Nutritional status of cancer patients in chemotherapy; dietary intake, nitrogen balance and screening

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: />
Nutritional status of cancer patients in chemotherapy; dietary intake,
nitrogen balance and screening
Article  in  Food & Nutrition Research · February 2008
DOI: 10.3402/fnr.v52i0.1856 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS

READS

40

779

2 authors:
Olof Geirsdottir

Inga Thorsdottir

University of Iceland

University of Iceland

57 PUBLICATIONS   345 CITATIONS   

284 PUBLICATIONS   9,045 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Professional development public health and nutrition View project

PRO GREENS View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Olof Geirsdottir on 16 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

SEE PROFILE


Original Article
æ

Nutritional status of cancer patients in
chemotherapy; dietary intake, nitrogen
balance and screening
Olof Gudny Geirsdottir* and Inga Thorsdottir
Unit for Nutrition Research, National University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland

Abstract
Objective: To evaluate a short screening sheet (SSM) for malnutrition and to investigate the nutritional status
of patients receiving chemotherapy for cancer of the lungs, colon or breast at an outpatient clinic.
Design: Full nutritional assessment was conducted to define malnutrition and validate the SSM. Additionally,
weight change from earlier healthy weight was evaluated, and calculations for intake of energy-giving
nutrients (three-day-weighed food records) and protein balance were performed. After the evaluation study,
the SSM was tested in clinical routine and data collected about patients’ need for nutritional counseling.
Subjects: Patients at the outpatient clinic of the Department of Oncology at Landspitali-University Hospital
(n 030 with lung-, colon- or breast cancer in the study population, n 093 with all cancer type in clinical
routine screening).

Results: Malnutrition was defined by full nutritional assessment in 20% of the participating patients and SSM
had high sensitivity and specificity. Declining nutritional status of the patients was seen as a negative nitrogen
balance and unintentional weight loss from healthy weight, but not as total energy intake, recent weight loss
or underweight. The test of SSM in clinical routine showed that 40% were malnourished. According to the
patients, 80% needed nutritional counseling but only 17% had such counseling.
Conclusion: Screening (SSM) for malnutrition in cancer patients is a valid simple approach to define cancer
patients for nutritional care. More patients regard themselves in need for nutritional counseling than the
number of patients really achieving any.
Keywords: screening malnutrition; nutritional counseling; malnutrition; protein balance; protein loss; weight loss
Received: 15 July 2008; Revised: 21 October 2008; Accepted: 12 November 2008; Published: 12 December 2008

alnutrition in cancer increases the risk of
infections and the cost of healthcare. It decreases the patients’ quality of life (QoL),
affecting both responses to anticancer treatment and
overall survival (1Á5).
Fundamental to tackling the malnutrition problem is
to detect it. Nutritional screening should provide the
opportunity to identify malnutrition or individuals at
high nutritional risk at an early stage of medical care in a
non-invasive, inexpensive and feasible way. Routine
screening of patients to identify risk of malnutrition has
been recommended by many national, international and
specialist organizations (6, 7).
The lungs, colon and breasts are leading sites of cancer
in westernized countries (8). These cancers are commonly
treated with chemotherapy, which often has adverse effect
on the nutritional status of the affected patient. More
knowledge is needed about the nutritional status and diet

M

of patients in chemotherapy for lung, colon and breast
cancer.
The aim of the present study was to evaluate a simple
screening tool for malnutrition (short screening sheet,
SSM) of patients in chemotherapy for cancer of the lungs,
colon and breasts at an outpatient clinic using full
nutritional assessment as the reference. Dietary intake
and nitrogen balance were also investigated in the patient
group. Finally, the screening tool was tested in cancer
patients in chemotherapy in a clinical routine.
Methods

Study sample
The participants (n030) constituted 38% of all patients
in chemotherapy at the Department of Oncology at
Landspitali-University Hospital with breast, colon or
lung cancer. The mean age was 55 years (range 29Á72

Food & Nutrition Research 2008. # 2008 Olof G. Geirsdottir and Inga Thorsdottir. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License ( permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Citation: Food & Nutrition Research 2008. DOI: 10.3402/fnr.v52i0.1856

1

(page number not for citation purpose)


Olof G. Geirsdottir and Inga Thorsdottir

years) (Table 1). All patients with breast, colon or lung
cancer (n079) were invited to participate in the study
during the data collection. The most common explanation for not participating was that ‘people were too sick’
or ‘the burden of the study was too heavy’.
All patients were asked about their usual physical
activity. They were all sedentary or had a low physical
activity level (PAL). The mean body mass index (BMI)
was 2796 kg/m2 and 15 were overweight or obese
patients with BMI over 25, two were underweight with
BMI below 20.
The study was approved by the Local Ethical Committee at Landspitali-University Hospital in Reykjavik,
Iceland.

