologicalprotection
ofthebasinthroughtheregeneration
offorestswhicharethemainwater
rechargeareas.Despitetheeffortsofthe
Mazahuawomen’smovementwhohave
proposedtheimplementationofaprogram
forsustainableregionaldevelopment,
economicsupportprovidedbytheState
hasbeenminimal.Thislackofsupport
islargelyduetotheabsenceofapolicy
forcompensationandalackofaformal

systemforvaluingtheecosystemservices
providedbysupplyingwaterfrom
indigenouspeople’sterritory.Inarecent
WorldBankevaluationofpublicpolicies
inindigenousregions,theMazahuaregion
wasreportedtohavereceivedUS$5per
inhabitant,peryear,fordrinkingwater
andsanitationinfrastructure,anamount
thatisinsufficientforsolvingthe
currentproblems.
10
Facedwithlackofrecognitionforthehuman
righttowaterandtheabsenceofapolicy
forcompensatingtheMazahuaregionfor
thebenefitsithasprovidedtoMexicoCity,
themovementturnedtotheLatinAmerican
WaterTribunalwhichwhilstnotlegally
binding,isanethicstribunalestablished
toresolvewaterconflictsandsupport
environmentalandhumanrights.
DuringthefirstsessionoftheTribunalin
2006,representativesoftheMazahua
women’smovementpresentedtheircase,
documentinghowhumanrightshadbeen
violatedbyfederalandstategovernments
intheCutzamalasystem.Membersofthe
jury
11
analysedthecaseandreachedafinal
verdictemphasisingtheneedtorespectthe

humanrighttowaterandrecommending
thecancellationofprojectexpansionsof
theCutzamalasystemandtheawarding
ofcompensationtoindigenousinhabitants
forthedamagesincurredbythetransfer
ofwatertoMexicoCity.Thisverdictlends
strongsupporttotheMazahua’sproposals
forenvironmentaljustice,mayassistfuture
negotiationsanddrawswiderinternational
attentiontotheirworseningsituation.
Case study 1
L a n d u s e
and Urban Planning
4
40Megacities and Climate Change
41
Chapter4 Land use and urban planning
hectaresoffarmlandweretransformedinto
townsandcitiesduring1972–1992andin
theUSAaround400,000hectaresof
farmlandarelosttourbanisationevery
year.
3
Clearlythistrendisunsustainableand
thedesiretosatiatehumanwantsand
lifestylesinthiswayandatthisrateisfar
exceedingthewiseuseofnaturalresources.
Ifwearetomanagelandusedevelopment
moresustainably,itisessentialthatwe
betterunderstandthekeydriversforland

usechange.
Reasonsunderlyingchangesinland-useare
oftenover-simplifiedandasaconsequence
provideaflawedbasisforenvironmental
anddevelopmentpolicy.Itisnotalways
populationorpovertyalonethatdrivesland
usechangesbutoftenhowacommunity
respondstoeconomicopportunitiesand
howsuchresponsesaremediatedby
variousinstitutionalfactors.Somedrivers
operateondifferentspatialandtemporal
scales,andthismakestheirassessmentand
managementmorepracticallyandpolitically
complex.Forexampleinacountrylike
SouthAfrica,wherethemajorityofthe
populationhavelongbeendeprivedof
accessandrightstoland,changingconcepts
ofsocialjusticehavebecomeastrongdriver
whichcouldhavesignificantimplicationsfor
futurechangesinlanduse.However,while
opportunitiesandconstraintsfornewland
usearecreatedbylocalaswellasnational
marketsandpolicies,itisoftenglobalforces
whichbecomethemaindeterminantsas
theyamplifyorattenuatelocalfactors.
Landdegradationproblemsaredirectly
relatedtolandusepractices,especially
wherecityboundarieshaveextendedinto
urbansprawltoaccommodatenewhousing
development,industry,andintensive

