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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES
*********************

NGUYỄN HỒNG NHUNG

DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ LEARNING AUTONOMY
THROUGH PROJECT WORK AT A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN HANOI
(Phát triển tính tự chủ trong học tập của học sinh thông qua làm việc dự án
ở một trường cấp hai tại Hà Nội)
M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology (applied programme)
Code: 8140231.01

HANOI - 2019


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES
*********************

NGUYỄN HỒNG NHUNG

DEVELOPING STUDENTS’ LEARNING AUTONOMY
THROUGH PROJECT WORK AT A SECONDARY SCHOOL IN HANOI
(Phát triển tính tự chủ trong học tập của học sinh thông qua làm việc dự án
ở một trường cấp hai tại Hà Nội)


Field: English Teaching Methodology (applied programme)
Code: 8140231.01
Supervisor: Dr. Huỳnh Anh Tuấn

HANOI – 2019


DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

I, Nguyễn Hồng Nhung, declare that this thesis and the work presented it are my
own and have been generated by me as the result of my own original research. It has
not been submitted to any other university or institution wholly or partially.

Hanoi, July 2019

Nguyễn Hồng Nhung

i


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Huynh Anh
Tuan, who gave me a lot of valuable guidance, encouragements, criticisms and
correction throughout my thesis writing. He consistently allowed this paper to be
my own work, but steered me in the right direction whenever he thought I needed it.
I would also like to thank fifty grade six students at a secondary school in
Hanoi. Without their passionate participation and input, the research could not have
been successfully conducted.
Last but not least, my sincere thanks go to my family, my colleagues and my
friends for their support and encouragement that help me to complete my work.


ii


ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to address two issues: investigating the
influence of project work on students‟ learning autonomy and exploring students‟
evaluations of the using project work in developing their learning autonomy. The
instruments employed for data collection and analysis of the study included two
questionnaires, an interview with ten students, students‟ diaries, and observation.
The findings showed that project work was beneficial to help students to improve
their learning autonomy. It also revealed that students highly recommended doing
projects to enhance learning autonomy though they faced up with some difficulties
in doing the projects. Based on the findings, some implications would be suggested
for both the teacher and the students. With all this information, this study is
expected to be significant to both teachers and students in teaching and learning
process.

iii


TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ............................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................. vii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 1
1.1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study ..........................................1

1.2. Aims, objectives, and research questions of the study .........................................2
1.3. Significance of the study ......................................................................................2
1.4. Scope of the study .............................................................................................................. 3
1.5. Methods of the study ............................................................................................3
1.6. Organization of the thesis .....................................................................................4
1.7. Summary............................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................ 5
2.1. Learning autonomy ...............................................................................................5
2.1.1. Definition...........................................................................................................5
2.1.2. Types of autonomy.............................................................................................6
2.1.3. Characteristics of autonomous learners ...........................................................8
2.1.4. Roles of learning autonomy ............................................................................12
2.2. Project work ........................................................................................................13
2.2.1. Definition.........................................................................................................14
2.2.2. Types of project work ......................................................................................15
2.2.3. Features of project work .................................................................................17
2.2.4. Stages of project work .....................................................................................18
2.2.5. Roles of project work ......................................................................................23
2.2.6. Roles of project work in developing students’ learning autonomy .......................... 24

iv


2.3. Related studies in promoting students‟ learning autonomy through project work .... 27
2.4. Summary........................................................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................ 31
3.1. Research approach: Action research ..................................................................31
3.2. Research questions .............................................................................................33
3.3. Participants .........................................................................................................33
3.4. English textbook, English syllabus and the projects used in the study ..............34

3.5. Procedure of the study ........................................................................................37
3.6. Instruments for data collection ...........................................................................41
3.6.1. Questionnaire ..................................................................................................41
3.6.2. Semi-structured interview ...............................................................................42
3.6.3. Students’ diaries ..............................................................................................43
3.6.4. Observation .....................................................................................................43
3.7. Data collection procedure ...................................................................................45
3.7.1. Questionnaires ................................................................................................45
3.7.2. Semi-structured interview ...............................................................................45
3.7.3. Students’ diaries ..............................................................................................46
3.7.4. Observation .....................................................................................................46
3.8. Data analysis procedure ......................................................................................47
3.8.1. Data from the questionnaires ..........................................................................47
3.8.2. Data from the semi-structured interview ........................................................48
3.8.3. Data from the students’ diaries .......................................................................49
3.8.4. Data from the observation ..............................................................................50
3.9. Summary........................................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................ 53
4.1. The extent to which the students‟ learning autonomy can be enhanced through
project work ............................................................................................................................. 53
4.1.1. Findings from the questionnaires ...................................................................53
4.1.2. Findings from the interview ............................................................................58

v


4.1.3. Findings from students’ diaries ......................................................................60
4.2. The students‟ evaluations of the projects assigned to them to develop their learning
autonomy .................................................................................................................................. 61
4.2.1. Findings from interview ..................................................................................61

4.2.2. Findings from observation ..............................................................................63
4.3. Discussion ...........................................................................................................64
4.4. Summary........................................................................................................................... 66
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................ 68
5.1. Major findings of the study ................................................................................68
5.2. Implication ..........................................................................................................69
5.3. Contribution of the study ....................................................................................70
5.4. Limitations of the study ......................................................................................71
5.5. Suggestions for further studies ...........................................................................71
5.6. Summary........................................................................................................................... 72
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 73
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................... I
APPENDIX 1 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ENGLISH LEARNING PROCESS ................. I
APPENDIX 2 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PROJECT WORK ............................................ V
APPENDIX 3 DATA FROM QUESTIONNAIRES .......................................................... V
APPENDIX 4 SAMPLE OF A PROJECT PLAN........................................................... VIII
APPENDIX 5 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ........................................................................ XI
APPENDIX 6 INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS ..................................................................XII
APPENDIX 7 T-TABLE .................................................................................................XXVI
APPENDIX 8 SAMPLE OF TEACHER‟S FIELD NOTE FROM OBSERVATION ..XXVIII
APPENDIX 9 SAMPLES OF STUDENT‟S DIARY ..................................................XXIX

vi


LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: The project used in the study ................................................................... 35
Table 3.2: Procedure of the study ............................................................................. 38
Table 3.3: Overview of the questionnaires ............................................................... 42
Table 4.1: Statistical test result in determining objectives........................................ 54

Table 4.2: Statistical test result in choosing contents ............................................... 55
Table 4.3.: Statistical test result in selecting methods and techniques to be used .... 56
Table 4.4: Statistical test result in monitoring acquisition procedure ....................... 56
Table 4.5: Statistical test result in evaluating what has been acquired ..................... 57
Table 4.6: Students‟ activities in the project work.................................................... 60
Table 4.7: Students‟ attitudes and behavior when doing the projects ....................... 63
Table 5.1: Problems and solutions in doing project work......................................... 69

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Action research cycle .......................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.2: One tailed test distribution .................................................................................. 48
Figure 3.3: Data analytical framework .................................................................................. 51
Figure 4.1: Mean scores of students‟ learning autonomy in ............................................... 54
Figure 4.2: The extent of the changes of students‟ learning autonomy ............................. 58
after doing the projects ............................................................................................................ 58

vii


CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the background to the problem and the reasons for choosing
the topic are mentioned. As a result, the necessity of delivering the research as well
as the importance of the application of project work in teaching and learning
process is revealed. The aims and the significances of the study are also stated. The
final section will present the scope, methods and organization of the study.
1.1.

Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
Being a part of Eastern culture with the great influence of Confucianism, the


Vietnamese traditional pedagogy emphasizes on absorbing and memorizing rather
than experimenting and producing knowledge (Dang, 2012: 6). In other words, the
students‟ ability in applying knowledge learnt at school to real life situations is not
the main aim of schooling. In traditional classrooms, teachers are the class
authorities, and students who are known as passive learners are expected to obey
their teachers. Standardized examinations are an important feature of the education
system that shapes classroom interactions. Several standardized examinations are
run by the Department of Education and Training in each local area every semester.
Therefore, classroom teaching and learning activities are often regulated by these
examinations. Teachers are normally required to follow certain classroom
procedures and students are expected to learn from textbooks and their teachers. As
a result, negotiations and collaborations between teachers and students or among
students are rarely seen. (Pham, 2010: 51). Consequently, there is no opportunities
for learners to be more independent in the learning process. Referring to the issue
above, students‟ learning autonomy, which is defined as the responsibility for all the
decisions concerned with a student‟s learning and the implementation of those
decisions (Dickinson, 1987: 11), is considered an important aspect of successful
learners in globalized world, has been a new terminology to Vietnamese learners

1


and educators so far.
There should be solutions to enhance Vietnamese students‟ learning
autonomy. One of the favorable answers for this problem is applying project work
on the learning process. According to Ramírez (2014: 56), project work fosters
active roles for students in which the learners can engage in authentic and
interesting tasks to achieve a common goal by means of collaborative work and the
teacher provides them with opportunities to improve language skills for

communicating successfully.
Although a large body of research now exists on enhancing learners‟ autonomy
through project work, relatively few researchers have explored this controversial issue
in the subject of adolescent learners, especially in the context of Vietnam. Drawing on
previous studies, and based on the obvious concerns as mentioned above, the present
study is undertaken to investigate how doing project work raises students‟ awareness of
being responsible to take control their learning process.
1.2.

Aims, objectives, and research questions of the study
This action research aims at examining whether secondary school students

can develop their learning autonomy through participating in project work. To
achieve this aim, the study has to obtain the following two objectives:
-

Investigate the extent to which the students‟ learning autonomy can be
enhanced through their participation in project work.

-

Explore the students‟ evaluations of the projects assigned to them to
develop their learning autonomy.

In accordance with these two objectives, the research tries to answer the
following research questions:
1. To what extent does project work enhance the students‟ learning
autonomy?
2. What are the students‟ evaluations of the projects in view of the impact of
the projects on developing their learning autonomy?

1.3.

Significance of the study

2


Recently, research on learners‟ autonomy has been conducted in a variety of
contexts all over the world, including some Asian countries (Barfield & Brown,
2007; Gardner, 2007; Lamb & Reinders, 2008; Miller, 2007), but the volumne of
research in this field carried out in the Vietnamese context is not very substansive.
Although it can be argued that the Vietnamese English-foreign-language classroom
stereotype is rather similar to its Chinese or Japanese counterparts, it has its own
educational context which makes it unique. Furthermore, in Vietnam, there is no
previous study thoroughly discussing the development of students‟ learning
autonomy through project work among Vietnamese adolescents. Therefore, this
study potentially plays a role in contributing other understandings of the examined
construct in education.
It is hoped that secondary school teachers and students can get some
insightful implications from the findings of the study, especially those who wish to
choose project work as an alternative activity in their English teaching and learning
practices.
1.4.

Scope of the study
The research is carried out in eighteen weeks of the second semester in the

school year 2018-2019 (from December 25th to May 24th). The study limits itself to
the investigation of the effects of project work on the students‟ learning autonomy
as well as students‟ evaluations on developing their learning autonomy through

project work. The number of participants of the study is quite small – only fifty
students in grade six.
As a study on one teacher and one class at one school, the conclusion of the
study may not be valid to be generalized to apply to any other contexts. It may be
useful to serve as an intensive source of information to refer to or to provide
hypothesis for further studies.
1.5.

Methods of the study
The study adapts action research approach. According to Ferrance (2000: 1),

action research is regarded as one of the most common research methods applied in
current educational circumstances. With the choice of this method, data collection
3


instruments including questionnaires, artifacts, observation, and interview are used
in order to have a deep investigation into what is being studied.

1.6.

Organization of the thesis
This research consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter aims at stating the research problems, the significance, the aims,

the scope, and the methods of the study.
Chapter 2: Literature review
This provides elaboration of key definitions as well as the review on related
studies.

Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter issues the description of research approach, research
participants, data collection methods and data analysis methods.
Chapter 4: Findings and discussion
In this chapter, research findings and discussions are presented. Besides,
discussion on the comparison between the findings and reviewed literature is
also drawn.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
This chapter includes the summary of the research, the implication, the
limitation of the study and suggestion for further research.
1.7.

Summary
The chapter has provided the rationale for the study by stressing the demand

for confirming whether project work can help students enhance their learning
autonomy. The framework of the research has also been identified clearly with the
two research questions and clearly defined scope. The study‟s elaborations have not
only justified the major contents and structure of the study but will also play the role
of main guidelines for the rest of the paper.

4


CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter aims at providing readers the theoretical background of the
study. In the chapter, the key concepts related to learner’s autonomy and its roles,
as well as the main characteristics of autonomous learners, and teachers and
students’ roles to promote learning autonomy. In addition, background information

about project work, and preceding studies will be displayed specifically.
2.1.

Learning autonomy

2.1.1. Definition
As can be seen, the interest in learning autonomy has grown considerably in
the past few decades; therefore, the definition of learning autonomy seems to
interpret in many different ways. Holec (1981: 3) defines the term as “the ability to
take charge of one‟s own direct learning”. In other words, it refers to learning
activities which give learners more chances to determine the learning objectives, to
choose the contents of the lesson, to select methods and techniques to be used, to
monitor the acquisition procedure and to evaluate what has been acquired.
Similarly, Bergen (1990: 102) states that learning autonomy is characterized
by a readiness to take charge of one‟s own learning in the service of one‟s needs
and purposes. This entails a capacity and willingness to act independently and in cooperation with others, as a socially responsible person.
Besides, view it as a process, Higgs (1988: 41) indicates learning autonomy
is where learners work on learning tasks and activities and largely independent of
the teacher who acts as a manager of the learning program and resource person.
In addition, Joshi (2011: 14), defines an autonomous learner as “one who has
capacity to make and carry out the choices which govern his or her actions

5


independently”. When autonomy is encouraged in the classroom, Joshi (2011: 14)
suggests, the learners take on more responsibilities and make more of the choices about
their learning, yet often with the guidance and support of their teachers.
These above definitions provide a concise description of the characteristics
of learning autonomy, including both individual and cooperative aspects. That is to

say, learner autonomy is not a totally individualistic process, rather it is a process
which is also achieved through interdependence.
2.1.2. Types of autonomy
According to Oxford dictionary, autonomy means the right or condition of
self-government or the capacity of an agent to act in accordance with objective
morality rather than under the influence of desires. In moral and political
philosophy,

autonomy

is

often

used

as

the

basis

for

determining moral responsibility for one's actions. The concept of autonomy is also
found in education, medicine, psychology, and so on, to which it is applied to come
up with its more precise criteria.
In terms of moral autonomy, Kant (1956) developed correlative concepts of
autonomy in the context of moral law. Autonomy refers to a moral agent‟s capacity
to freely and rationally adopt moral policies. Kant believed that a person‟s moral

principles, the internal authority which imposes restrictions on how that person acts,
originate in the exercise of reason. People are offered the choice of many possible
principles, but they reject all principles which "cannot accord with the will‟s own
enactment of universal law." Autonomous moral principles are laws which we, as
rational beings, give to ourselves through consciously identifying ourselves with
them.
In political ethics, the concept of autonomy is used in efforts to define certain
inalienable political rights, such as personal liberty, freedom of speech, and
property ownership, which should be guaranteed to every citizen (Autonomy in
moral and political philosophy, n.d.). Autonomy in this context implies that these
rights are protected unless a citizen actively forfeits them, either by breaking a law

6


and invoking punishment, or by consciously choosing to give up some of his liberty
in exchange for some other advantage. Autonomy implies respect for each person‟s
ability to make decisions about his own life and absorb the consequences.
Additionally, the promotion of personal autonomy has been identified as
one of the aims of the philosophy of education (Personal autonomy, n.d.). A
student is to be provided with access to a wide range of choices and experiences,
at the same time as he or she is given the rational tools to evaluate these choices
intelligently. Upholding the autonomy of a student implies that the student will
be allowed to experience the consequences of his choices with minimal
interference. Guidance and education will take the form of broadening the
student‟s awareness and exposing him to additional choices. Protecting the
autonomy of a student is believed to encourage active thought and exploration,
rather than mere acceptance of knowledge and ideas. A student with autonomy
feels more freedom to experiment with new ideas, but must also take
responsibility to ensure that his contributions have value.

When it comes to psychology, according to Frankfurt (1971), to be
autonomous is to be directed by considerations, desires, conditions, and
characteristics that are not imposed from without but are part of what can
somehow be considered one's authentic self. It implies a conscious intention to
act in a certain way, and to take responsibility for any consequences of those
actions. In psychology, the issue is defining what is the "authentic self." Within
self-determination theory in psychology, autonomy also refers to "autonomy
support versus control," hypothesizing that autonomy-supportive social
environments are inclined to facilitate self-determined motivation, healthy
development, and optimal functioning. Efforts to define autonomy in the context
of the personality have given rise to two types of conditions required for
autonomy: "Competency" and "authenticity." The definition of competency
includes the capacity for various types of rational thought, self-control, and the
absence of self-deception or pathological disorders which affect perception of the

7


self. "Authenticity" conditions involve the capacity to reflect upon one‟s desires
and consciously endorse or reject them.
Among several types of autonomy, this study focuses on autonomy in
education; in other words, learning autonomy. The students in this study are
allowed to make choice and undergo experience. They are also encouraged to
have active thoughts and exploration when doing projects, which makes them
feel free to experiement with new ideas, but must also take responsibility to
ensure that his contribution is valuable.
2.1.3. Characteristics of autonomous learners
Many researchers in the relevant literature have suggested different
characteristics related to autonomous learners. Candy (1991: 459-466) states the
characteristics of autonomous learners are as follows: methodical and disciplined;

logical and analytical; reflective and self-aware; curious, open and highly
motivated; flexible, interdependent and interpersonally competent; persistent and
responsible; venturesome and creative; and self-sufficient, information seekers,
knowledgeable and skillful about learning process and critical thinkers.
According to Dickinson (1993: 330-336), although quite a lot of learners
actually do not know what is going on in their classes, autonomous learners are able to
identify what has been taught. They are able to formulate their own learning objectives
in collaboration with teacher, or as something that is in addition to what the teacher is
doing. In addition, autonomous learners can select and implement appropriate learning
strategies consciously, and they can monitor their own use of learning strategies.
Lastly, autonomous learners should monitor their own learning and self-assessment.
Cotterall (1995: 199) agrees with Dickinson on self-assessment as she says “it is
essential that learners be able to evaluate the quality of their learning. An appreciation
of their abilities, the progress they are making and of what they can do with the skills
they have acquired is essential if learners are to learn efficiently.”
According to Holec (1981: 3), basically, autonomous learners are those who
take charge of their own learning. They are aware of their personal and educational
needs and can determine the objectives and goals for their own learning. They can

8


also establish a link between what is to be learned, how to learn, and the resources
available. They develop a capacity that enables them to define the contents of their
learning, select methods and techniques to be used, monitor the procedures of
acquisition and evaluate what has been acquired.
Briefly, as defined by different researchers, there are many characteristics of
an autonomous learner. After all, stated by Holec in 1981, learners who are
autonomous will be able to:
2.1.3.1.


Determine the learning objectives
In self-directed learning, determining the learning objectives will be based on

an analysis made by the learner, in accordance with his subjective criteria. As regards
the communicative competence, the learner will set objectives in terms of lexis,
grammar and phonology so that he can find himself in any communicative situations.
The objectives will not necessarily be fixed for all time, the learner may
look at them again as his learning continues and alter them.
Changes occurring in the external situation forming the learning
environment:
 Professional or vocational situation: where the motive for learning is
professional or vocational, any change in language needs connected with such
occupation will involve a change of objective.
 Social situation: where the motive for learning is social one, certain
changes in this field may involve a change of objective (eg where the learner wishes
to be able to communicate among a circle of acquaintances).
 Material situation: changes of all kinds may involve a change of objective
(eg a move to another area making it possible to receive foreign television).
Changes occurring in the internal learning situation:


Level of knowledge: as his level of knowledge of the language he is

learning changes, the learner may be led to amend his initial objectives either
because some objectives regraded as unattainable become attainable or vice versa,

9



or because fresh objectives are revealed in the light of knowledge already acquired,
thus in fact development in any learning experience may be the reason for a change
in objectives.


It must not be forgotten that the leaner may simply change his mind.
In the context of this study, learners may changes their objectives because

of the changes occurring in the internal learning situations.
2.1.3.2.

Choose the learning contents
The contents are defined in terms of lexis, grammar, and phonology.



As regards lexis, the choice is usually made on the basis of frequency

lists, possibly supplemented by a “specialized vocabulary”.


As regards grammar, the principle is approximately the same: basic

structures and possibly distinct structures.


As regards phonology, since the elements available for selection are

somewhat limited in number, the whole is generally made an integral part of the
curriculum: pronunciation of phonemes, intonation and rhythm.

In self-directed learning, the contents will as a general rule be defined by
the learner. One of the two fundamental features of definition of contents by the
learner is that the thematic content of the communication aimed at is given priority.
The learner wants above all to communicate (to understand and to express), which
means he has to think what words and grammar he must master so as to understand
the first and express the second. Thus the contents will be defined in terms of lexis,
grammar and phonology.
The second fundamental feature is that the contents are no longer “brought
in” from outside but are to some extent “created” by the learner. He will have to
discover those contents by observing and analyzing the sources of information
available to him: written texts, films, dictionaries, etc. These sources will also
include both educational and authentic documents, and native speakers.
2.1.3.3.

Select the methods and techniques to be used
In self-directed learning, the learner himself will be defining his methods

and techniques.
10


He will not make this definition a prior before starting his study but right
at the beginning and as his studies continue. He will in fact proceed by trial and
error: by using the methods and techniques he has chosen and then evaluating them
he will be able to decide which are appropriate to his own case.
The methods and techniques that will be available to the learner include:
 Those that he knows because he has used them in earlier studies.
 Those he will learn of from other learners or in miscellaneous teaching
materials.
 Those he will devise for himself.

The criteria he will use for selection purposes will be of two kinds:


Criteria of efficacy as regards the objectives set: knowing exactly what his

objectives are and making his own assessments of progress made, the learner will
be able to determine accurately enough how far the methods and techniques he has
used have been effective; this judgement, coupled with what he has learned during
his studies, will enable him to make valid assumptions as to the reasons for the
failure of any particular method or technique where he has been let down in any
way and to plan his decisions for the next attempt.


Criteria regarding adaptation to external and internal constraints on the learner:

the proposed methods and techniques must be adapted as far as possible to
constraints of all kinds affecting the learner during his studies – restrictions in the
matter of place, time, materials, etc – and must fit in as far as possible with the type
of the learner.
2.1.3.4.

Monitor the acquisition procedure

The acquisition procedure has reference to spatial and temporal dimensions:
where the acquisition takes place, at what times, according to what timetable, at
what rhythm, and so on.
In self-directed learning, the student decides for himself when to study, how
long to work at a time, and he can therefore adjust his learning rhythm to his

11



acquisition rhythm. Where the end of the course is decided for him by others, he can
to some extent overcome this restriction by speeding up his learning rhythm either
by devoting more time to his studies or by increasing the number of maximally
effective sessions.
2.1.3.5.

Evaluate what has been acquired

With regard to criteria used in evaluation, these are chosen by the learner
from all possible criteria, by reference to his own definition of the component parts
of successful attainment and the relative importance thereof. These component parts
will perhaps include correct grammar, lexical wealth and correct pronunciation.
Moreover, this choice need not necessarily be final: for each new step in his
learning, the learner may select other criteria and other combinations of them which
are better suited to his new learning objectives and in line with his new level of
knowledge.
This self-evaluation of learning will be carried out on the basis of personal
criteria such as compatibility between the proposed methods and techniques and the
external constraints (availability of place and time, physical possibilities, etc) and
internal constraints (intellectual and physical ability, etc).
As a general rule it will lead the learner to evaluate how he has taken charge of
his learning, from the definition of objectives and contents to selection of methods
and techniques, monitoring the learning procedure and evaluating what has been
acquired.
2.1.4. Roles of learning autonomy
The learning process in Vietnam in particular and in other countries in
general is originally considered a cognitive matter, mainly involving memorization.
Today, however, one of the dominant techniques in teaching is communicative

approach. Supporting for the process of improving communicative competence,
learning autonomy is particularly necessary for the success of the communicative
approach. Therefore, students who learn under the communicative approach need to

12


possess an adequate level of learning autonomy to actively participate in customized
communicative situations to develop their competence.
Moreover, as proposed by Dickinson in 1987, by having learning autonomy,
learners can master (1) self-instruction, which refers to a situation in which learners
are working without the direct control of the teacher, (2) self-direction, which
means situations in which learners accept responsibility for all the decisions
concerned with learning, (3) self-access learning, in which learners make use of
self-access teaching material or instructional technology, and (4) individualized
instruction, which refers to situations in which the learning process is adapted,
either by the teacher or by the learner, to suit the specific characteristics of an
individual learner.
2.1.5. The role of teachers and students to promote learning autonomy
There is a relationship between the role of the teacher and learners in
promoting learning autonomy as McCarthy (2000: 6) and Scharer (2000: 11) argue
that "the teacher-student relationship is crucial" in developing students‟ learning
autonomy. The trust and cooperation between the teacher and students make the
students feel comfortable and secure in the classroom. Benson and Vollers‟s study
in 1997 also finds that teachers have a significant role to play in launching learners
into self-access and in helping them to stay afloat. In this investigation, it is found
that there is a great change for both the teacher and learners. The teacher is no
longer in her dominant position as a speaker in class while learners are not passive
receivers any more. However, it does not necessarily mean the teacher is less
important. On the contrary, the teacher‟s job is more demanding and challenging in

helping students grow up as creative and independent learners. The teacher must
focus her attention on how to learn instead of how to teach. She must play different
roles in class as a guide, facilitator and counselor. Therefore, adjusting the teacher's
and students‟ roles, and establishing proper relationship are the keys to the success
in promoting autonomous learning (Benson & Vollers, 1997: 2).
2.2.

Project work
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2.2.1. Definition
There are several definitions regarding project work and it is relevant to
distinguish some of them. It is suggested that a “project is the development of an
experience centered on the student and his environment, that it is a creative and
enriching experience on the student‟s interest” (Jiménez Raya, 1994: 52). Secondly,
project work “is a versatile vehicle for fully integrated language and content
learning” (Stoller, 1997: 3). Students are invited to live a meaningful experience
that goes beyond the syllabus and classroom walls. This way, learners and teacher
negotiate how they will implement a project in their own context based on their
needs. Regarding the previous definitions, project work can be understood as a
successful way to provide learners with opportunities to create their own planning
in the classroom. It focuses on the learner, promotes the development of intrinsic
motivation and positive attitudes towards learning; it increases student
responsibility, fosters participation when making decisions concerning projects,
facilitates the gradual acquisition of autonomy and the use of the language, and
promotes interdisciplinary and cooperative work.
Project work is an extended process of inquiry through which students
investigate a complex question, problem or challenge as an extension of what has
already been learned in class. In project work, students work collaboratively, in

pairs or teams, to develop a product or solve a problem by following some steps like
planning, organizing, negotiating, arriving at a consensus about such issues as tasks
to be performed, methods and materials to be used and responsibilities to be shared.
Interaction, critical thinking, problem solving and collaboration are some of the
benchmarks of project work. The key components of project work were identified
by Larner and Mergendoller (2010: 34-37) as significant content, a need to know, a
driving question, student voice and choice, 21st century skills (collaboration,
communication, critical thinking, and creative thinking), inquiry and innovation,
feedback and revision, and publicly presented report.

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2.2.2. Types of project work
Projects are in-depth investigations of real-world topics and issues that are
worthy for students to know and understand. They can do creatively reading/
writing projects, information-data organizing projects, major investigation
projects, design projects, problem-solving projects, argumentation projects, and
authentic projects (Seven types of projects that foster powerful learning, 2014).

1. Reading/Writing projects
Students read, comprehend and interpret specific books, novels, plays,
poems, etc., often around themes. Sometimes books are assigned, while at other
times students select their own books. Through reading/writing projects, students
demonstrate comprehension, understanding, and ability to interpret the text.
Reading/writing projects often include class discussions around dilemmas inherent
in the reading and/or writing general reactions, interpretive essays, poems, stories
and plays based on the material read.
2. Information-data organizing projects
The goal of information-data organizing projects is for teachers to have

students collect, sort and summarize information and data around a topic, question,
theme or unit from multiple sources, such as textbooks, fiction, and non-fiction
texts. Students might synthesize articles and other readings around a topic of
interest, analyze surveys and interviews designed to explore key questions or find
ways to put information into a variety of formats, including graphs and charts.
Sometimes information is represented in other formats, such as through artwork,
crafts, and music. Information-data-organizing project approaches are useful when
students are studying a particular topic or question since this type of project helps
students learn how to use multiple resources instead of solely using a textbook.

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3. Major investigation projects
Major investigation projects enable students to create their own questions
around a topic, collect, organize, and evaluate information, draw conclusions and
share results through presentations and explanations. Students may demonstrate the
results of their investigations through different types of products and experiences,
including the writing of a paper, the development of artwork, oral presentations,
audio and videotape productions, photographic essays, simulations, or plays.
Sometimes students select their own topics for research projects based on
their interests, while at other times research projects are focused around specific
academic topics being studied in class. In some senior project formats, students are
free to select any topic of interest for an investigation project.
While major investigation projects are often considered long-term activities,
some investigation projects can be conducted over relatively short periods of time
when adequate amounts of time are devoted to them each day.
4. Design projects
Students invent products and objects, design technology, or design artwork
or models, for example, students might be asked to use scientific principles to

design an object that will descend from a specific height at the slowest speed, to
design artwork using artistic principles, or to design a house using the latest
technological software.
5. Problem solving projects
Students solve problems and make decisions by being given or creating
specific situations and complex problems. Problem situations around topics such as
pollution, world events, health care, poverty, and economic issues are interesting
and exciting areas of study and provide students with opportunities to learn about
current and future complex issues and problems and to use creative problem-solving
processes. Complex mathematical problems are another source of problem-solving

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