Nutritional assessment
Full nutritional assessment
A full nutritional assessment was conducted as described
earlier (9Á11) by measurements of BMI, triceps skinfold
thickness (TST), mid-arm muscle circumference
(MAMC), serum albumin (alb), serum prealbumin
(palb), total lymphocyte count (TLC) and unintentional
weight loss of more than 5% within the preceding month
or 10% or more within the previous 6 months (10).
Table 1. Characteristics of the cancer patients (mean9SD)
Male (n 09)

Female (n 021)

All (n 03)

Age (y)

60911

53912

55912

Weight (kg)

89926

72915

Height (cm)

17997

BMI
BMR (kcal/d, calculated)

16796

2898

2695

2796

16399162

13319102

14239187

Breast cancer (n 019)

53912

Weight

73915

Height

16895

BMI

2695

BMR

13359102
Male (n 07)

Age

61910

Weight
Height
BMI
BMR
Lung cancer (n 03)

91930

58

Alb (g/L)
All (n 03)
6199

57

87930
176913
2898

15799158

1128

15229210

Female (n 01)

All (n 03)

57917
7993

49
70

54913
7695
169910

17498

160

BMI

2693

27

BMR

15119289

2
(page number not for citation purpose)

1265

Table 2. Mean value9SD and reference value of nutritional para-

Parameters

150
25

Male (n 02)

Food record
Three-day-weighed food records were completed for all
patients (n030) participating in the study and assumed
to be sufficient for estimating energy and protein intake
on an individual basis (12). Patients did the food record
between chemotherapies when they were feeling better,
usually starting on fourth or fifth day after chemotherapy.
The intake of macronutrients, energy, protein, fat, and
carbohydrates was analyzed for each patient using
KOSTPLAN for Windows, version 1.0 (AIVO AB,
Stockholm, 1996).

(n030)

18097
2899

Age
Weight
Height

Female (n 01)

Nutritional screening
The SSM sheet (Fig. 1, (10)) is made up of seven
questions covering BMI, weight loss, anorexia, surgery
and other variables that may influence nutritional status.
No measurements other than weight and height were
needed for answering the questions. Each question gave a
score according to the answers. The criterion set for
malnutrition was a total score of five or more points.

meters used for the full nutritional assessment of cancer patients

Female (n 019)

Age

Colon cancer (n 08)

77920
17099

Malnutrition was defined as present when three or more
of these seven parameters were subnormal. In addition,
weight change from patients’ self-reported earlier healthy
weight was evaluated.
Biochemical measures and reference values were obtained from the laboratory at Landspitali-University
Hospital. Values for TST and MAMC (Table 2) were
compared with normal values from the National Health
and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) as described previously (10).

2792
14289249

Male

Female

Mean

(n 09)

(n 021)

(n 030)

Reference

41918

3693

38910

38Á51

Palb (mg/L)

304967

268949

279956

180Á450

TLC ( )109)

1.690.9

1.190.6

1.390.8

BMI (kg/m2)

2898

2695

2796

20

TST (mm)

1.8

792

1695

1396

5%**

MAMC (cm)
MAMA (cm2)

3394
85925

3295
83926

3295
84925

5%**
5%**

UWL (kg)

Á198*

298*

198*

B5%

Alb0albumin; Palb0prealbumin; TLC0total lymphocyte count;
BMI0body mass index; TST0triceps skinfold thickness; MAMA0
mid-arm muscle area; MAMC0mid-arm muscle circumference;
UWL0unintentional weight loss previous month.
*Mean weight loss (Á) or weight gain (').
**NHANES (1971Á1974).


Nutritional status of cancer patients

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL
SCREENING FOR MALNUTRITION

Department of Clinical Nutrition

PATIENT’S I.D.

This screening sheet should be used to assess the
need for nutritional therapy among adult patients.
Answer the following questions and give score accordingly.

QUESTION
1.

2.

3.

ANSWER

Height:_______m

BMI: Kg/m²

Weight:_______kg

___________

Recent unintentional weight loss?