agriculturalpractices.Thereforeacallfor
innovativelandusemanagementand
spatialplanningsystemsisparamountto
reversetheunwiseandunsustainableuse
oflandresources.
Bharati Chaturvedi and Theresa Subban
The2005MillenniumEcosystems
Assessment
1
statesthatduringthesecond
halfofthetwentiethcentury,global
ecosystemsunderwentgreaterchanges
thanatanyothertimeinrecordedhuman
history.Largelyasaresultofhumanactivity,
manyofthesecriticalchangeshaveoccurred
asaresultofhumanactivitywhichhas
convertedover24%oftheEarth’sterrestrial
surfaceintocultivatedsystems.Forexample,
inthe30yearsafter1950,morelandwas
convertedforgrowingcropsthaninthe
entireperiod1700–1850.
Themassiveurbanpopulationgrowthofthe
pastfiftyyearshasplacedhugepressures
onecosystemsasthegrowthofcities
demandsincreasingquantitiesoflandfor
industry,transportandleisureactivities
acrosstheworld.
2
InChinaaboutfivemillion
Itisnotalwayspopulationorpoverty

alonethatdriveslandusechangesbut
oftenhowacommunityrespondsto
economicopportunitiesandhowsuch
responsesaremediatedbyvarious
institutionalfactors.
Context
economic,socialandenvironmental
developmentscenarios.Remotesensing
datacanprovideobjective,exhaustiveand
consistentinformationwhichisessential
forgeneratingsuchsimulations.Aswith
landuseinformation,inmanydeveloping
countriesavailabilityofsuchdataisoften
limitedduetoshortagesinthenecessary
skillsandcapacitytogatheranduse
it.Thisisaparticularchallengeat
thelocalgovernmentlevelwhere
mostlandmanagementissuesare
practicallyaddressed.
Spatialplanningneedstomovebeyond
traditionallanduseplanningandbe
deployedasatooltointegratelanduse
policies.Tocreatesustainablecommunities,
wemustmovebeyondanarrow,sectoral
approachtolandmanagementandfind
newwaysofthinkingtoensurebetter
stakeholdercollaboration,communication,
training,knowledge,learning,andways
ofworking.Planningpracticesarechanging
andcityplanningwithintegratedland

useandspatialplanswillbepivotalin
coordinating,managingandorchestrating
changetocreatesustainablegrowth
pathsforcities.
Whilsttherehasbeenmuchrecognition
ofthenegativeimpactshumanactivity
hascausedthroughchangesinlanduse,
initiativesdesignedtopreventorslow
landdegradationthroughbetterland
managementhaveoftendemonstrated
littlesuccess.Ifwearetoensuremore
sustainablelandusemanagementand
planningtherearestillmanychallenges
whichneedtobeaddressed.
Forexample,developmentprioritiesfor
poorercountriestendtofocusonwhat
areconsideredmorepressingissues
suchasunemployment,loweconomic
growth,povertyalleviation,provisionof
infrastructureandaffordablehousing.As
aresultdedicatedeffortstomovetowards
integratedplanningareoftencompromised.
Conventionallanduseplanninghasalso
frequentlyfailedtoproducesubstantial
improvementsinlandmanagementor
tosatisfythepriorityobjectivesofland
users.Inrecentyearsplanninghascome
tobeviewedasjustonestepintheland
resourcemanagementprocessandmore
asamechanismfordecisionsupport

thanatechnicalevaluationprocedure.
Animprovedapproachshouldcallfor
integratedplanningtoenablesustainable
managementoflandresources.
Landuseinformationiscriticalformaking
wellinformeddecisionsandforundertaking
studiestohelpusunderstandissuessuch
asfoodsecurity,desertification,land
degradationandclimatechange.However,
manycountriessufferfromapaucityof
suchlanduseinformationandthequality,
availabilityandapplicabilityoflocally
producedlandusedatacanbeseverely
limited.Sustainablelandmanagementalso
increasinglyrequiresknowledgeoflanduse
dynamicsovertimeinordertosimulate
Challenges
PreviouspageLow-rise informal settlements in
Mexico City ear into the high altitude plateau that
sits between volcanoes and mountain ridges.
©PaoloRosselli–CourtesyofUrbanAge,
LondonSchoolofEconomics,www.urban-age.net
42Megacities and Climate Change
43
Chapter4 Land use and urban planning
amendmenttotheLocalGovernment
TransitionAct.
4
Thetimingofthelegislative
requirementthatalltransitionallocal

