SUBTITLED AUTHENTIC VIDEOS AND INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING a STUDY AMONG EFL HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THANH HOA

1
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VINH UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN THI THANH HUYEN

SUBTITLED AUTHENTIC VIDEOS AND
INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING:
A STUDY AMONG EFL HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS IN THANH HOA
Field: Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching
Code: 60.14.01.11

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

Supervisor: Dr. Tran Thi Ngoc Yen

Nghệ An, 2017


i

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
I hereby acknowledge that this study is my own work. The data and findings
discussed in the thesis are true and have not been published elsewhere.
Author
Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen


ii
ABSTRACT

This study was set out to determine if the use of subtitled English videos
enhances EFL high school students’ incidental vocabulary learning. The
students participating in the experiment aged around 16 years old and were
divided into three groups, one being the control group and the other two the
experimental groups. During the treatment time, each experimental group was
asked to watch short video clips, either with English subtitles or dual subtitles. A
vocabulary level test was used as the pre- and post-treatment test to determine
whether watching these videos played a role in the participants’ vocabulary
learning. The data revealed that the three groups did better in the post-test, but
there was a significant difference between the experimental groups and the
control group. It was also found that the two experimental groups did similarly
well. The data collected from the questionnaire showed that the use of subtitled
authentic videos motivated EFL students’ vocabulary learning. In addition,
participants have positive attitudes toward learning from subtitled videos, both
inside and outside schools’ boundaries. The study suggested that subtitled videos
can be used as an effective learning tool in the second language classroom.


iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. TRAN THI
NGOC YEN, who I believe is the most wonderful supervisor, for her valuable
time, suggestions, guidance, warm encouragement, and continuous support
throughout this study. Without her help, my study would not have been
completed.
I also wish to thank the students who participated in my study. Without their
help, this study could not have been successful.
Finally, I would like to delicate this work to my colleagues and family, who have
been always supporting me with love and sympathy.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP..............................................................................................i
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................................iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................................iv
....................................................................................................................................................vi
....................................................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FINGERS.................................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................1
1.1 Rationale...............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Aim of study......................................................................................................................1
1.3 Research questions............................................................................................................1
1.4 Scope of study...................................................................................................................2
1.5 Thesis design.....................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................3
2.1 Vocabulary.........................................................................................................................3
2.1.1 Definition...................................................................................................................3
2.1.2 Word aspects..............................................................................................................3
2.1.3 The role of vocabulary...............................................................................................5
2.1.4 Assessing EFL learners’ vocabulary level..................................................................6
2.2 Vocabulary learning and teaching.....................................................................................7
2.2.1 Methods and techniques to teach vocabulary............................................................7
2.2.2 Principles for teaching vocabulary.............................................................................9
2.2.3 Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition.................................................................10
2.2.3.1 The influence of NL..............................................................................................10
2.2.3.2 FL anxiety.............................................................................................................13
2.2.3.3 Motivation and FL vocabulary learning................................................................15

2.3 Literature on using subtitled videos for language learning.............................................18
2.3.1 Defining ‘authentic video’.......................................................................................18
2.3.2 Defining subtitles.....................................................................................................18
2.3.2.1 Inter-lingual subtitles............................................................................................19
2.3.2.2 Intra-lingual subtitles:...........................................................................................19
2.3.2.3. Reversed subtitles................................................................................................20
2.3.2.4. Dual subtitles........................................................................................................20
2.4 Related theories of language learning.............................................................................21
2.4.1 The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis....................................................................21
2.4.2 The Affective Filter Hypothesis...............................................................................22
2.4.3 Incidental Learning..................................................................................................22
2.5 Vocabulary learning through subtitled videos.................................................................23
2.5.1 Intra-lingual subtitle videos.....................................................................................24
2.5.2 Dual subtitle videos..................................................................................................25
2.5.3 The effects of subtitled videos on second language learning...................................25
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY............................................................................................28
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................28
3.2. Participants.....................................................................................................................30