Yes
No
Doesn´t
know

If yes, how much?

______kg

In what time period?

______months

Weight loss %
___________

Age over 65 years?

Yes

No

ASSESSMENT
>20
18-20:
< 18:

0 scores
2 scores
4 scores

Unintentional weight loss:
>5% past month or
> 10 % previous 6 mo. 4 scores
5-10%
“ 1-6 mo. 2 scores
Doesn´t know
2 scores
Other
0 scores

Question 3 to 8:
Yes:
No:

1 scores
0 scores

SCORES

______

______

______
______

4.

Problems last weeks or months?
A. Vomiting lasting more than 3 days ?
B. Daily diarrhoea
(more than 3 liquid stools per day)?
C. Continuous loss of appetite or nausea?
D. Difficulty in chewing or swallowing?

Yes

No

______

Yes
Yes
Yes

No
No
No

______
______
______
__ ____

5.

Hospitalised for 5 days or more during previous 2 months?

Yes

No

6.

Major surgery in the past month?
If yes, list type __________________________________

Yes

No

7.

Diseases – 5 points
Burn >15 %
Malnutrition
Multiple trauma

Yes

No

______
__ ____

__ ____

Completed by__________________________________________ Date__________
signature

Sum
scores __________

If a patient gets 5 or more scores, a referral should be sent to the department of clinical nutrition.
For cancerpatients and patients with pulmonary diseases use 4 or more scores.

Fig. 1. Simple screening tool for malnutrition (SSM).

The basal energy expenditure was estimated using the
HarrisÁBenedict equation (13). Studies have shown that
an adjusted body weight equal to the ideal body,
according to Hamwi equation (14), weight plus 50% of
the excess body weight provides the most accurate
estimate of the energy expenditure. Adjusted body weight
was used for obese patients (n05), in the HarrisÁ
Benedict equation (15). Disease-specific stress and activ-

ity factors were used when the total energy expenditure
was calculated (15).

Nitrogen balance
Total urinary nitrogen (16) was together with total
protein intake (g protein/6.25), used to estimate nitrogen
balance. The loss from routes other than urine was
estimated to be 2 g/24 hour (17). The patients were asked

3

(page number not for citation purpose)


Olof G. Geirsdottir and Inga Thorsdottir

to perform one consecutive 24-hour urine collection,
which took place on the second day of the weighed food
recording.

ished. Unintentional weight change ranged from a 22%
weight loss to 32% weight gain compared with recorded
weight at first visit to the oncology clinic. The unintentional weight change was not significant due to this wide
range of patient’s weight changes. However, if the
patients’ self-reported earlier usual healthy weight was
the reference for unintentional weight loss, all of the
malnourished patients had lost considerable weight,
mean 7.993 kg (mean9SD).

Evaluation of the SSM in clinical setting
Data were collected for one month screening period with
SSM. All cancer patient (n093) in cancer therapy at the
outpatient clinic of the Department of Oncology at

Landspitali-University Hospital were screened. None of
the 30 patients participating in the study to evaluate the
screening tool for malnutrition in cancer patients were
included. The screening included 50 women and 43 men,
age 58916 years (mean9standard deviation, SD) range
22Á96 years. In addition to the nutritional screening, the
patients were asked if they needed nutritional counseling
and if they had had any nutritional counseling before.

Screening sheet
The SSM identified seven of 30 patients (23%) as
malnourished. The evaluation of SSM and the seven
single nutritional parameters used in the full nutritional
assessment to indicate malnutrition among cancer patients is shown in Table 3.
The SSM had a sensitivity of 0.83 and the specificity
was 0.96. Few individual nutritional parameters had
sensitivity above 0.5, and no parameter reached the
quality of the SSM. If the patients’ earlier self-reported
usual healthy weight was used as the reference for
unintentional weight loss, this was the single best parameter with high sensitivity (0.87) and specificity (0.88),
and 13% misclassification.

Statistical analysis
Results are presented as mean9SD. Data were analyzed
using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(version 9.0 for Windows, 1999, SPSS, Chicago, IL) for
descriptive statistics to ascertain how many patients had
below-reference values on the different parameters as
described earlier (10). Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values were calculated to evaluate single parameters
and the screening sheet in comparison to full nutritional

assessment (18).