councilsprepareanIDPissignificant,
as1996wastheyearwhentheattention
ofthenewAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)
ledgovernmentshiftedawayfromthe
reconstructionofnationalandprovincial
governmenttowardsthecreationofa
newsystemoflocalgovernment.
eThekwini’sIDPisadocumentproduced
throughthecoordinatedeffortand
outputsofthecity’smanydifferent
sectors.Moreimportantly,itisdeveloped
inconsultationwithothergovernment
andcivilsocietypartnersandarangeof
differentstakeholdergroupsrepresenting:
Business;Labour;Women’sgroups;People
withDisabilities(PWD’s);Wardcommittees;
Amakhosi(traditionalleadership);Non-
governmentalorganisations(NGOs);
Faithbasedorganisations(FBOs);Provincial,
NationalandParastatalorganisations.
Transdisciplinaryteamsaredrawntogether
toworkonprojectswithurbanplannersat
theforefrontleadingtheprocessbydrawing
onamixtureofstrategicplanningand
transdisciplinarytrainingbackgrounds.
Inahistoricalcontext,thisisasignificant
shiftforaplacewherethemajorityofthe
populationusedtobeexcludedfromthe
cityonpurelyracialgrounds.Thisapproach
seekstobreakdowntraditionaldisciplinary

boundariesandinvolvemanyofthe
peopleandorganisationswhoareable
tocontributeto,orarelikelytobeaffected
bytheplanandencouragesastronger
senseofownershipandintegrationacross
thecity.Integratedspatialplanning,land
useandclimatechangeareallidentified
asstrategicfocusareaswithintheIDP,
therebyreflectingtheirsignificanceat
thehighestlevelofcitystrategyin
themunicipality.
WithinthecontextoftheSouthAfrican
IDP,developmentandinvestmentchoices
areguidedbyaSpatialDevelopment
Framework(SDF).Atthenextleveldown,
SpatialDevelopmentPlans(SDPs)cover
specificregionsofthemunicipalareain
greaterdetailwithLocalAreaPlans(LAPs)
providingguidanceatdistrictlevel.
Case study eThekwini Municipality
Location Durban, South Africa
Overview of the problem and solution
Themovetowardsintegratedlocalaction
toaddressclimatechangeinthecity
ofDurbaninSouthAfricarepresents
animportantshifttowardsamore
innovativeapproachtobuildingsustainable
communities.Thiscasestudyreviews
theprocessbeingundertakeninDurban
anditssurroundingurbanmunicipality,

exploringhowstrongleadershipenabled
amoreintegrated,transdisciplinary
approachtobeimplementedatlocal
governmentlevel.Itfocusesonefforts
beingundertakingbothinthecityand
thewiderurbanmunicipalityofeThekwini,
whichisthelocalgovernmentauthority
responsibleforgoverningthegrowing
populationof3.5millioninarichmixof
racial,culturalandnaturalresources.
Therelationshipbetweenurbanformand
sustainabilityiscurrentlyoneofthemost
hotlydebatedissuesontheinternational
environmentalagenda.Thisisparticularly
thecasegiventhestronglinkbetween
spatialplanning,landuseandclimate
change.Thewaycitiesshoulddevelop
inthefuture,andtheeffecttheirform
canhaveonresourcedepletionandsocial
andeconomicsustainability,arecentral
tothisdebate.IntegratedDevelopment
Planningistheleadinglocalplanning
instrumentnowusedinSouthAfrica.
Itprovidesmunicipalitieswithatoolto
alignbudgetingandprojectimplementation
withstrategicpriorities.Italsoallows
forlinkagesandcoordinationacross
thegrowingnumberofsectoralplans,
programmesandprojectsatthemunicipal
level.TheIntegratedDevelopmentPlan