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3.3 Materials..........................................................................................................................31
3.3.1 The video clip and selection criteria........................................................................31
Regarding to the selection criteria, twenty-four-minute clip of the film described above
was extracted. However, certain criteria were considered in selecting the research clip.
The selection criteria were developed based on the proposed assessment criteria of
previous researchers (Borras, 1993: King, 2002) for the selection of audio-visual
material, either films or video clips. The selection criteria were as follows:....................31
3.3.2 The Vocabulary Level Test.......................................................................................32
3.3.3 Multiple-choice opinion survey...............................................................................34

3.4 Data collection procedure...............................................................................................35
3.5 Coding schemes..............................................................................................................36
3.5.1 The Vocabulary Level Test.......................................................................................36
3.5.2 Opinion survey.........................................................................................................36
CHAPTER 4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION.......................................................................37
4.1 Results.............................................................................................................................37
4.1.1 General English test results......................................................................................37
4.1.2 The VLT results........................................................................................................39
4.1.2.1 Experimental groups’ results.................................................................................39
4.1.2.2 Control groups’ results..........................................................................................43
...........................................................................................................................................45
4.1.3 The improvement compared between control group and the two experimental
groups in VLT scores........................................................................................................46
4.2 Attitudes about Learning from Subtitles.........................................................................47
4.2.1 Part one: Discover the respondents' English language video viewing habits..........47
4.2.2 Part Two: Subtitles preference.................................................................................47
4.2.3 Part three: Subtitled video and autonomous learning..............................................48
4.3 Discussion.......................................................................................................................49
4.3.1 The effect of using subtitled video clips on vocabulary acquisition........................49
4.3.1.1 Vocabulary Level Test( VLT) results.....................................................................49
4.3.1.2 The role of the audio-visual materials...................................................................54
4.3.1.3 Possible factors related to the input......................................................................56
4.3.2 Participants’ attitudes towards learning from subtitled videos:...............................57
4.3.2.1 The questionnaire survey results...........................................................................57
4.3.2.1.1 General attitudes towards learning from subtitled videos..................................57
4.3.2.1.2 Subtitle Preference.............................................................................................61
4.3.2.2. Subtitled video and autonomous learning............................................................62
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION..................................................................................................59
5.1 Summary of the study.....................................................................................................59
5.2 Limitations of the study..................................................................................................62

5.3 Suggestions for the study................................................................................................63
5.4 Implications for future research......................................................................................64
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................64
APPENDIX A.......................................................................................................................68
APPENDIX B:......................................................................................................................72
APPENDIX C.......................................................................................................................75
APPENDIX D.......................................................................................................................77
Questionnaire survey( English version)................................................................................77


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APPENDIX E...........................................................................................................................77


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4. 1: Scores on the general English test for all participants: The control
group and The experimental groups.................................................................48
Table 4. 2 The average total scores and standard deviations of general English
test in the experimental group and the control group.........................................49
Table 4.3 Pre- and post-scores on the Vocabulary Level Test for the English
subtitle group......................................................................................................51
Table 4.4 Pre- and post-scores on the Vocabulary Level Test for the Dual subtitle
group......................................................................................................53
Table 4.5 Pre- and post-scores on the Vocabulary Level Test for the Control
groups ................................................................................................................55


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LIST OF FINGERS
Figure 1 Intra-lingual subtitles...........................................................................32
Figure 2 Dual subtitles........................................................................................33
Figure

3 Score rate on the general test for the English subtitle

group....................................................................................................................4
9
Figure 4 Score rate on the general test for the Dual subtitle group....................50
Figure 5 Score rate on the general test for the Control group.............................50
Figure 6

Score rate on the pre treatment test for the English subtitle

group..................................................................................................................52
Figure 7

Score rate on the pre treatment test for the Dual subtitle

group.................................................................................................................52
Figure 8 Score rate on the post treatment test for the English subtitle
group.................................................................................................................54
Figure 9 Score rate on the post treatment test for the Dual subtitle
group.................................................................................................................54
Figure 10 Score rate on the pre treatment test for the control group................56
Figure 11 Score rate on the post treatment test for the control group...............56
Figure 12 VLT Gain by All the Three Groups..................................................57
Figure 13 The respondent’s English Language Video Viewing Habit...............58

