Luận văn thạc sĩ a study of conceptual metaphors denoting fear in some english and vietnamese contemporary short stories from cognitive perspective

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

ĐÀO THỊ THÙY LINH

A STUDY OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS DENOTING FEAR

IN SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE CONTEMPORARY
SHORT STORIES FROM COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Nghiên cứu ẩn dụ ý niệm chỉ nỗi sợ hãi trong một số truyện ngắn
Anh –Việt đương đại dưới góc nhìn tri nhận

M.A. THESIS (PROGRAM 1)

Field: English Linguistics
Code: 8220201.01

HANOI - 2019


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

ĐÀO THỊ THÙY LINH

A STUDY OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS DENOTING FEAR
IN SOME ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE CONTEMPORARY
SHORT STORIES FROM COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Nghiên cứu ẩn dụ ý niệm chỉ nỗi sợ hãi trong một số truyện ngắn

Anh –Việt đương đại dưới góc nhìn tri nhận

M.A. THESIS (PROGRAM 1)
Field:

English Linguistics

Code:

8220201.01

Supervisor: Huỳnh Anh Tuấn, Ph.D.

HANOI - 2019


DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis “A study of conceptual metaphors denoting fear in
some English and Vietnamese contemporary short stories from cognitive
perspective” has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been
submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. This thesis
is submitted after a carefully checking progress in order to fulfill the requirements
of the M.A degree.
Hanoi, 2019

Đào Thị Thùy Linh

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Throughout the writing of this thesis, I have received a great deal of support
and assistance.
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Huỳnh
Anh Tuấn, Ph.D. for the all support of my research, for his patience,
motivation, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time
of research and writing of this thesis.
I am greatly indebted to all my lecturers at University of Languages and
International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, for their endless
enthusiasm and undeniable helpful lectures. I would be very grateful to the staff of
the Faculty of Graduate Studies for their support during my time of studying.
I would also like to thank my leaders and colleagues at the place where I
work. They gave me opportunities and supported me so that I completed the
program the best I can.
Finally, I gratefully acknowledge my family for all for providing me constant
encouragement, divine presence and supporting me spiritually throughout.

Hanoi, 2019
Đào Thị Thùy Linh

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ABSTRACT

This paper attempts to investigate and compare the conceptual metaphors of
fear in English and Vietnamese contemporary short stories. FEAR is one of the
basic emotions of human beings, and it has both similarities and differences among
different languages. Analysis of features of conceptualization is a critical part of the

semantics of emotions. This study aims to compare and contrast the use of
metaphors of fear in two languages, which are English and Vietnamese. The study
provides some important findings. Firstly, metaphor is common in conceptualizing
and expressing emotions in English and Vietnamese short stories. Secondly, English
and Vietnamese have several common cognitive metaphors of fear. Thirdly, the
differences of English and Vietnamese metaphors in fear have relations to cultural
models. Due to the limited research on the conceptual metaphors denoting fear used
by short story writers, the findings add to the body of knowledge related to these
areas of conceptual metaphors. The study also suggests several implications for
translation, language learning and teaching.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ....................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ iv
PART I: INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................1
1. Rationale of the study..............................................................................................1
2. Objectives of the study ............................................................................................1
3. Research questions ..................................................................................................2
4. Scope of the study ...................................................................................................2
5. Significance of the study .........................................................................................3
6. Organization of the study ........................................................................................3
PART II: DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................5
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................5
AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ...............................................................5

1.1. Literature review ................................................................................................5
1.2. Theoretical background...................................................................................10
1.2.1. Cognitive linguistics........................................................................................11
1.2.2. Metaphor .........................................................................................................12
1.2.3. Conceptual metaphor ......................................................................................13
1.3. Summary ...........................................................................................................20
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................21
2.1. Approach ...........................................................................................................21

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2.2. Method ..............................................................................................................21
2.3. Data collection procedure ................................................................................22
2.3.1. English contemporary short stories .................................................................24
2.3.2. Vietnamese contemporary short stories ..........................................................25
2.4. Data analysis procedure ..................................................................................27
2.5. Summary ...........................................................................................................33
CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS .................................................34
3.1. Qualitative analysis ..........................................................................................34
3.1.1 Conceptual metaphors of fear in English short stories ....................................34
3.1.2 Conceptual metaphors of fear in Vietnamese short stories ..............................41
3.2. Quantitative analysis ........................................................................................50
3.3. Similarities and differences in the use of conceptual metaphors between
English and Vietnamese short stories ....................................................................52
3.3.1. Similarities ......................................................................................................52
3.3.2. Differences ......................................................................................................54
3.4. Summary ...........................................................................................................56
PART III: CONCLUSION .....................................................................................57
1. Recapitulation .......................................................................................................57

2. Implications ...........................................................................................................58
3. Limitations and suggestions for further study.......................................................59
3.1. Limitations ........................................................................................................59
3.2. Suggestions for further study ..........................................................................60
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................61

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PART I: INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides the overall structure and concept of the study,
including the rationale, objectives, research questions, scope, contribution and
organization of the study.
1. Rationale of the study
Cognitive linguistics is the approach to the study of language that began to
emerge in the 1970s and has been increasingly active since the 1980s. Until now, a
large amount of research has been carried out in the light of cognitive linguistics
over the world in general and in Vietnam in particular, and most of them have
focused on semantics with a deeper insight into the use of conceptual metaphors in
languages. Conceptual metaphors involve two concepts and have the form A is B,
where the most abstract concept A such as love, life, economy, and argument is
comprehended in terms of the more concrete concept B including war or a
container. Therefore, the investigation of conceptual metaphors to find out
similarities and differences of using this kind of meaning transference among
languages in the world brings great benefits to the English teaching, learning, and
translating process.
Everyday emotions like happiness, sadness, anger and fear and love turn to
be metaphorical. The basis of this research is relatively small but important for
describing fear. Metaphors arise when a familiar, well-understood concept (the

source) is used to explain or structure another less-familiar one (the target). There is
an important connection between stories and emotion metaphors.
The research entitled “A study of conceptual metaphors denoting fear in
some English and Vietnamese contemporary short stories from cognitive
perspective” is conducted to contribute to the process of understanding and
interpretation of conceptual metaphors in English and Vietnamese short stories.
2. Objectives of the study
The study is intended to fulfill the following objectives:

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- investigating how conceptual metaphors denoting fear are expressed in
English and Vietnamese short stories from cognitive perspective.
- discovering and explaining the similarities and differences in conceptual
metaphors of fear in English and Vietnamese short stories.
3. Research questions
In order to achieve the above objectives, the following research questions
could be put forward:
- How are the conceptual metaphors of fear conceptualized in English and
Vietnamese contemporary short stories?
- What are the similarities and differences of the conceptual metaphors
denoting fear in English and Vietnamese short stories?
4. Scope of the study
This research investigates the way of conceptualizing metaphors denoting
fear in some English and Vietnamese contemporary short stories. Seventeen short
stories in both languages, five in English and twelve in Vietnamese, are chosen as
follows:
English short stories
 Allan and the Sundered Veil (2000)

 Eclipse (2007)
 The doll (2011)
 The sloan men (2013)
 The open window (2013)
Vietnamese short stories
 Hoang Đường (2005)
 Cánh đồng bất tận (2005)
 Áo đỏ bắt đèn (2005)
 Thiên thần nhỏ của tôi (2008)
 Áo rách và nắm bụi (2011)
 Lời nguyền của bầy sói (2013)
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 Ngồi khóc trên cây (2013)
 Những kẻ đợi chết (2013)
 Núi mây và bồ câu xám (2014)
 Cơm vắt Điện Biên (2014)
 Bảy bước tới mùa hè (2015)
 Xuyên đêm (2015)
5. Significance of the study
This study attempts to provide learners with a potential source of conceptual
metaphors denoting fear in English and Vietnamese stories. Moreover, it helps
learners understand the differences between English and Vietnamese cultures and
know how to apply the knowledge of conceptual metaphors in stories not only in
studying but also in real life.
The study aims to make important contributions. First, it investigates the
conceptual metaphors of fear in English and Vietnamese based on the theory of
cognitive metaphor. Second, it discovers and explains the similarities and the
dissimilarities in conceptual metaphors of fear in English and Vietnamese. Third, it

suggests several implications for translation, communication, and language
teaching.
6. Organization of the study
This study will cover the following 3 parts with 3 chapters:
Part I - “Introduction”. This part will present the rationale, the objectives and
research questions of the study. It is also devoted to the scope, the significance and
the organization of the study.
Part II – “Development”. This part will comprise three chapters.
Chapter 1 – “Literature review and Theoretical background”. This chapter will
present previous studies related to the paper and provide the fundamental
knowledge of metaphors in general and conceptual metaphors in particular.
Theoretical matters related to the study such as the theories of cognitive linguistics,
metaphor, definition, classification, features of conceptual metaphors and fear
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metaphor.
Chapter 2 – “Research methodology”. This chapter will discuss the research
approach, research method, data collection procedure and data analysis procedure.
Chapter 3 – “Findings and Discussions”. This chapter will focus on analyzing and
discussing conceptual metaphors denoting fear in some English and Vietnamese
contemporary short stories. Then, this chapter will also compare the similarities and
differences in conceptual metaphors used in two languages.
Part III – “Conclusion”. This chapter will summarize the study‟s results and
present the suggested implications for learning, teaching and translating conceptual
metaphors in English and Vietnamese as well as limitations and suggestions for
further study.

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PART II: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter reviews the existing literature to describe how previous
researches contribute to the topic. Then, it provides theoretical background and
framework that the study is based on.
1.1. Literature review
Cognitive metaphor, or conceptual metaphor, as well as a detailed
examination of the underlying processes, was first extensively explored by Lakoff
and Johnson in the book “Metaphor We Live By” in 1980. Since then, a
considerable number of studies has been carried out in the light of cognitive
linguistics in the world and Vietnam as well. Emotion metaphors figure prominently
as one of the best-researched domains with famous work by many linguists such as
Barcelona (1986), Lakoff (1987), Kövecses (1990), Niemeier (2000), etc.
Esenova (2011) examines the conceptual metaphors of anger, fear, and
sadness embedded in the conceptual system of English speakers and explores the
role of various bodily and cultural factors in the creation of those metaphors. The
study employs an interdisciplinary approach which means that the outcome of the
study is assessed about the findings from other related fields. The metaphors are
chosen to map the source domains of CONTAINER, ANIMAL, SUPERNATURAL
BEING, HIDDEN ENEMY, TORMENTOR, SMELL, TASTE, PLANT, MIXED
SUBSTANCE, and PURE SUBSTANCE onto the target domains of anger, fear and
sadness. Moreover, it provides knowledge about the importance of the following
basic experiences in the conceptualization of emotions: human interaction with
animal species such as horses, snakes, birds, etc., and the cultural views resulting
from it; folk beliefs about the supernatural, agricultural experience of growing
plants and the practice of mixing different substances. Particularly, the findings
show that fear may be instigated by a great variety of physical, mental, and social

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dangers. The study demonstrates further that each cause gives rise to a specific type
of fear. The existence of the majority of those fears is confirmed by scientific
evidence from other fields of knowledge.
Mashak et al. (2012) conduct a comparative study on basic emotion
conceptual metaphors in English and Persian texts. In the study, conceptual
metaphors are investigated for happiness, anger, sadness, fear, and love. To conduct
this study, about 782 metaphorical expressions describing emotions are collected
from different sources, from both written and spoken discourses in English and
Persian. The study concludes that although there are some cultural differences in
conceptualizing these five basic emotions in English and Persian due to the
emphasis laid on some aspects of metaphor and entailments (partially the same
pattern), the two languages share most of the general conceptual metaphors in
describing these five emotions. That is, most Persian metaphorical expressions of
emotions can be rendered into English and vice versa and serve the same
metaphorical meaning and effects. Also, the result of the Chi-square test applied to
the three cases in this study, including totally the same, partially the same and
totally different revealed that the two languages are highly similar in the issue of
emotion conceptualization. As far as emotion conceptualization is concerned,
Persian and English have many features in common, and it could be claimed that
both languages are 51% totally the same, 47% partially the same and 2% are totally
different in conceptualizing these five emotions.
Similarly, Esmaeili et al. (2015) attempt to find the meeting grounds between
the embodied cognitive processes involved in conceptualization of emotions - such
as anger, shame, and fear, and the language used for expressing the subjective
experience of emotions. Tim O'Brien's Vietnam War memoir in 1990, The Things
They Carried, has been selected as the focus of the present study to highlight the

way conceptual metaphors underlie the experience of emotions such as shame,
anger, and fear. The Things They Carried is made up of many vignette-like
narratives embedded within other narratives that seem to portray O'Brien's

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memories of the Vietnam War. The study shows that the conceptual metaphor
BODY AS CONTAINER holds ground in conceptualizations of emotions like
shame and anger.

The

study suggests that ontological

and epistemic

correspondences involved in the mapping between the shame domain and the solid
content are proved to be much similar to those offered by Kövecses for anger.
Conceptualization of fear, on the other hand, involved force dynamic patterns like
the conceptualization of anger. There is still much to be done to approach the issue
of emotion-cognition interaction. There are certain basic image schemas or primary
metaphors which govern the language we may encounter in a person's record of
emotional experiences such as those in a war memoir.
Sirvyde (2006) focuses on how cultural patterns of thought and world views
shape the conceptual metaphors of fear in English and Lithuanian. The study uses
data from the British National Corpus and the Lithuanian online corpus, with an
amount of about 100 million word collections of written and spoken languages from
a wide variety of sources. The study comes up with important findings. Both
language communities associate fear with their own physical experience and things

from their environment. The research has shown that metaphorical expressions are
more than registers of physical experience, they have conceptual structure. English
and Lithuanian share most of the conceptual metaphors of fear. Many examples of
cross-cultural differences suggest that, though metaphorical patterning of the
concept of fear is universal, it holds different folk beliefs about attributes of the
source domains. Many metaphorical expressions derive historically from the cultural
experience of a language community. They function within the speaker‟s and the
listener‟s background knowledge of the environment. Hence, Lithuanian makes the
attributes of source domains related to nature more salient than English does.
Most recently, Afrashi and Ghouchani (2018) compare and contrast
conceptual metaphors between English and Persian texts. However, they
concentrate on conceptual metaphors of fear. Metaphorical expressions are taken
from more than 500 books and articles. These texts are written in a wide variety of

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ranges, including fictions, non-fictions, plays, scenarios, newspapers, and so on.
Using a corpus-based approach, the study finds important conclusions. The study
identifies 600 conceptual metaphors of fear in the form of 51 names of mapping.
The source domains such as substance, force, and movement are the most frequent
source domains of the corpus by which fear domain is expressed.
In Vietnam, there are some noticeable cognitive linguists, such as Lý Toàn
Thắng (2005), Trần Văn Cơ (2007), Nguyễn Đức Tồn (2008), and Nguyễn Lai
(2009). With the publication “Cognitive linguistics – From general theory to
practice in Vietnamese” (Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận - Từ lý thuyết đại cương đến thực
tiễn tiếng Việt), Lý Toàn Thắng (2005) describes some typical works of cognitive
linguistics and examines the model of special cognition in Vietnamese. Trần Văn
Cơ (2007), with “Cognitive linguistics: Notes and thinking” (Ngôn ngữ học tri
nhận: Ghi chép và suy nghĩ), provides an overview and development of metaphor

and conceptual metaphor in Vietnam and in the world. The conceptual metaphors in
idioms and poetry are also investigated by Nguyễn Đức Tồn (2008) and Nguyễn Lai
(2009) respectively.
Bùi Khánh Ly (2012) carries out the study on cognitive metaphors of
negative emotions in English and Vietnamese. In the study, she investigates
cognitive metaphors of three negative emotions anger, sadness and fear in English
and Vietnamese based on the theory of cognitive semantics. The study collects 960
metaphorical expressions of anger, sadness, and fear from different short stories and
novels in English and Vietnamese in paper books, ebooks, and online stories. The
study realizes some similarities and differences in using conceptual metaphors of
negative emotions between English and Vietnamese. In terms of similarities, some
common bodily reactions that are experienced by people universally provide an
experiential grounding for near-universal metaphors. This accounts for the existence
of some common metaphors in both English and Vietnamese. Though the primitive
understanding of human bodies and emotions are similar, English and Vietnamese
cultures differ along their way of development and distinct features are formed in

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the two cultures. A difference between English and Vietnamese negative emotion
metaphors is that Vietnamese tends to utilize more body parts than English in
conceptualization. It is due to the influence of traditional medicine which views
body organs as the center of humans where emotions are generated and located.
Besides that, container metaphors in Vietnamese are closely related to the body part
“lòng” (the stomach/bowels area). It results in a large number of “lòng” container
metaphorical expressions in Vietnamese. In contrast, English metaphor deals mostly
with body container. What is more, and as a result of the influence of modern
medicine, there exist some body parts specific to English such as nostrils, vessels
and veins and some specific to Vietnamese only such as liver, gall. As an influence

of Buddhism, the soul with the metaphor LOSS OF SOUL is used to describe fear
in Vietnamese. Besides, some metaphors of negative emotions popular in English
cannot be found in Vietnamese data. They include the conceptualization of anger
and sadness as AN OPPONENT and fear as AN ILLNESS and INSANITY.
On the other hand, some Vietnamese authors focus on cognitive metaphors
of positive emotions in English and Vietnamese, such as happiness and love.
Nguyễn Văn Trào (2016) conducts a cross-cultural analysis of metaphorical
conceptualization of happiness in English and Vietnamese. The study is based on
conceptual metonymies and conceptual metaphors to describe and analyze the
idioms that express happiness in English and Vietnamese. The study finds that
English and Vietnamese broadly match in the use of major conceptual metaphors of
happiness, including HAPPY IS UP, HAPPINESS IS A FLUID IN A
CONTAINER, A HAPPY PERSON IS AN ANIMAL THAT LIVES WELL, and
HAPPINESS IS INSANITY. Besides, the two languages share a common feature in
describing happiness by referring to some common behavioral reactions to it, such
as jumping, dancing, smiling, and response in the face. However, English and
Vietnamese do not share some other conceptual metaphors, such as HAPPY IS
WIDE, HAPPINESS IS COOLNESS from Vietnamese and HAPPINESS IS
LIGHT, HAPPINESS IS OFF THE GROUND from English. Some differences are

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also found in the use of the physiological effects of happiness on the experiencers:
e.g.; increased heart rate in English, or dancing hands in Vietnamese.
Lê Thị Khánh Hòa (2015) investigates conceptual metaphors of love in
American and Vietnamese novels from 2008 to 2013. The study finds 200 samples
of metaphorical expressions denoting love in American and Vietnamese romantic
novels, which were written by native speakers. The results show that love can be
conceptualized as war, madness/ insanity, magic, physical forces, pains, fire/heat, a

journey, and a nutrient in both languages. However, it is easier to find the
metaphorical expressions LOVE IS A CONTAINER in American than in
Vietnamese. In addition, the results show that there are many expressions
conceptualized LOVE AS REVENGE in American, but it is not the case in
Vietnamese.
Despite all the existing books and researches on conceptual metaphors in the
world in general and Vietnamese in particular, there has been no specific study on
conceptual metaphors denoting fear in English and Vietnamese contemporary short
stories. Previous studies differ in the materials used in each study, ranging from
idioms, poems, novels, and other spoken languages. Studies on conceptual
metaphors of fear are present in other countries and languages, such as Esenova
(2011), Mashak et al. (2012), Esmaeili et al. (2015), Sirvyde (2006), and Afrashi
and Ghouchani (2018), but the focus is not on short stories. Additionally, previous
studies tend to focus on conceptual metaphors denoting happiness and love in
Vietnam, which leaves a gap in the existing literature for conceptual metaphors of
fear in Vietnam.
1.2. Theoretical background
This section provides a theoretical background related to the study. The main
aim is to give a clear and deep understanding of cognitive linguistics, metaphor,
conceptual metaphor, classification and features of conceptual metaphor. It then
presents fear and common fear metaphors which will be useful for the subsequent
analysis of the conceptual metaphors of fear.

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1.2.1. Cognitive linguistics
Cognitive linguistics is a modern school of linguistic thought and practice,
which describes how language interacts with cognition, forms our thoughts, and the
the parallel between the development of language and the change in the common

mindset across time (Robinson and Ellis, 2008). Because cognitive linguistics sees
language as rooted in man‟s overall cognitive abilities, cognitive linguistics topics
are of particular interest: the structural characteristics of natural language
categorization (such as systematic polysemy, cognitive models, mental imagery,
and metaphor); the functional principles of linguistic organization (such as iconicity
and naturalness); the conceptual interface between syntax and semantics; the
experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use; and the relationship
between language and thought (Geeraerts and Cuyckens, 2007). Preeminent figures
in cognitive linguistics include Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Langacker (1987),
Fauconnier (1997), Talmy (2000), Kưvecses (2002), Lý Tồn Thắng (2005), Evans
(2007), Trần Văn Cơ (2007), etc.
Two basic commitments characterize the cognitive linguistics enterprise
(Lakoff, 1991). The first key commitment is the Generalization Commitment which
characterizes the general principles essential for all aspects of human language. This
commitment seeks generalization of principles of language, so the previous ways of
studying the language, like semantics (word and sentence meaning), phonology
(sound), morphology (word structure) and syntax (sentence structure) will not be
suitable, because there is little room for generalization. The second key commitment
of cognitive linguistics is Cognitive Commitment. It provides a characterization of
general principles of used language that are consistent with what is known about the
human cognition from other disciplines. Hence, general cognitive principles should
be reflected by language and linguistic organization rather than specific cognitive
principles (Evans, 2012).
So there are many definitions of cognitive linguistics, it depends on what
aspects of linguistics that researchers want to study on the cognitive perspective.

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The different feature from other approaches is that language is hypothesized to

reflect certain principle properties and design features of the human mind. In other
words, it is the studying of relationship of human language and the mind, sociophysical experience.
Cognitive linguistics is divided into two subfields which are cognitive
grammar and cognitive semantics. Cognitive grammar emphasizes the study of the
cognitive principles that give rise to linguistic organization. According to Langacker
(1987), cognitive grammar hypothesizes that instead of being different systems
themselves, grammar, semantics and lexicon exist on a continuum. Semantics is the
study of linguistic meaning. Cognitive semantics shows that language is a part of a
more general human cognitive ability and can therefore explain the world only as
people perceive it (Croft and Cruse, 2004). Besides that, conceptual metaphor
theory, which is a fundamental subdiscipline in the fields of cognitive grammar and
cognitive semantics, aims to provide an explanatory basis for conceptual systems
and language in general brain and mind studies. So, conceptual metaphor can be
studied from both grammatical and semantic perspectives.
1.2.2. Metaphor
Metaphor is defined by Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary, as “a word
or phrase used to describe somebody or something else, in a way that is different
from its normal use, in order to show that the two things have the same qualities and
to make the description more powerful”, but it is understood as the meaning
transference based on the similarity, quality or common features between two or
more objects (Hoàng Tất Trường, 1993).
According to Galperin (1981), metaphor is a relation between the dictionary
and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain
properties of two corresponding concepts. In Metaphors We Live By (1980), Lakoff
and Johnson say that metaphors play an important role in defining our everyday
realities. In cognitive linguistics, metaphor is defined as understanding one
conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. According to Lakoff

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(1993), “The metaphor is not just a matter of language, but thought and reason”.
The language is secondary. The mapping is primary, and it sanctions the use of
source domain language and inference patterns for target domain concepts.
Metaphor is at the nexus of mind and language. Since the time of Aristotle,
many scholars from different fields have difficulties in defining and understanding
functions of metaphor in language, thought, and culture. Starting from the end of
the 20th century, studies about metaphor have been exploded. Especially, in the
field of cognitive science, numerous linguists, philosophers, and psychologists
produced proposals on metaphorical thought and language (Gibbs, 1994). These
theories attempt to strongly set up metaphor as a pervasive part not only of ordinary
language but also of daily cognition. This contrasts with the traditional view that
metaphor is an ornamental part of speech. Metaphor is used in our writing, and it is
also used commonly in our speaking. However, from the traditional perspective,
metaphor is regarded as the decorative language, whereas literal language is the
fundamental language. It has been shown that metaphor is present in daily life,
language, thoughts, and actions. Moreover, our conceptual systems by which people
think and act have a basic nature of metaphor. From the modern view, metaphor is a
way of understanding an aspect of experience.
1.2.3. Conceptual metaphor
1.2.3.1. Definition of Conceptual metaphor
Conceptual metaphor is considered to be built strongly in human cognition
(Kövecses, 2002) and it usually exists, even unconsciously, in the language users‟
minds. Besides, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) considered conceptual metaphor as one
conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. For instance, “time is
money”, time is understood in terms of money, “life is a journey” or “love is a
journey”, we understand life or love in terms of journey and the conceptual
metaphor, etc.
In a conceptual metaphor, the source domain is the conceptual domain from
which metaphorical expressions are drawn and the target domain is the quality or

13


experience described by or identified with the source domain. It could be
understood that the specific domain of the direction is considered the source domain
and the abstract domain of the emotion is called the target domain (Nordquist,
2019). As Brown (2010) points out, the target domain and source domain illustrate
the dynamic that occurs when something is referenced metaphorically - mapping of
one domain on another one.
Many studies have devoted to metaphorical mapping. An outstanding study
was by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). Metaphor can be expressed and understood as
the mapping from a source domain to a target domain. The term “mapping” is
applied by Lakoff to demonstrate interactions between the two domains. Each
metaphor includes a source domain, a target domain, and a source-to-target
mapping.
For a better understanding of mapping, some features of mapping should be
known. Mapping is the systematic set of correspondences existing between the
elements of the source and target domains. The metaphorical mapping follows the
principle that the image schema structure of the source domain is consistently
anticipated into the target domain with the inherent target domain structure
(Lakoff, 1993).
Through the use of conceptual metaphors the ability to understand and to
express in language and the experience of the world unbelievably increases. It
allows people to go beyond the immediate experience and to extend the language in
an unlimited way.
1.2.3.2. Classification of conceptual metaphors
For Lakoff and Johnson (1980), there are three types of metaphor: Structural
metaphor, Orientational metaphor and Ontological metaphor.
a. Structural metaphor

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) consider structural metaphors to be the biggest
group among all. A structural metaphor is constructed from one conceptual
structure to another conceptual structure. To put it another way, for structural

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metaphors, one concept is understood and expressed in terms of another structured
concept. With structural metaphors, we can use the words concerning one concept
to talk about another concept.
For example, the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR (Lakoff and
Johnson, 1980) is realized in language by expressions such as:
-

He attacked every weak point in my argument.

-

I‟ve never won an argument with him.

-

Your claims are indefensible.
In these expressions, they use the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR,

the nature, structure, and language of war to understand the argument, such as taking
positions to defend; attacking opponents; and eventually winning or losing.
b. Orientational metaphor
Orientational metaphor is also known as spatialization because almost all of
it originates from the perception of space. Spatial orientations are the fundamental

concepts, which come from constant interactions with the physical world. The
spatial orientations are established with the most basic experience of human beings.
Hence, it is natural to use basic orientation concepts coming from basic experiences
to understand more abstract concepts such as emotions. Orientational metaphors
give spatial orientation to a concept.
E.g.: I'm feeling up. That boosted my spirits. My spirits rose. You're in high
spirits. Thinking about her always gives me a lift.
I'm feeling down. I'm depressed. He's really low these days. I fell into a
depression. My spirits sank.
In these expressions, UP means happiness and DOWN means sadness. The
concept of happiness is identified with an upward orientation while the concept of
sadness is characterized by a downward orientation.
c. Ontological metaphor
The experiences of physical objects enable people to comprehend the world
more than just orientation. These experiences can be used and treated as discrete

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entities. Following a similar way of human spatial orientations promoting
orientational metaphors, experiences with physical objects build a strong base for
ontological metaphors. Ontological metaphors are created when experiences with
physical objects allow perceiving abstract concepts as concrete entities.
For example, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) provide a variety of examples in
case of INFLATION IS AN ENTITY as follows:
-

Inflation is lowering our standard of living.

-

Inflation is eating up our profits.

-

Inflation is backing us into the corner.

-

Inflation has robbed me of my savings.
In these expressions, inflation is conceptualized as a person with the human

ability to lower, eat, and back something. Inflation can do and act like a human
being. It can interact within a physical way and even cause events in the world.
However, according to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), it was artificial to divide
metaphors into three types which are orientational, ontological and structural.
Because all metaphors are structural (by mapping structures to structures), all
metaphors are ontological (by constructing target domain entities) and many of
them are orientational (by mapping orientational image-schemas).
1.2.3.3. Features of conceptual metaphor
A metaphor has a special relationship with the human experience. Metaphor
possesses

four

important

characteristics,

namely

ubiquity,

systematicity,

asymmetry, and abstraction. The ubiquity of metaphor is shown in numerous
studies, most notably in Gibbs (1994) and McNeill (1992). These studies show that
the existence of metaphor is not a privilege of specific groups, but it is ubiquitous in
both writing and speaking. The second characteristic, which is systematicity, is the
way in which metaphor does not establish an only one point of comparison. The
features of the source domain and target domain are combined so that metaphor can
be enlarged (Saeed, 2003). The conceptual metaphors are not separated from each
other, but they are closely connected. As a consequence, metaphors that are based

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on the identical experience or image schema can connect the entire discourse, so
that readers can understand thoroughly. The third characteristic, asymmetry, shows
the directional trend of metaphor. The two domains are not symmetric, they transfer
from the source domain to the target domain (Saeed, 2003). The last characteristic
of a conceptual metaphor is an abstraction, and it is also related to asymmetry.
According to Saeed (2003), a typical metaphor employs a more concrete source to
express a more abstract target.
1.2.3.4. Fear metaphor
Fear is an unpleasant emotion or thought that you have when we are
frightened or worried by something dangerous, painful, or bad that is happening or
might happen. The metaphors for fear highlight certain aspects of a large number of
possible causes of fear. Interestingly, the relationship between the cause of fear and
the way fear itself is conceptualized. Fear can be a human being, a container, an

illness, a burden, etc. In addition, the process of classification conceptual metaphor
of fear is indefinite and endless. There are also different ways of analyzing and
classifying. For instance, based on the cognitive function, a conceptual metaphor
can be structural, ontological, or orientational (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980).
Conceptual metaphors can also be classified according to conventionality, which
indicates the prevalence of metaphors in everyday language (Kövecses, 2002). The
classification of this study is only one approach among those. Therefore, fear is
conceptualized as an entity that can threaten our lives and can cause physical and
mental suffering. Some conceptual metaphors of fear are the following.
a. Fear is Cold
Fear is cold is a frequently used conceptual metaphor. According to Mapping
Metaphor (2015), a fearful person may suffer from shortness of breath, increased
heart rate, flushing, increased muscle tension, tremor, and sweating. Indeed, the
reaction of the body to fear and the reaction of the body to coldness are similar.
For example, “The thought chilled him.”
“Shivers ran down her spine.”
The emotional experience here is felt to be related to real changes in body
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temperature.
b. Fear is an illness
Another source domain which is considered as a conceptual metaphor is
illness to represent fear. Fear is a negative emotion that leaves bad effects on both
physical and mental health. This is why fear is conceptualized as an illness which
also makes us suffer. According to Clow (2001), illness is used as a metaphor
because of the relationship between illness and disease metaphor as well as fear
metaphor.
E.g.: Jack was sick with fright.
c. Fear is a Burden

According to Kövecses (2003), the burden is described as a metaphor as Fear
is a Burden and fear is possible weighted heavily on people. When they are fearful,
they are more likely to feel under stress and pressure. This feeling is similar to the
case when people are burdened by something. Therefore, the burden is one source
domain of fear. The example of Fear is a Burden can be as follow, according to
Kövecses (2012).
Fear weighed heavily on them as they heard the bombers overhead.
He was burdened by the possibility of not seeing his friend anymore.
d. Fear is a substance in a container
Fear is a substance in a container is also a possible conceptional metaphor of
fear. The content of the container (in this case, a substance) is mapped onto an
emotion (fear). The amount of substance correlates with the intensity of fear. The
container contains a large amount of substance and this corresponds to high
intensity of fear (Afrashi and Ghouchani, 2018).
E.g.: Her head was full of fear.
e. Fear is a container
According to Afrashi and Ghouchani (2018), the heart and head are often
used as containers of emotions. So the container is the place in which fear could be
stored and carried. According to Clark (2006), a possible example of “People in the

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