(IDP)wasfirstintroducedin1996inan
Case study 1
OppositeLarge sections of the Mexico City Centro Historico and new
suburban centres are heavily guarded by the police and private security
firms creating an atmosphere of tension in the public spaces of the city.
©PaoloRosselli–CourtesyofUrbanAge,LondonSchoolofEconomics,
www.urban-age.net
44Megacities and Climate Change
45
Chapter4 Land use and urban planning
government’slegislativeassembly(LA)
launchedaninitiativetoprotectallexisting
(butformerlyunrecognised)cityparksand
gardens.Thiswasachallengingtaskasit
wasexpectedthatdesignationwouldbe
undertakenaspartofthelandusezoning
processcarriedoutbylocaladministrative
authorities.Unfortunately,thisadditional
rolewasnothighlyprioritisedbylocal
authorities,sincethelackofexplicit
rulesandguidanceprovidedthemwith
opportunitiestodecideissuesthrough
privateagreementswhichwouldleadto
inconsistentimplementationacrossthecity.
Leadership which made it possible
Therefore,thelegislativeassemblydecided
totaketheleadassigningaround1.2million
rubles(US$400,000)foraninitialstudy–
anunprecedentedsumforanylegislative
work.Thestudyidentified1800sitestobe

includedinthelistof‘greenspacesforpublic
use’andafinallistcomprised2440plots.
ECOMwasresponsibleforpromotinga
publiccampaignandcitizeninvolvement.
Duringthefirstphasetheymobilised
volunteerstocheckthegreenspaceslist
andlaterpromptedforanopenpublic
reviewofthelawwhileitwasbeing
discussedinthecityparliament.Asaresult
ofthismassivecampaign,thelegislative
assemblyunanimouslyapprovedthe
legislation,despitepoliticalclashesand
thelobbyingofdevelopers,theGovernor
supportedandsigneditoff.Thelaw
enteredintoforceNovember2007.
Prepared by LEAD Fellow Alexander Karpov.
Case study St. Petersburg’s Green Spaces
Location St.Petersburg, Russia
Overview of problem and solution
Since2000theproblemofdiminishingareas
ofgreenspaceinSt.Petersburghasbecome
increasinglyconcerning.Newhousing
developments,integratedwithinexisting
residentialareas(orsocalled“compressing
construction”)isincreasinglyencroaching
intoparks,sidewalksandotherpublic
spaces.Thesetogetherwithotherpressures
onpublicgreenspacessuchaslegal(and
illegal)parkinglotsarenowfamiliarto
anylargecity,particularlyduringperiods

ofeconomicordemographicgrowth.In
St.Petersburgthedeteriorationofgreen
areashasrisentoasmuchas30%losses
ayearinsomeofthemostprestigious
districtsandislargelyduetothelackof
appropriatelanduseregulation,zoning
andenforcementregulations.Almostall
landinthecityhastraditionallybeen
managedbythestate,withfewprivately
ownedpropertiesandparksandfew
delimitedborders,manyvaluablesites
werenotevenofficiallyconsideredtobe
parks.In2003,citizensgroupswere
strugglingtoprotectaround100hotspots
acrossthecityfromurbanisation,many
ofthemsmallgardensthreatenedtobe
builtonastheywerenotofficially
recognisedbythestate.
In2001,theStPetersburgSocietyof
Naturalists(ECOM),concernedabout
thisissue,undertookthreeyearsofpublic
discussions,researchandcampaigning,
leadingtoasolidunderstandingofthe
problemandtherecognitionthattherewas
aneedforeffectivemunicipalregulation.
Followingseveralunsuccessfulattempts,
in2003ECOMmadecontactandbegan
workingwithdeputiesinthecitygovernment
todeveloplegislationthatwouldprotect
greenareas.Thelegislationenteredinto