Figure 14 Preferring Vocabulary Learning from Subtitled Video.....................59
Figure 15 The Effectiveness of Subtitles..........................................................59


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CHAPTER 1.
1.1 Rationale

INTRODUCTION

As an English teacher, I am fortunate to have access to multimedia
technology for both in my teaching and searching. I have made a great effort to
keep abreast with these developments by using technology to create and exploit
learning opportunities for my students.
I would like to encourage students’ interest in subtitled authentic videos
and make them feel confident when using such videos as learning tools. It’s the
teacher’s duty to put students in a position where they are capable of increasing
their knowledge of vocabulary independently of the teacher by looking at the
subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances.
I decided to carry out the current study to determine whether subtitled
authentic videos could be effective vocabulary learning tools for Thanh Hoa
EFL high school students.
1.2 Aim of study
This study aimed to demonstrate that watching the English subtitled
videos will improve EFL high school students’ knowledge of English vocabulary
and to determine whether the participants felt that the subtitles accompanying
the treatment video motivate them.
1.3 Research questions
This research aims to answer the following questions:
- How does the use of English subtitled videos affect EFL high school

students’ vocabulary learning?
- Will the use of English subtitled videos help to motivate EFL high
school students to learn English?


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1.4 Scope of study
This research focuses on the effect of using English subtitled videos as
vocabulary learning tools for Thanh Hoa EFL high school students. The study is
to determine which subtitled video( English subtitled video or English and
Vietnamese subtitled video) is more effective and whether it motivates EFL high
school students’ learning. The study was conducted among thirty 10 th grade
students at Duong Dinh Nghe high school in Thieu Hoa district, Thanh Hoa
province.
1.5 Thesis design
The thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter 1, Introduction, includes
rationale for the study, the aims, methods, scope, and design of the study.
Chapter 2 comes the second, in which a literature review was presented. Chapter
3, the study comes next with the responsibility for specifying the factors for the
researcher to collect and process the study data. Chapter 4 consists of findings
and discussion, in which the data was described and discussed. Chapter 5 comes
last. A summary of the study, the limitations of the study, and suggestions and
implications for further research are also mentioned in the last chapter.


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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Vocabulary
2.1.1 Definition
Vocabulary is the words of a language. But what is a word? Although it
seems likely that “everyone knows what a word is” (Carter & Mc. Carthy, 1988,
p.4), for academic research purposes, at least, sometimes the meaning is so clear.
Words are recognitions of lexemes (Carter, 1998). A lexeme is the basic
form of a word that is listed in the dictionary, and is the root of all the variations
of that word. The lexeme DO, for example, comprises all of the grammatical
conjugations of that verb in terms of person (does, do) and tense (do, doing, did,
done). Lexemes can also be” prefabricated chunks” of language, i.e. multi-word
items that are stored and recalled in a grammatically unanalyzed form (Schmitt
& McCarthy 1997)
In the current paper, when talking of “increases to English vocabulary
knowledge”, by “vocabulary” I mean “words” and by “words”, I mean the
realizations of lexemes. The focus of the current research is on single words (as
opposed to “prefabricated chunks” in this sense.
2.1.2 Word aspects
According to vocabulary acquisition literature, “knowing” a word implies
more than just meaning identification and form familiar (Johnson & Pearson,
1984; Nagy & Scott, 2000, Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997). The nature of word
knowledge can be described as multi-fated, multi-demensional, incremental and
having a receptive/ productive duality. That is, word knowledge is gained
incrementally, as each encounter with a word contributes to the depth of
knowledge of the multi-dimensional aspects. For examples, often one can
understand or recognise a word encountered in speech or in written text, but are
unable to use it in our own production of the language (Schmitt, 2001). This


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situation indicates that word knowledge has various scopes; understanding and

recognising a word when reading or listening to spoken language is known as
‘receptive knowledge’, whereas being able to use a word in discourse is
‘productive knowledge’. Different aspects of the word knowledge have been
identified (Schmitt, 2001), including:
- The meaning(s) of the word
- The written form of the word
- The spoken form of the word
- The grammatical behaviour of the word
- The collocations of the word
- The register of the word
- The associations of the word
- The frequency of the word
Richard (1976), adds further dimensions, such as:
- The limitations of use of the word
- The place of the word in a network of association
An understanding of most of the above aspects of words is required by
learners in order for them to be competent with the use of a word across a wide
range of language use situations. It is worth noting that different types of word
knowledge are not necessarily acquired simultaneously. That is, often, a learner
may know the pronunciation of a word but is unable to spell it correctly. This,
again, reinforces the incremental nature of word knowledge, as types of word
knowledge are acquired gradually, at variable rates, however, the test used in
this study does not cover all of the aforementioned aspects of vocabulary
knowledge. The focus of this study is uncovering participants’ knowledge of the
syntactic behaviour of a word, as well as their knowledge of the meanings of
words. Participants’ knowledge of the meanings of words can be indicated either


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by a synonym or the Arabic equivalent, due to an acceptance of the claim made

by Ellis(1997:133) that “...the acquisition of L2 words usually involves a
mapping of the new word from onto pre-existing conceptual meanings or onto
L1 translation equivalents as approximation”.
2.1.3 The role of vocabulary
The area of vocabulary learning is giving significant attention within
second language teaching discourses. Vocabulary plays a fundamental role in
language learning, as is dedicated in the commonly cited quote, “without
grammar little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”
(Wilkin, 1972: 11). For a long time, the emphasis in the second language
classrooms was on teaching grammar, whereas vocabulary was neglected.
However, there has been increased emphasis on the need to equip learners with
adequate lexical tools to facilitate their performance of receptive( reading or
listening) and productive skills (speaking and writing) (Schmitt, 2008). For
example, in terms of receptive skills, without sufficient vocabulary knowledge,
learners may face difficulties in reading comprehension (Laufer 1998; Coady et
al., 1993). Additionally, with regard to productive skills, without a satisfactory
vocabulary repertoire, learners may be unable to perform communicative tasks
where they have to speak in the language in an interaction. Furthermore, a
correlation has been identified between vocabulary size and writing quality
(Astika, 1993; Laufer & Nation, 1995). Ellis (2012) also points out that, for
beginner learners with a low proficiency level, input–based tasks where learners
are exposed to and learn vocabulary and other linguistic features are more
beneficial than output-based tasks.
Moreover, the importance of vocabulary learning is underpinned by the
lexical approach to vocabulary learning, as proposed by Lewis (1993). In this
approach, Lewis argues that second language learners must learn to identify


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frequent lexical chunks of language when they are exposed to authentic second

language input. Lewis’ view is derived from what is perceived to be the
fundamental role played by vocabulary, as encapsulated in the quote,
“grammaticalised lexis not lexicalised grammar”. Here Lewis argues that
mastering a language requires not only a knowledge of grammar and isolated
vocabulary, but also competence in “multi-word prefabricated chunks: (1997:3).
The lexical approach helps learners to acquire a rich and diverse vocabulary,
which may lead to fluent and accurate production of sentences (Boers et al.,
2006). However, it can be argued that films and movies are also rich resources
for chunk expressions of language due to introducing authentic use of language.
2.1.4 Assessing EFL learners’ vocabulary level
Ever since vocabulary came into the focus of foreign language learning
studies, assessment of word knowledge has been perceived as a fundamental
issue in the research of this domain. This part provides an insight into how
vocabulary is assessed and what types of validated and reliable instruments exist
in the literature.
The Receptive Vocabulary Levels Test is simply referred in the literature
to as Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT). It operates with a discrete point measure. It
requires meaning recognition. The test was developed by Nation (1990) and it
was validated by Schmitt, Schmitt and Clapham (2001). Words are selected from
such corpora as British National Corpus (Kilgarriff, 1997) and the CANCODE
(Cambridge and Nottingham Corpus of Discourse in English) up to five levels:
the first 2,000, 3,000, 5,000 and 10,000 most frequent words. These levels bear
importance from a research-based perspective. The 2,000-3,000 levels contain
high-frequency

words

whose

knowledge

is

necessary

for

everyday

communication. The 5,000 level is the minimal size which learners can conceive
authentic texts. The 10,000 level, contains the most common low-frequency


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words (Webb, 2010). The fifth level is not grounded on any corpus but includes
items from the University Word List (Xue & Nation, 1984). The test-taker sees
six words on the left-hand side and three definitions or synonyms on the righthand side. They are expected to match the right-hand side items with three of the
six words on the left-hand side. This means that the task contains three
distractors. In the entire test each level comprises six clusters of six words. Since
the test gives estimates of vocabulary size at 5 levels, it can be applied for
placement purposes and for diagnosis of vocabulary gaps. Four parallel test
versions were developed. The criterion of the development of the test was that
the definitions are succinct; the test could be completed in the fastest possible
time and with the appropriate arrangement of the possibility of blind guesses
could be diminished. In the online version of the VLT the test-taker is expected
to write the listed six words next to the three definitions. The evaluation of the
test is automatically completed. With the modified version of the online test,
Vocabulary Online Recognition Speed Test (VORST) the speed of word
recognition can also be examined (Laufer & Nation, 2001, p.21).
2.2 Vocabulary learning and teaching

2.2.1 Methods and techniques to teach vocabulary
Nowadays methodologists and linguists suggest that teachers can decide
and select the words to be taught on the basis of how frequently they are used by
speakers of the language. Carter – McCarthy(1991) rightly points out, “Knowing
a word involves knowing its spoken and written context of use; its patterns with
words of related meaning as well as with its collocation partners; its syntactic,
pragmatic and discourse patterns;. It means knowing it actively and productively
as well as receptively.”: Richards (1976) list the different things teaching need to
know about a word before we can say that they have taught it.These include:
- The meaning(s) of the word
- Its spoken and written forms


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- What “word parts” it has (e.g., any prefix, suffix, and “root” form)
- Its grammatical behavior (e.g., its word class, typical grammatical
patterns it occurs in)
- Its collocations
- Its register
- What associations it has (e.g., words that are similar or opposite in
meaning)
- What connotations it has
- Its frequency
2.2.1.1 Teaching words in the context
Most people agree that vocabulary ought to be taught in context (Nilsen
1976; Chastain 1976; Rivers 1968). Words taught in isolation are generally not
retained. In addition, in order to grasp the full meaning of a word or phrase,
students must be aware of the linguistic environment in which the word or
phrase appears. Setting a good context which is interesting, plausible, vivid and
has relevance to the lives of the learners, is an essential prerequisite for

vocabulary teaching as it helps in both engaging the attention of the learners and
naturally generating the target vocabulary. Maintaining the context and making
sure the language surrounding the context is easy to comprehend, the teacher
should start eliciting the target vocabulary. Therefore, in selection of vocabulary,
the teacher must be sure that the words or phrases chosen can be immediately
incorporated into the students' linguistic range. Stahl (2005) stated, “Vocabulary
knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only implies a definition,
but also implies how that word fits into the world.”


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2.2.1.2 Use video to produce of target vocabulary.
Select a video segment that contains a series of actions or visual detail.
Provide the learners with a list of target vocabulary words and ask them to
construct a paragraph that incorporates as many of the words as possible. This
activity is best done after the learners have seen the video. As they learn how to
use more vocabulary properly, you will see an improvement in their writing and
speaking. Teacher can also show a short film without sound and asking pupils to
discuss what dialogue they would expect to hear. Showing a scene from a film
without sound and asking pupils to use the facial expression to determine
emotion.
2.2.2 Principles for teaching vocabulary
However many theories about vocabulary learning process were written ,
it still remains the matter of memory. Thus, there are several general principles
for successful teaching , which are valid for any method. According to Wallace,
1988 the principles are:
- Aim – what is to be taught, which words, how many
- Need – target vocabulary should respond students’ real needs and
interests
- Frequent exposure and repetition

- Meaningful presentation – clear and unambiguous denotation or
reference should be assured
Learning vocabulary is a complex process.

The students’ aim to be

reached in learning vocabulary process is primarily their ability to recall the
word at will and to recognize it in its

spoken and written form. Generally,

knowing a word involves knowing its form and its meaning at the basic level. In
deeper aspects it means the abilities to know its (Harmer 1993):
- Meaning, i.e. relate the word to an appropriate object or context
- Usage, i.e. knowledge of its collocations, metaphors and idioms, as well
as style and register (the appropriate level of formality), to be aware of any
connotations and associations the word might have


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- Word formation, i.e. ability to spell and pronounce the word correctly, to
know any derivations (acceptable prefixes and suffixes),
- Grammar, i.e. to use it in the appropriate grammatical form
2.2.3 Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition
More than 40 years ago, the question was raised by Gardner and Lambert
(1972, p. 131) as to how it was possible that some learners learned easily and for
some it was an impossible adventure to learn a foreign language (FL) under
similar circumstances. Since then the question has been asked several times and
now it appears obvious that every learner is able to learn a FL but with regard to
pace and simplicity there are huge differences. The conclusion has been drawn

that knowing a FL is not only the result of direct teaching but learners’
achievements depend on many factors. Individual differences in the field of FL
learning have been elaborated on by Dörnyei (2009), Larsen-Freeman and Long
(1991), Ligthbown and Spada (2006), Skehan (1989). As regards vocabulary,
factors influencing its learning is explored in the subsequent sections and an
attempt is made to model vocabulary learning by using the most applicable
second language acquisition (SLA) model for this construct (EFL vocabulary
learning).
2.2.3.1 The influence of NL
An issue that has been in focus concerning FL learning is the role played
by native language (NL). It has been stated that the adequate development of NL
abilities determine the success of FL learning (Birdsong, 2006, p. 28; Dörnyei &
Skehan, 2003, p.592). The similarities of FL learning to the shifts that children
experience in the NL learning process has also been researched. The obvious is
noted by Kersten (2010) that the FL lexicon is generally smaller than the NL
lexicon, therefore, learners do not have the same associations and connections
between words. Singleton (1999, p. 518) describes four stages in the


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developmental process of learning NL words up to the age of 24 months: (1)
cooing at the age of one-four months, (2) babbling that is a combination of
vowel-like and consonant-like sounds from eight months, (3) one-wordutterance stage when meaningful one-word utterances are formed at the
beginning of two years of age, (4) at the age of 18-24 months the child is
capable of producing two-word utterances. FL vocabulary learning is considered
as a slow process that stretches over a lifespan (Augustin Llach, 2011; Bordag,
Kirschenbaum, Opitz & Tschirner, 2014; Clark, 2009; Meara, 1987). In this
process of FL lexical learning new forms are learned in the midst of association
with new meanings. According to Singleton (1999, p. 28) the FL learner learns
new words to refer to old concepts notwithstanding the new concepts that lack in

the NL also must be learned and already existing concepts need to be constantly
modified.

Whereas Singleton (1999, p. 98) describes NL word learning

processes, Levelt (1989, p. 28) determines how FL words are learned through
the knowledge of NL words. Levelt (1989, p. 44) proposes a model that
constitutes three stages in the process of FL word learning with the aid of NL
words: (1) formal stage when the formal characteristics of the NL word is
grounded, (2) NL lemma mediation stage when the NL lemma is copied onto the
FL entry, and (3) FL integration stage when the FL semantic, syntactic and
morphological characteristics are juxtaposed onto the FL lexical entry. An
extensively detailed analysis of this briefly described process is given in Jiang
(2000). Four German YLs in a naturalistic setting were investigated (Wode,
Rhode, Gassen, Weiss, Jekat, & Jung, 1992). Several differences were pointed
out between NL and FL vocabulary learning. NL vocabulary growth is rather
slow until the first 50 words then there is acceleration in the process contrary to
FL vocabulary development which is considerably rapid initially but it loses
speed and is usually slow after the first 2,000 words. Another focus of research


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is the case of false cognates, i.e., lexical items that have overlapping
orthographic/phonological traits but no semantic overlap. Janke and Kolokonte
(2015, p. 146) came to the conclusion that the French participants learning
English in their study had extreme difficulty in identifying correct meaning. This
finding gives support to the assumption that the NL might negatively influence
FL vocabulary learning. Nakai, Lindsay and Ota (2015, p. 48) had similar
findings with Greek and Japanese speakers of English when they investigated
homophone effects in FL spoken-word recognition. If this fossilization of interlanguage is inevitable, the question arises as to whether the exclusive use of the

target language dictated by the principles of communicative language teaching
facilitate or hinder vocabulary learning. Intra-lingual methods involve
explanation of target words in FL, exploiting linguistic context, giving
synonyms and definitions whereas inter-lingual methods involve the use of
translations and definitions given in NL. Notwithstanding the goal of
communicative language teaching to use the target language, the NL is present
in the learners’ minds no matter whether teachers accept that or not (Liu, 2008,
p. 65). It is also posited by Liu (2008, p.67) that “adult FL learners often do not
have as much contextualized input as children do, which makes the extraction
and integration of lexical meanings difficult.” He further claims that there is
hardly any necessity to learn new meanings whilst learning FL words. He argues
that the presence of an existing NL system renders adult vocabulary learning
different from NL vocabulary learning. When children learn their NL they learn
the concepts at the same time. So meaning and concept are inseparable. NL
word recall is spontaneous and effortless as opposed to FL word learning which
little semantic or conceptual development accompanies. This is congruence with
what Clark (2004, p. 472) sheds light on, namely ”when children learn a first
language, they build on what they know – conceptual information that


13
discriminates and helps conceive categories for the objects, relations and events
they experience.” Thus when first conceptual information is established by
children, then linguistic representations are added. This is likely to take place in
the process of vocabulary learning. When learners encounter with a new FL
word they set up conceptual information before they add linguistic
representations. Similar to the learning of grammar, the assertion might be made
that lexical forms are also fossilized. Jiang contends (2000, p. 58) vocabulary
learning constitutes three stages: (1) the formal stage; (2) the NL lemma
mediation stage; and (3) the FL integration stage. In the first stage, the formal

stage, only a lexical entry is established. In the second stage, the NL lemma
mediation stage, both the lemma information the word’s NL counterpart and the
FL lexeme information are taken on by the FL word. In the final stage, the FL
integration stage, the integration of FL information (i.e., semantic, syntactic,
morphological specifications) into the lexical entry takes place.
2.2.3.2 FL anxiety
Besides cognitive factors, listed in the previous section, other factors such
as affective factors, might also exert an influence on vocabulary learning.
Anxiety, for example, is a widely researched construct which is hypothesized to
correlate negatively with lexical pickup rate. Horwitz and Cope (1986, p. 128)
assert that FL anxiety is a special type of anxiety. According to MacIntyre (1999,
p. 24) FL anxiety is a negative emotional reaction during the learning of an FL.
FL anxiety is experienced when the non-native speakers face the need of using
an FL. FL anxiety is not a general anxiety coming from the personality, but it is
related to FL learning and FL use contexts. Two types of FL learning anxiety are
discerned that are labelled as anxiety-transfer and special anxiety in the
literature (MacIntyre, 1999). FL anxiety-transfer means the transfer of the
perceivable anxieties into the FL learning context (Spilberger, 1983) whereas the


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special FL anxiety MacIntyre and Gardner (1994) can only be in conjunction
with the context of FL learning. In spite of the fact that FL learning anxiety is a
broadly researched domain of SLA research, a considerably small number of
studies have been published as regards Learners (Bacsa, 2014). The relationship
between language aptitude and FL learning anxiety was investigated by
Robinson (2001) and the main finding of the study was that a lower language
aptitude resulted in higher FL learning anxiety. Csizér and Dörnyei (2005) assert
that a higher FL language anxiety might have a negative influence on language
learning in the long run. This means that higher anxiety is likely to negatively

affect FL vocabulary learning. Khan (2010, p. 202) investigated the negative
effects of language anxiety on vocabulary learning. In a control group
experiment where the groups were exposed to different amount of anxiety it was
discovered that the treatment groups that were under a great deal of anxiety
(being recorded by a camera) suffered huge deficits in vocabulary learning
compared to the control group that did not experience any type of anxiety. Weak
but significant negative correlation was found by Mihaljevic Djigunovic (2010)
with Croatian Learners’ English proficiency and anxiety. Three age groups, 710-year-olds, 11-14-year-olds and 15-18-year-olds were involved in the study.
Ensuing an in-depth analysis of the results, the researcher revealed that the
youngest group had a fear from making mistakes and saying words incorrectly
during class. The teachers were also named as a source of anxiety due to the fact
that they were too strict or ironic. It could be concluded that the teacher’s
strictness definitely does not positively contribute to word learning. These
findings are in line with those of Nikolov (2003) who highlighted that teachers
would have a major role in neutralizing the processes eliciting anxiety.
To sum up this section, it can be stated that FL learning anxiety is a
special type of anxiety. It is related to the special fields of FL learning. FL


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vocabulary learning. FL learning anxiety can only be interpreted with respect to
the interactions of the different variables; thus its effect is worth examining with
careful consideration.
2.2.3.3 Motivation and FL vocabulary learning
FL learning motivation is a driving force to learn a new language which is
in conjunction with the desire for the knowledge of the new language, a positive
attitude towards the new language, and an effort (Gardner, 1985). Even though
motivation has cognitive component such as goal setting, I consider motivation
in the context of my research an affective variable. Motivational orientation can
be defined as the combination of reasons that contribute to learning a language

(Noels, Pelletier, Clément, & Vallerand, 2000). Several conditions are necessary
for the successful learning of a new language: a learning opportunity, language
aptitude, a good teacher, and learning strategies. As vocabulary is part of the
communicative competence, all these listed factors relate to vocabulary. The
research of FL learning motivation is an autonomous research field; nevertheless
it has developed in the past 30 years by ensuing and integrating the main line of
motivational psychology Four main stages of FL learning motivation were
identified (Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2012): (1) the socio-psychological period (19591990) that is hallmarked by Gardner who posited that FL learning motivation
had social and psychological dimensions. By the 1990s new perspectives into
FL motivation opened up and new light was shed on further research (Skehan,
1989), (2) the cognitive situative-period (1990s) which can be described through
two main trends. On the one hand cognitive theories served as the underpinnings
of FL motivation studies, on the other hand a new research direction was taken
from the macro-perspective of learners’ general language learning towards
specific situation-dependent language learning contexts (Williams & Burden,
1997), (3) the process oriented period (at the turn of the millennium) whose


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studies differ from the period prior to this in that a new emphasis was laid on the
time-perspective, the shifting of motivation. Dưrnyei and Ottó’s (1998) processmodel is classified into three stages: pre-actional, actional, and post-actional
stage, (4) the present, ongoing period, the socio-dynamic period that emphasizes
the cyclical and dynamic trait of FL learning motivation. By integrating two
significant theoretical approaches outlined in research focusing on the self,
Dörnyei (2005) tries to conceptualize a new model of FL learning motivation:
the possible selves theory of Markus and Nurius (1986) and self-concept (ideal
and ought-to self) model of Higgins (1987). This theory can be totally related to
FL vocabulary learning as vocabulary is part of general language knowledge.
According to Dörnyei’s (2005) theory, three factors enhance the motivation of
FL learning: (1) the ideal L2 self of the learners that concerns how the learner

sees themselves as a language learner in the future, (2) the ought-to L2 self that
is in conjunction with what the learner thinks of the expectations of their
environment, and (3) L2 learning experiences. As for FL vocabulary learning
motivation, Tseng and Schmitt (2008) made an attempt to outline a model of
motivated vocabulary learning. They drew on work undertaken by Dörnyei
(2005) on the stages of motivation. Tseng and Schmitt (2008) involved six
components into the model: (1) initial appraisal of vocabulary learning
experience, (2) self-regulating capacity in vocabulary learning, (3) strategic
vocabulary learning involvement, (4) mastery of vocabulary learning tactics; (5)
vocabulary knowledge, and (6) post-appraisal of vocabulary learning tactics.
Without elaborating on how these factors are defined, I wish to emphasize that
Dưrnyei and Ottó’s (1998) model is efficiently applicable for the
conceptualization of the construct of FL learning motivation from the
perspective of Learners. Learners’ vocabulary learning motivation goes through
the stages Dưrnyei and Ottó (1998) sectioned motivational processes into: pre-