Food intake
The energy intake was 20329500 kcal/d (mean9SD),
range 1100Á3200. Overweight cancer patients reported a
lower energy intake of 18379108 kcal/d (mean9SD)
than those not overweight 22279132 kcal/d (p00.03).
Malnourished cancer patients had higher energy intake
per kg body weight than those who were not malnourished (p00.01), but total energy intake did not differ.
Energy and nutrient intakes are summarized in Table 4.
The average calculated basal energy expenditure was
14569169 kcal/24 hour. When energy intake was expressed as kcal/kg of actual weight, the average intake

Results

Full nutritional assessment
According to the full nutritional assessment, six of the 30
(20%) cancer patients in chemotherapy were diagnosed as
malnourished. No patient showed subnormal serum
prealbumin or MAMC values (Table 2). BMI was
subnormal in two of the six malnourished patients, and
four of six patients with subnormal TST were malnour-

Table 3. Statistical evaluation of indicators for malnutrition in cancer patients
SSM

TST

MAMC

BMI

5Á10%

Alb

Palb

TLC

weight loss
Sensitivity

0.83

0.67

0

0.17

0.17

1

0

1

Specificity

0.96

0.88

1

1

0.96

0.37

1

0.25

Positive predictive value

0.83

0.57

*

1

0.50

0.29

*

0.25

Negative predictive value

0.96

0.92

0.80

0.83

0.82

1

0.8

1

False positive

1

3

0

0

1

15

0

False negative

1

2

6

5

5

0

6

0

Misclassification rate

6.7

16.7

20.0

16.7

20.0

50.0

20.0

60.0

18

SSM0screening sheet; TST0triceps skinfold thickness; MAMC0mid-arm muscle circumference; BMI0body mass index; 5Á10% unintentional weight
loss in last month; alb 0serum albumin; palb0serum prealbumin; TLC0total lymphocyte count.
*No patient below reference value for this parameter.

4
(page number not for citation purpose)


Nutritional status of cancer patients

Table 4. Daily intake of energy and energy-giving nutrients in
cancer patients (n030), estimated from three-day-weighed food
records (mean9SD), and Nordic Nutrition Recommendations for

energy-giving nutrients (15)
Male (n 09)

Female (n 021)

Total (n 030)

Energy (kcal)

23279448

19069475

19059500

Protein (g/d)
Protein (%E)

101919
1793

73919
1692

76922
1693

87923

75923

73923

Fat (g/d)
Fat (%E)

3395

3596

3496

CHO (g/d)

270945

224969

223966

CHO (%E)

4795

4797

4797

NNR

10Á15
B30
55Á60

CHO0carbohydrate.

was 28 (99) kcal/kg of body weight and 29 (98) kcal/kg
of ideal body weight for obese patients. Energy intake
averaged 144% of calculated basal energy expenditure,
using ideal body weight for obese patients.

Nitrogen balance
Dietary protein intake estimated from weighed food
records was 1.190.3 g/kg of ideal body weight. Nitrogen
excretion including 2 g/d estimated loss from non-urine
routes exceeded nitrogen intake by 2.494 g N/24 hour
and was significantly different from zero (p00.006). This
negative nitrogen balance means 15.5927.8 g/day protein
loss. Patients (n 017) putting on weight or weight stable
in chemotherapy had significantly (p00.006) negative
nitrogen balance.
Evaluation of the SSM in clinical setting
Nutritional screening of all cancer patients (n093) at the
outpatients Department of Oncology with the SSM
indicated that 41% of the patients were malnourished.
According to the patients’ answers to the questions about
nutritional counseling, the majority (80%) needed dietary
counseling but only 17% had received such counseling
earlier.
Discussion

This study showed that 20% of cancer patients in an
outpatient clinic with a clinical diagnosis of breast, colon,
or lung cancer were malnourished. Weight loss and
malnutrition are common in patients with advanced
malignant diseases that adversely influence patient survival and QoL (19Á21).
Unintentional weight loss has often been reported in
cancer patients (18) and regarded as a stronger variable
for detection of malnutrition than BMI (22, 23). In the
present study, general unintentional weight loss from
patients’ self-reported earlier usual healthy weight was
found to be the best single parameter for detecting