forceinJune2004,establishingvarious
rulesandobligationsanddirectlyprohibiting
anyconstructiononsitesdeemedtohave
recreationalfunction.However,theproblem
wasn’tentirelyovercome,astherewasstill
debateanduncertaintyaroundwhichplots
shouldbegrantedprotectedareastatus.
Immediatelyfollowingapprovalofthisfirst
legislation,theworkinggroupinthecity
Case study 2
The‘ClimateFutureforDurban’programme
wasundertakenfrom2004–06overthree
phases.Firstly,itbeganbyreviewingand
developinglocalunderstandingofglobal
andregionalclimatechangescienceand
theimplicationsofclimatechangefor
Durban.Secondly,a‘Headlineclimate
changeadaptationstrategy’wasdeveloped
forthecity,tohighlighthowkeysectors
withinthemunicipalityshouldbegin
respondingtotheunavoidableimpacts
ofclimatechange.Thirdlytheprogramme
beganaprocessofincorporatingclimate
changeimpactsintolongtermcityplanning.
ThemunicipalityandCSIRworkedwiththe
UKbasedTyndallCentreforClimateChange
Researchtodevelopamodelenablingthe
simulation,evaluationandcomparisonof
strategicurbandevelopmentplansinlight
ofanticipatedclimatechangeimpacts.

Helpingtodevelopadeeperunderstanding
oftheeffectsofgreenhouse-gasemissions,
themodelwillenablebettertechnical
assessmentofalternativestrategic
approachestoclimatechangemitigation
andadaptation.
TheSDFistheunderlyingdocument
thatsteerstheimplementationof
theallthecity’sspecialdevelopment
programmes,integratingmunicipal
spatialstrategiescoveringeconomics,
transport,environmentandsociety.
Byconnectingresources,expenditure
andactionacrossthemunicipalarea,
itishopedthatthecitywillfacilitate
sustainablegrowth,whilstensuring
thattheinequitable,inefficientand
unsustainableconsequencesofpast
developmentpatternsareavoided
infuture.
Durbanpromotesa‘compactcity’model,
advocatingincreasingthedensityof
innercitydevelopmentwhilstensuring
‘urbanedges’aredefinedtolimitsprawl
andencouragestrongerscrutinyofany
proposedextensionofinfrastructure
intoruralagriculturalland.Definingan
‘urbanedge’notonlyhelpstoprotect
environmentalassetsbutalsoprevents
inefficientexpenditureoninfrastructure.

Theconceptindicatestheboundarywithin
whichitisbothoptimalandsustainable
toprovideadditionalservicesandserves
asadecisionsupporttooltoensure
moreefficientpublicserviceexpenditure
inthemunicipalarea.Animportant
andsignificantinnovationtotheSDF
istherequirementthatalldevelopment
proposalsdemandingtheextensionof
infrastructureintonewareas,willneed
tobefilteredthroughanassessment
frameworktoensurethecosteffectiveness,
sustainability,andbestinterestsofthe
cityaremaintained.
Akeyrequirementofthecompactcity
isthatresidential,employmentand
recreationdevelopmentsmustbe
co-located,wherepossiblethrough
thedevelopmentofmixedusezones.In
thisregard,thecity’slandusemanagement
systemisacrucialcomponentofthe
integratedspatialplanningsystem,ensuring
appropriatelandusezonesandcontrols
areinplacetoimplementthesemixeduse
zones.Accordingly,asinglelandusescheme
frameworkisnowbeingdevelopedfor
thecitytoreplacetheformerapartheid
planningschemeswhichwerecharacterised
byurbansprawl,lowdensitydevelopment
andfragmentationoftheurbanspace.

Thisschemewillhelpbegintoimprove
historicallyunder-investedareas,which
wereformerlyexcludedfromofficialcity
boundaries,bringingthemintoalanduse
managementsystemwhichensurestheir
appropriateandsustainablemanagement.
Aligningwiththehierarchyofplans,the
singlelanduseschemewillsupportgreater
intensityofurbanlanduseandoffer
moreopportunityforsustainablelifestyle
choices.Forexample,betterprovision
ofinfrastructureforcyclingandwalking,
offeringpotentialforreductionsinair
pollutionandgreenhousegasemissions.
Inthiswayandinothers,anintegrated
landusemanagementsystemcanbeplay
akeyroleinmitigatingthecity’simpact
onglobalclimatechange.
Leadership which made it possible
Thedevelopmentofthisplanshowedthe
importantroleplayedbyurbanplanners
whohaveledmanyoftheseprocesses
withstrongtrans-disciplinaryworking
teamsandisaclearexampleofhow
leadershipcanstimulatepositiveaction
addressingclimatechange.
InresponsetoDurban’sadaptation
plansandprocessesatamunicipallevel,
thecity’senvironmentalmanagement
departmenthasalsotakenaleadrole.

Thedepartmenthasworkedcollaboratively
withtheIDPteamtolocateclimate
changeasastrategicpriorityintheIDP
andinitiatethe‘ClimateFutureforDurban’
programmetogetherwiththeCouncilfor
ScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR).
Public activism played a key role in protecting
and increasing green areas and parks in
St. Petersburg, Russia. ©VictorRadziun
46Megacities and Climate Change
47
Chapter4 Land use and urban planning
Wasteandclimatechangearecloselylinked.
InIndia,60%oftotaldisposablewasteis
organic,whichcanrapidlydecompose,and
releasemethanegasduringtheprocess.
Moreover,itisrecognisedthatrecycling
resultsinreducingtheneedforraw
materials.Incasessuchasaluminum,
recyclingplaysanimportantroleby
reducingtheamountofenergyrequired
foritsproductionandalsoeventually
reducegreenhousegasemissions.
6

Wastepickers,whoarenotrecognisedas
formalstakeholdersbytherecyclingsector,
undertakebothrecyclingandextensive
repair/reuse,makingtheirinclusioninany
wastemanagementplanessential.Some

estimatessuggestthatapproximately1%
oftheurbanpopulationinthedeveloping
worldisengagedinrecycling.Manyof
themarepoorminorities,migratingfrom
theruralregions,whereecologicaland
economiccollapseisunderway.Therefore,
theirinclusioninsuchplansisessential
bothfromanenvironmentalandpoverty
alleviationpointofview.
Leadership which made it possible
ThecaseofNDMC’slinkageswith
Chintanandwastepickerswassuccessful
duetoleadershipatmultiplelevels.
Thecornerstoneoftheprojectwas
theleadershipdisplayedbytheNDMC.
TheNDMCisthelegalownerofwaste
onceitreachestheneighborhoodbins.
Anydecisionrelatedtoinclusionistherefore
dependantontheNDMC.Moreover,the
areawhereservicesarebeingprovided
bytheprojectishometopoliticians,senior
officials,policymakers,judgesandothers
decisionmakers,Therefore,theNDMC
iscautiousaboutanynewideasforfear
offailureandretribution.
Thenewlawsrelatedtosolidwasterequire
segregationofwasteanditsefficient
recycling.Despiteintenseawareness,
veryfewresidentseverseparatetheir
recyclablefromtheirorganicwaste.

Bolsteredbytheguidelinesofthe
SupremeCourtthatsuggest(butdoes
notmakemandatory)doorstepcollection
ofwaste,theNDMCmadethisservice
availabletolocalneighbourhoods.The
choicetooptforwaste-pickersinsteadof
existingcontractorsdisplayedleadership
becauseitinvolvedtakingrisksby
supportinganewideathatwastooperate
usingpeopleseverelydiscriminatedagainst
whichinvolveddoorstepinteractionsofsuch
peoplewithseniorgovernmentofficials.
Thisalsoimplieddisturbingtheembedded
linkagesbetweenmunicipalworkersand
theinformalsector,apotentiallythorny
issue.Itisnotablethatthetwoother
municipalitiesofDelhihavenotdisplayed
thesamelevelofleadership.
Theinitiativecouldnothavebeensuccessful
ifthewastepickershadfailedtodeliver
efficientservices.Inmanypartsofthe
country,NGOshavecomplainedabouttheir
inabilitytotrainwastepickerstodeliver
servicesaccordingtoagreedstandards.
Sincewastepickersnowhavetocomply
withstandardsandcollectioncriteria,the
newworkisactuallyashiftawayfrom
traditionalwastepicking.Chintaninvested
inwaste-pickerssocialorganisation,so
leadershipamongstthisgrouphadalready

beennurtured.Thisraisedwaste-pickers’
profiletoalevelwhichledNDMCto
noticeandacknowledgetheirroleas
environmentalserviceproviders.Thisin
turnhelpedthemtoworkcollaboratively
andensurestandardsweremetleading
tooptimalperformance.Successwasalso
largelyduetotheeffortsofafewleaders
whorealisedthesenseofurgencyandthe
opportunityforaction.Thisprocesswas
madepossiblebythefacilitationroleplayed
byChintanwhoestablishedarelationship
withNDMC.Chintanisanon-profit
organisationthataddressesissuesofurban
sustainabilityandenvironmentaljustice.
7

Itworkswiththeinformalrecyclingsector
atboththegrassrootsandadvocacylevels.
Helpingthewastepickerstoshiftfrombeing
scavengerstomanagersisagoalofthe
organisation.Therefore,itsleadershipwas
essentialtobuildtechnicalcapacityat
grassrootslevelandcomplementNDMC’s
ownleadership.
AnewtrendinIndiaisseeingtheincreasing
privatisationofsolidwastemanagement
atalmostallthelevels-collection,
transportation,recycling,disposal.Before
this,collectionanddisposalwasprimarily

theworkofmunicipalities,whocollected
wastefromformalcollectionpointsacross
neighbourhoods.Thecitizensgenerating
wastewereexpectedtodeposititatthese
informaldumpswherewaste-pickers
scavengedforpaper,plastics,metalsetc.
Allrecyclingwasandcontinuestobe
undertakenbytheinformalrecycling
sector,savingthemunicipalitiesinDelhi
over600,00rupeeseachdayinlabour
costsalone.
IntheNDMCarea,theinformalsector
wasterecyclerscollectedupto59%ofthe
wasteintheNDMCarea,segregateditand
soldontotherecyclingtrade.Suchrecycling
divertedwastebeingtakentolandfills
andreducedtheassociatedenvironmental
costs.Therewasnosystemtoprevent
neighbourhoodsfromdisposingoftheir
wasteonstreetcorners,whereitwaseither
burnedorputrefiedwhencollectionservices
wereslow.Thewaste-pickersalsoworked
inunsafeconditions,withhugehealthrisks,
oftenbrutalisedasillegalentrantsinto
wastemanagementandforcedtopay
bribes.Thesector,throughNGOs,is
demandingthatwastepickersshouldbe
includedinplansforwastemanagement
asequalpartners.TheNDMCembarked
onaninclusivewastemanagement

system.Aseriesofcontractsweresigned
withChintan,whichstipulatedthatthe
wastepickerswouldbeatthecoreof
theservicedelivery,forwhichhigh
performancestandardswereagreed
upon.Inall,over70,000establishments
andhouseholdswerecoveredunder
theseplans.Theincomeandoccupational
safetyofthewastepickersincreased,
asdidtherecyclingrates.
Case study The New Delhi Municipal
Council’s Waste Management System
Location New Delhi, India
Overview of the problem and solution
TheNewDelhiMunicipalCouncil(NDMC)
isoneofthethreemunicipalitiesinDelhi.
Wastedisposalhasalwaysbeenoneof
itsbiggerconcerns.Thechallengeforthe
NDMCwastodesignandimplementa
win-winsolutionforexistinginformal
sectorwasterecyclers,wastegenerators
andoptimizeenvironmentalbenefits.
TheNDMCdidsobyoutsourcing
door-to-doorwastecollectiontoChintan,
anon-profitorganisationthatfacilitated
waste-pickersforsuchwastecollection.
Thus,thelivelihoodsofthepoorimproved,
recyclingratesincreased,andsolidwaste
handlingimprovedconsiderably.This
combinationofactionsislikelytohavea

positiveimpactinthereductionofgreen
housegasemissions.
5

Case study 3
1 TheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment(2005).
www.millenniumassessment.org
2 UNEP(2002).TheGlobalEnvironmentOutlookReport3.
3 UNFPA(2001).www.unfpa.org
4 RepublicofSouthAfrica,1996:LocalGovernmentTransitionAct,
Act209of1993,GovernmentPrinter,Pretoria.
5 CHINTANENVIRONMENTALRESEARCHANDACTIONGROUP.
WastingOurLocalResources–TheNeedforInclusiveWaste
ManagementPolicyinIndia.2007
6 CHATURVEDI,B.Whywasteachance?InDowntoEarth.
January15,2008
7 www.chintan-india.org