malnutrition. However, it did not reach the quality of
the SSM in terms of specificity and misclassification.
A majority of the patients had serum albumin (70%)
and TLC (80%) below the reference value. Previous
studies have implicated that pro-inflammatory tumor
derived mechanisms influence the hepatic acute phase
protein response, which makes measurements of serum
albumin and immunocompetence such as TLC of limited
value. Serum albumin is the most widely used clinical
index of nutrition, but because of its long half-life and
affection by stress and illness (24) it can be regarded as a
poor parameter of nutritional status. Also many cancer
therapy drugs cause low TLC and serum albumin (25).
This underlines that nutritional status cannot be evaluated from one or two single parameters and supports the
need for several measurements as used in the present
study.
A large number of screening tools have been reported
and promoted in various settings. The main advantage of

the present SSM as a screening tool is that it is a very
simple tool, with only seven simple questions, and only
weight and height have to be measured. The SSM have
been validated with high sensitivity and are used in
routine clinical screening in other departments at Landspitali-University Hospital (9Á11). Sensitivity in nutritional screening is very important for realization of the
goal of finding malnourished patients, and specificity for
preventing well-nourished patients being classified as
malnourished. The sensitivity of the SSM was higher in
the present study of cancer patients than found in earlier
studies for other patient groups (9, 10, 26).
Energy and nutrient intake was within normal range.
However, our results show a significant negative nitrogen
balance and indicating that the majority (n021) of
patients were losing protein. The tendency of muscle
loss in cancer has been reviewed by others (27) with the
conclusion that many factors including patient’s age,
physical activity and cancer related protein metabolism
influence the skeletal muscle. Also drugs commonly used
in chemotherapy are known to cause negative nitrogen
balance (25). Aslani et al. (28) conclude that weight gain
observed during adjuvant chemotherapy for breast carcinoma is primarily due to an increase in fat and total body
water. Negative nitrogen balance shows that a majority of
these cancer patients have aggravated nutritional status
even though some of the patients are putting on weight.
Therefore, the present study supports the assertion that
malnutrition and negative nitrogen balance in cancer
patients can be substantial without abnormal weight loss,
energy intake or BMI.
The study has limitations due to the high drop out rate
and a small number of patients who were investigated.

Only patients who considered that they could manage the
burden of the study participated. Therefore, it can be
speculated that the nutritional status is worse among

5

(page number not for citation purpose)


Olof G. Geirsdottir and Inga Thorsdottir

patients with more severe types of cancer or those with
more severe side effects from the chemotherapy.
Data from one month screening with SSM indicated
that 41% of all cancer patients in chemotherapy were
malnourished or in nutritional risk. The majority of the
screened patients are regarded themselves in need of
nutritional counseling, but only few had received nutritional counseling. This study supports other reports that
nutritional issues are underestimated in diagnostic and
therapeutic procedures (1, 19, 20). It has been concluded
from the results of other studies that early nutritional
support is necessary to improve patient’s nutrient status
and controlling complications related to food intake
which influence patients’ QoL (29). Nutritional interventions can affect a cancer patient’s outcome. Nutrition is
more than just food; it is an essential part of clinical care
that can be improved.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.
17.
18.

Conflict of interest and funding
The Authors have received funding from Fund for
Research Training and Graduate Education; The Icelandic
Research Council and the Research Fund of the University
of Iceland.

19.
20.
21.

References
1. Nitenberg G, Raynard B. Nutritional support of the cancer
patient: issues and dilemmas. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2000; 34:
137Á68.
2. Isenring E, Bauer J, Capra S. The scored Patient-generated
Subjective Global Assessment (PG-SGA) and its association
with quality of life in ambulatory patients receiving radiotherapy. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003; 57: 305Á9.
3. Capra S, Ferguson M, Ried K. Cancer: impact of nutrition
intervention outcome Á nutrition issues for patients. Nutrition
2001; 17: 769Á72.
4. Tian J, Chen JS. Nutritional status and quality of life of the
gastric cancer patients in Changle County of China. World J

Gastroenterol 2005; 11: 1582Á6.
5. Ravasco P, Monteiro-Grillo I, Vidal PM, Camilo ME. Dietary
counseling improves patient outcomes: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial in colorectal cancer patients undergoing
radiotherapy. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 1431Á8.
6. Elia M, Stratton R. On the ESPEN guidelines for nutritional
screening 2002. Clin Nutr 2004; 23: 131Á2.
7. Kondrup J, Allison SP, Elia M, Vellas B, Plauth M, Educational
and Clinical Practice Committee, European Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ESPEN). ESPEN guidelines for
nutrition screening 2002. Clin Nutr 2003; 22: 415Á21.
8. Colditz GA. Hormones and breast cancer: evidence and
implications for consideration of risks and benefits of hormone
replacement therapy. J Womens Health 1999; 8: 347Á57.
9. Thorsdottir I, Eriksen B, Eysteinsdottir S. Nutritional status at
submission for dietetic services and screening for malnutrition at
admission to hospital. Clin Nutr 1999; 18: 15Á21.
10. Thorsdottir I, Gunnarsdottir I, Eriksen B. Screening method
evaluated by nutritional status measurements can be used to
detect malnourishment in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Am Diet Assoc 2001; 101: 648Á54.
11. Thorsdottir I, Jonsson PV, Asgeirsdottir AE, Hjaltadottir I,
Bjornsson S, Ramel A. Fast and simple screening for nutritional

6
(page number not for citation purpose)
View publication stats

22.
23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

status in hospitalized, elderly people. J Hum Nutr Diet 2005; 18:
5360.
Bingham SA, Nelson M, Paul AA, Haraldsdottir J, Loă ken EB,
van Starven WA. Methods for data collection at an individual
level. In: Cameron ME & van Starveren WA, eds., Manual on
methodology for food consumption studies. New York: Oxford
University Press; 1988; 53Á106.
Van Way CW. Variability of HarrisÁBenedict equation in
recently published textbooks. JPEN 1992; 16: 566Á8.
Hamwi GJ. Changing dietary concepts. In: Danowski TS, ed.,
Diabetes mellitus: diagnosis and treatment, vol. 1. New York:
ADA; 1964. p. 73Á8.
Barak N, Wall-Alonso E, Sitrin MD. Evaluation of stress
factors and body weight adjustments currently used to estimate
energy expenditure in hospitalized patients. JPEN 2002; 26:
231Á8.
Hill GL. Disorder of nutrition and metabolism in clinical
surgery. Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh; 1992.
Johnston-Miller S. The nitrogen balance revised. Hosp Pharm
1990; 25: 61Á6.

Watson RA, Tang DB. The predictive value of prostatic acid
phosphatase as a screening test for prostatic cancer. N Engl J
Med 1980; 303: 497Á9.
Delmore G. Assessment of nutritional status in cancer patients:
widely neglected? Support Care Cancer 1997; 5: 376Á80.
Laviano A, Meguid MM. Nutritional issues in cancer management. Nutrition 1996; 12: 358Á71.
Nourissat A, Vasson MP, Merrouche Y, Bouteloup C, Goutte
M, Mille D, et al. Relationship between nutritional status and
quality of life in patients with cancer. Eur J Cancer 2008; 44:
1238Á42.
Lipkin EW, Bell S. Assessment of nutritional status. The
clinician’s perspective. Clin Lab Med 1993; 13: 329Á52.
Orr JW, Jr, Shingleton HM. Importance of nutritional assessment and support in surgical and cancer patients. J Reprod Med
1984; 29: 635Á50.
Wong PW, Enriques AE, Barrera R. Nutritional support in
critically ill patients with cancer. Oncol Crit Care 2001; 17: 743Á
67.
Forse RA, Rompre C, Crosilla P, O-Tuitt D, Rhode B, Shizgal
HM. Reliability of the total lymphocyte count as a parameter of
nutrition. Can J Surg 1985; 28: 216Á9.
Bauer J, Capra S, Ferguson M. Use of the scored PatientGenerated Subjective Global Assessment (PG-SGA) as a
nutrition assessment tool in patients with cancer. Eur J Clin
Nutr 2002; 56: 779Á85.
Skipworth RJE, Stewart GD, Dejong CHC, Preston T, Fearon
KCH. Pathophysiology of cancer cachexia: Much more than
hostÁtumor interaction? Clin Nutr 2007; 26: 667Á76.
Aslani A, Smith RC, Allen BJ, Pavlakis N, Levi JA. Changes in
body composition during breast cancer chemotherapy with the
CMF-regimen. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1999; 57: 285Á90.
Ravasco P, Monteiro Grillo I, Camilo M. Cancer wasting and

quality of life react to early individualized nutritional counselling! Clin Nutr 2007; 26: 7Á15.

*Olof Gudny Geirsdottir
Unit for Nutrition Research
National University Hospital
P.O. Box 10
IS-121 Reykjavik, Iceland
Tel: '354 543 8411
Fax: '354 543 4824
E-mail: