PHÁT TRIỂN vốn từ VƯNG TIẾNG ANH của học SINH lớp 10 QUA CHƯƠNG TRÌNH đọc RỘNG có HƯỚNG dẫn một NGHIÊN cứu gần NHƯ là THỰC NGHIỆM

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Rationale

As an effective medium of international communication, English language has been
making a considerable contribution to the increasing development of various fields of
people’s life such as economy, politics, culture, science, education and international
relations. Indeed, to meet the increasing demands for the development and integration of the
country into the greater English-speaking world, over the last two decades, English language
teaching and learning have been carried out throughout the country, not only at tertiary level
but also at secondary and primary education. Many Vietnamese linguists, educators and
researchers have been doing their best in order that the quality of English language learning
and teaching at all educational levels will be greatly improved for the time being.
However, at upper secondary schools, the teaching and learning of English language in
general, English vocabulary in particular are still far from satisfaction as students’ final
results in most English examinations remain unchanged at low level. In fact, most secondary
school students have not paid enough attention to vocabulary learning as they mainly receive
basic lessons of grammar together with four skills from their teachers and textbooks. It is
common knowledge that vocabulary has a very important role to play in the language
learning process and in language use as Wilkins (1972: 11) has claimed that “without
grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”. Also,
vocabulary can function as the cohesive device that links the four skills of listening,
speaking, reading and writing all together. Thus, vocabulary deficiency will lead to
deficiency in other language skills.
Though vocabulary is vitally important to mastering any foreign languages, in reality,
many grade 10 students' English vocabulary is still limited even though they have learned
English for four years at the lower secondary schools. It is their limited vocabulary that
explains their poor performance in using English and in their test performance. All these

have motivated me to conduct this quasi-experimental research on the topic given, namely
developing grade 10 students' English vocabulary through extensive reading.

1.2. Aims and Objectives of the Study

The main aim of this study was to experiment a guided extensive reading program
(GERP) in helping grade 10 students develop their English vocabulary.

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To be more specific, the primary objectives of the study were set as follows:
• To experiment the GERP and examine its effects on grade 10 students’ English
vocabulary acquisition;
• To investigate the experimental students’ attitudes towards the GERP, and then to
make some recommendations for further study.

1.3. Research Hypotheses and Questions

To achieve the aims and objectives, the study was designed to test the hypothesis:
H
1:
Grade 10 students who participate in the GERP will make more significant improvement
in their English vocabulary acquisition as measured by both pre-test and post-test scores
than those who do not take part in such a program.
If the above hypothesis was fully accepted, the following null hypothesis would be
obviously rejected or vice versa:
H
0:
There is no difference in English vocabulary acquisition as measured by both pre-test
and post test scores between grade 10 students who participate in the GERP and those who

do not take part in such a program.
In order to identify which hypothesis would be accepted, the following research
questions were formulated and needed to be answered satisfactorily:
(1). Does an extensive reading program bring about differences in terms of students’
vocabulary acquisition as measured by their scores in the pre-test and post-test?
(2). What are the students’ attitudes towards the GERP after the experimental period?

1.4. Method of the Study

To test the hypothesis (Grade 10 students who participate in the GERP will make more
significant improvement in their English vocabulary acquisition as measured by both pre-
test and post-test scores than those who do not take part in such a project), a quasi-
experiment was adopted in this study. A design of pretest and posttest was employed as the
main research method to measure the validity of the hypothesis. Two non-random groups of
60 students (one control group and one experimental group, N= 30 each) participated in this
experiment. The pre-test and post-test scores were analyzed by means of t-test to find out
the correlation of the two means to accept or to reject the null hypothesis, namely extensive
reading (ER) does not have any effect on grade 10 students' English vocabulary learning.
Besides, a post-experiment questionnaire was also used as the supplementary instrument to
elicit the students’ evaluative attitudes towards the GERP after the experimental period.

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1.5. Scope of the Study

This quasi-experimental study was designed to measure the effects of the GERP on
grade 10 students' English vocabulary acquisition at HTSS. Due to the time constraint, the
researcher could just carry out an experiment upon a small sample of grade 10 students who
were non - randomly assigned to a control class and an experimental class, (30 students per
each). The pre-test and post-test scores were used to measure both groups' English

vocabulary before and after the trial period of 16 weeks in the first semester of the 2007-
2008 academic year. The post-program questionnaire was administered to get more feedback
from the experimental students. The results of the questionnaire would give the researcher
supplementary support for the conclusion drawing. Thus, the findings of the research could
just reflect the effects of the GERP on the subjects in the context under consideration.

1.6. Significance of the Study

The present research was carried out with the hope that it would bring practical benefits
to teaching and learning English vocabulary at upper-secondary schools. If the GERP
actually helps to develop grade 10 students' vocabulary knowledge, it should be applied to
the teaching and learning of English at other grades.

1.7. Design of the Study

The study is divided into five chapters, which are presented as follows:
Chapter one provides an overview of the study, consisting of the rationale for the study, aims
and objectives, research hypothesis and questions, research method, scope, significance and
design of the study. Chapter two presents essential literature review relevant to the study
including the place of vocabulary in foreign language learning, L2 vocabulary acquisition
processes, extensive reading and vocabulary learning. Chapter three deals with the
methodology underlying the research, which presents the context of the study, the rationale
for using quasi-experiment, the background information about the subjects of the study, the
procedures as well as the instruments for data collection. Chapter four is devoted to a
detailed description of the significant findings from data collection, i.e., the presentation of
the two groups' pretest and posttest scores and the experimental students' attitudes towards
the GERP. Chapter five presents the discussion and conclusion which focus on the findings
and summary of the major points of the study. This chapter also point out several limitations
of the research as well as some recommendations ad suggestions for further study.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

In Chapter One, the rationale, aims and the hypothesis to be tested in the present
study were presented. This Chapter reviews the relevant literature on the relationship
between extensive reading and L2 vocabulary acquisition. The Chapter begins with a
definition of vocabulary, which is followed by the discussion of the role of extensive reading
in L2 vocabulary from both Second Language Acquisition theory and pedagogical
perspectives.

2.2. Vocabulary in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

2.2.1. What is Vocabulary?

So far, the term vocabulary has been defined quite differently according to its various
aspects such as criteria, features and functions. According to Ur, P. (1996: 60), vocabulary
can be defined “as the words we teach in the foreign language. However, a new item of
vocabulary may be more than a single word: a compound of two or three words or multi
word idioms”. Lewis, M. (1993: 89) states that vocabulary “… may be individual word or
full sentences – institutionalized utterances – that convey fixed social or pragmatic meaning
within a given community”. Pyles & Algeo (1970: 96) also emphasizes that “It is words that
sounds and meanings interlock to allow us to communicate with one another, and it is word
that we arrange together to make sentences, conversation and discourse of all kinds”.
The above quotations have helped us have general look at the notions of vocabulary.
However, as going into further features, vocabulary can be interpreted as knowledge of
words and word meanings. Firstly, words are virtually manifested in the two forms: spoken
form and written form. Oral vocabulary including the words, phrases or sentences are used

for listening and speaking, and the words which we recognize and use for reading and
writing can be identified as written vocabulary. Secondly, our word knowledge is also
represented in two forms, receptive and productive. The words that we use to write and
speak are considered as productive vocabulary and the words that we hear from the people
around us and see or read from stories, books, newspapers, etc… are recognized as receptive
vocabulary. In language learning and teaching, the term vocabulary is used with changing

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meanings by the teachers at different levels of education. For example, the teachers at
nursery or primary schools might regard the word as synonymous with “sight vocabulary"
by which they mean a certain number of the most common words in language that young
pupils need to recognize quickly when they see them in print or written materials.
Meanwhile, for the upper secondary school teachers, vocabulary usually means the “hard”
words that students encounter in a subject matter and literature selections. Therefore, it is
possible to state that the word vocabulary means both the knowledge of words and word
meanings in both oral and print language and in productive and receptive forms. Of course,
lexical meanings vary from context to context. In language communication, there are many
cases in which the lexical meaning can not be deducted from analysis of the individual
components of that word. For this reason, in foreign language teaching and learning, helping
students to gain vocabulary from the different contexts is a must for all the instructors. If this
is regularly done, the learners will not only know how to use appropriate vocabulary in
communication, but also develop their vocabulary repertoire themselves.

2.1.2. The Place of Vocabulary in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

Nowadays, more and more people become aware that besides their mother tongue or
first language, they need to acquire several foreign languages in order to take full advantages
of the advancements in information technology. For many people, the first thing to do in
learning a foreign language is to acquire its vocabulary, which is perceived as the building

blocks upon which knowledge of language can be built. In fact, vocabulary always holds a
significant place in foreign language teaching and learning. According to Troike (1976: 87),
“vocabulary is most important for understanding and knowing names for things, actions and
concepts”. Also, vocabulary knowledge can help language users perform and develop
language skills since “substantial vocabulary knowledge is always a prerequisite to the
performance of language skills. Vocabulary enables language use, language use enables the
increase of vocabulary knowledge and language use and so on” (Nation and Waring, 2004:
6-19). Therefore, it is undeniable that vocabulary plays an extremely important role in
making a success of language learning and that the acquisition of adequate vocabulary is
essential for successful second language use.
The main objective of language learners is to be able to use their learning language to
communicate well with people around them. To achieve this objective, they have to master
enough vocabulary of that language; if not, they will find it impossible to express themselves

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in most circumstances. Wallace (1982: 73) has said that “failure to find the words one needs
to express himself is the most frustrating experience in speaking another language”. Indeed,
as students succeed in obtaining wide knowledge of vocabulary, they often get more
confidence in using language and they can perform other language skills for various
communicative purposes. Thus, vocabulary knowledge always holds an important role in
performing language skills. For example, vocabulary has a close relationship with reading
skills which in turn have an interconnection with reading comprehension. This relationship
seems logical because of the fact that when students get meaning from what they read, they
also need both many words in their vocabulary repertoire and ability to use various strategies
to establish the meanings of new words when they encounter them. It is the case that most of
the weak students who don’t have enough vocabulary or effective word-learning strategies
often struggle to achieve comprehension in reading. Also, as they don’t have sufficient word
knowledge to understand what they are reading, they often avoid reading. As a result, the
students who don’t read very much don’t have the opportunity to see and learn very many

new words in various contexts but the students who read more can become better readers and
gain more words. The very particular relationship between vocabulary knowledge and
language skills once again highlights the significant position of vocabulary in language
learning and teaching as Wilkin (1972: 110) has summed up “Without grammar, very little
can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”.

2.3. Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition Processes

As examining “vocabulary acquisition: word structure, collocation, word-class, and
meaning”, N. C. Ellis (1997: 122-139) states that language consists of strings of units
hierarchically organized into increasingly large chunks. He argues that the acquisition of
phonological form, collocation and grammatical class results from unconscious analysis of
sequence information but the acquisition of semantics and the mapping of form to meaning
are accomplished by conscious learning processes. Much of language learning is the
memorization of strings which results in the formation and retention of patterns in long-term
memory. These in turn help language learners in the memorization of new strings of
language units. Knowing a word involves knowing its form, morphological structure,
syntactic pattern, meaning, connotation, pragmatics, lexical relations, and collocations.
According to Nagy, Anderson, & Herman (1985: 233-253), developing understandings
of word meanings is a long-term process that involves many encounters with both spoken
and written words in varying contexts. On the first encounter with a new word, a student

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stores in memory some information about how the word fits into what he is reading. This
information is reinforced each time he sees or hears the word. With each new encounter, the
student picks up more information about the word from its use in various contexts. As a
result, the student gradually acquires “ownership” of the word. Thus, L2 vocabulary
acquisition is a very complex phenomenon involving several different learning processes.
The most common distinction between implicit and explicit learning is that implicit or

incidental learning is often defined as “accidental learning of information without the
intention of remembering that information” (Hulstijn, J., Hollander, M. & Greidanus, T.,
1996: 327), and explicit learning, on the other hand, refers to the application of vocabulary
learning strategies on the part of the learner. L2 vocabulary acquisition processes are also
presented quiet enough by Krashen (1989: 440-464) in the Implicit Vocabulary Learning
Hypothesis and Explicit Vocabulary Learning Hypothesis. According to Krashen’s Input
Hypothesis, the former holds that meanings of new words are acquired subconsciously as a
result of repeated exposures in a range of contexts, where the conscious focus is not on form,
but on the message. The latter holds that the employment of a range of vocabulary learning
strategies can greatly facilitate and enhance vocabulary acquisition; on this view, learners are
seen as active processors of information. Agreeing to some points in Krashen's Hypothesis,
Ellis (1995: 12-16) also claims that both hypotheses are true, but apply to different aspects of
vocabulary acquisition. According to him, the implicit vocabulary learning hypothesis holds
true for simple pattern recognition of surface forms of input and output. Explicit learning, on
the other hand, is necessary for the mapping of those surface input and output forms to their
corresponding semantic or conceptual representation. Then, learners can recognize the word
meanings via spelling, associations, grammatical information and meaning. He, therefore,
suggests the following possible explanations for the process of vocabulary acquisition:
• According to the strong implicit vocabulary learning hypothesis, new words are
acquired totally unconsciously.
• A weak implicit vocabulary learning hypothesis holds that it is at least necessary
for learners to notice that a word is new to them.
• A weak explicit vocabulary learning hypothesis suggests even when words are
learned implicitly, some active processing is also taking place.
• A strong implicit vocabulary learning hypothesis holds that learners consciously
apply meta-cognitive strategies in acquiring new vocabulary.
In sum, each hypothesis explains different aspects of vocabulary acquisition. The strong
implicit hypothesis can explain a learner's ability to recognize and produce words. This

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ability is a skill developed through repetition. Hence, extensive reading can offer students
good opportunities to fortify their vocabulary acquisition.

2.4. Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition & Intentional Vocabulary Learning

The fact that incidental vocabulary acquisition takes place in second language learning
is generally acknowledged among researchers. Most scholars agree that except for the first
few thousand most common words, L2 vocabulary is predominantly acquired incidentally
(Huckin & Coady, 1999: 181-193). The terminological clarification visualized in the
following figure (adapted from Schmidt, 1990: 138-149; Ellis, 1994: 38) enables us to relate
the terms implicit and explicit by viewing incidental vocabulary acquisition as being
composed of implicit learning processes which happen without the learner’s awareness
and/or of explicit learning processes which take place without learning intention but involve
online awareness and hypothesis formation.
Figure 1: Incidental vocabulary acquisition as a process involving implicit and/or explicit learning



is achieved by

and/or



With regard to the role of consciousness, however, two complementary viewpoints can
be distinguished. An implicit viewpoint would hold that incidental vocabulary acquisition
takes place without awareness, involving implicit learning processes only. However, the
implicit viewpoint fails to take account of the fact that learners are active and strategic

information processors. An explicit viewpoint would thus argue that incidental vocabulary
acquisition also involves explicit (i.e. conscious) learning processes, and would consequently
characterize it as primarily explicit learning. Ellis (1997) claims that both implicit and
explicit learning mechanisms are involved in incidental vocabulary acquisition: while the
acquisition of a word’s form, collocations and grammatical class information are said to
involve implicit processes, acquiring a word’s semantic properties and mapping word form
to meaning are claimed to result from explicit learning processes. Furthermore, He also
Incidental vocabulary acquisition
– intention

Implicit learning processes
– intention
– awareness

Explicit learning processes
– intention
+ awareness


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argues for a complete dissociation of implicit aspects and explicit aspects of vocabulary
acquisition (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Ellis’ view of implicit and explicit learning processes in incidental vocabulary
acquisition

2.5. Extensive Reading and Vocabulary Learning
2.5.1. Definition of Extensive Reading

The term “Extensive Reading” was originally coined by Palmer (1968), to distinguish it
from “Intensive Reading”. Intensive reading focuses mainly on the careful reading of short,
complex texts for detailed understanding and skills practice. Extensive reading, however,
involves the reading of large amounts of longer, easy-to-understand materials, usually done
outside the classroom and at each student’s own pace and level. According to Lewis and Hill
(1992: 109), extensive reading means "students have a general understanding of the text
without necessary understanding every word". This definition appears to have some
shortcomings as it fails to help the readers see the whole picture of extensive reading. The
concept extensive reading seems to be clarified through the definition given by Susser and
Robb (1990: 161-185) as they see extensive reading as a language teaching or learning
procedure is… reading (a) of large quantities of material or long texts; (b) for global or
general understanding; (c) with the intention of obtaining pleasure from the text. Moreover,
because (d) reading is individualized, with students choosing the books they want to read, (e)
the books are not discussed in class. What makes this definition better than Lewis & Hill's
definition is that it can summarize the general characteristics of ER. However, as considering
the overall context of the present study, this definition is still irrelevant.
In this study, extensive reading is defined as a language learning activity that is aimed to
getting additional linguistic input for vocabulary acquisition. This type of reading is
characterized as (a) being graded, (b) student-selected, (c) suitable to the students’ level of
proficiency, (d) done beyond the classroom, and having pleasure as primary purpose.

Incidental vocabulary acquisition

learning word form
=
implicit learning
(without awareness)

learning word
meaning
=
explicit learning
(with awareness)

dissociated
processes


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2.5.2. Role of Extensive Reading in L2 Vocabulary Acquisition from Second Language
Acquisition Perspectives: Krashen's Comprehensible Input Hypothesis

It is possible for us to claim that extensive reading has a very important role to play in
language learning as it can bring the benefits to learners in acquiring language in general,
vocabulary in particular. This is because extensive reading may provide 'comprehensive

input' (Krashen, 1982), which is claimed to result in language acquisition when certain
preconditions are met. These include adequate exposure to the language, interesting material,
and a relaxed, tension-free learning environment. Moreover, he also claims that the
unconscious process of language acquisition which occurs when reading for pleasure is more
successful and longer lasting than conscious learning. There are five main hypotheses in his
theory of second language acquisition. Among the five main hypotheses initiated by Krashen
(1982), (the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order
hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis), the Input Hypothesis is
seen as the corner-stone for the setting up of the guided extensive reading program in the
present study. According to Krashen's (1982) book, one acquires language is only one way-
by exposure to Comprehensive Input. He claims that exposure to comprehensive input in the
target language will lead to the simultaneous occurrence of comprehension and acquisition.
The theory can be illustrated as the following figure (adapted from Krashen, 1982: 16- 32).









The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis is obviously an attempt to explain how the learner
acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is an explanation of how second
language acquisition takes place. So, the input hypothesis is only concerned with
'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learners improve and progress
along the 'natural order' when they receive second language 'input' that is one step beyond
Figure 3: The input hypothesis model of L2 learning and production

Learnt knowledge

Affective filter
(Monitoring)








Comprehensive
input
Language
Acquisition
Device
(LAD)
Acquired
knowledge

Output

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their current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then
acquisition takes place when they are exposed to 'comprehensive input' that belongs to level
'i+1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the
same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a
syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i+1' input that is
appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For instance, an English

language learner may easily understand the message "put the paper in your desk" by slightly
changing the message to “put the paper in the garbage", the teacher thus scaffolds new
information that increases the learner’s language comprehension. From these points, it is
comprehensible that a language acquirer who is at "level i" must receive comprehensive
input that is at "level i+1". In other words, "we acquire only when we understand language
that contains structure that is 'a little beyond' where we are now". This understanding is
possibly due to using the context of the language we are hearing or reading and our
knowledge of the world.
With reference to the impact of extensive reading on language acquisition, Krashen
(1982) argues that one of the key elements in language learning is comprehensible input+1,
among which extensive reading has a significant role to play. He argues that extensive
reading will lead to language acquisition and emphasizes the quality of the language to
which the learners are exposed is very important if they are to learn from the input. In the
context of this study, the guided extensive reading program was built up in order that grade
10 students would make the best use of graded readers available in school library and
bookshops nearby as well as various reading materials suggested and provided by the
researcher and other English teachers at school. The selection and formation of graded
readers for this experimental research was based on Krashen's input hypothesis which states
that learners acquire grammar and vocabulary by getting and understanding language that is
slightly beyond their current level of competence. By guessing and inferring the meaning of
linguistic information embedded in the communicative context, learners are able to
comprehend grammar and vocabulary. This input is known as comprehensive input, or 'i+1'.
Thus, learners gradually develop their vocabulary and language fluency by being exposed to
'i+1' in the target language.
An extensive reading program is therefore to provide students with comprehensible input
so that they can develop their vocabulary and fluency unconsciously. This is becoming more
significant in the context of English as a foreign language where students have very limited

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access to comprehensible input in the target language. In the subsequent section, the
pedagogical value of extensive reading will be discussed.

2.5.3 Role of Extensive Reading in Vocabulary Acquisition from Pedagogical
Perspectives: Paul Nation's Theory of L2 Vocabulary Acquisition


According to Paul Nation (2001), the best practice in vocabulary teaching and learning is
to design or create a well-balanced language course for organizing tasks and class activities
to best facilitate vocabulary acquisition and fluency. The best course should contain four
major strands of learning activities as follows:
• Learning through meaning -focused input activities or comprehensible input such as
listening and reading where 98% of the running words are already known,
• Learning through meaning -focused output activities such as speaking and writing,
• Learning through language-focused study and teaching,
• Developing fluency in listening, speaking, reading and writing where 100% of the
vocabulary is already known (Nation, 2001: 97).
Paul Nation writes about different aspects of vocabulary teaching and learning.
Specifically, with regard to the relationship between vocabulary and meaning- focused
input, he states that there is a close relationship between vocabulary growth and the amount
and variety of meaning-focused input in which reading is a long major source of vocabulary
growth. However, vocabulary learning through meaning-focused input still contains some
fragility for the following reasons:
- Research with native speakers reveals that the amount of vocabulary learning that occurs
during the reading text is rather small.
- There is little vocabulary growth through reading while learners gain control of reading
skill. Thus, to reduce the major barrier to reading, it is better for the teacher to give the
students series of graded readings with careful vocabulary control.
- Depending too much on meaning-focused input is leaving too much to chance. As
students just focus on the meaning, they may find it easily to deal with unknown words in

the text but they may neglect the form or language items as a part of language system; they
will probably not learn the words then. So, the best practice in vocabulary teaching and
learning is providing large quantities of suitably graded input through a range of generals
and common topics, and providing language-focused activities to support it.

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However, just focusing on form-focused instruction and meaning-focused input isn't
sufficient for L2 vocabulary learning and teaching. So, a learning course should involve
learners in producing meaning-focused output. As the production of spoken and written
vocabulary items helps learning, it is necessary for the instructor to create spoken and
written communicative activities in which the following factors should be examined:
- The written input to a communicative task has a major effect on what vocabulary is
used and negotiated during the task.
- Vocabulary was learned through being used productively and receptively.
- The more the vocabulary is observed or used in contexts which differ from its
occurrence in the written input, the better it is learned.
- Learners are able to provide useful information to each other on most of the vocabulary
in a typical communicative task.
- Only a small amount of negotiation in a communicative task is negotiation of word
meaning. By carefully designing the handout sheets for spoken tasks, teachers can help
students in determining what vocabulary could be learned from such tasks.
Besides the above, to make L2 vocabulary teaching and learning more effective, the
designed or modified tasks should also focus on a particular feature or property of the second
language. This makes the learner be aware of the correct form and its use. Therefore, a good
language course needs to cover vocabulary and language-focused instruction which can
direct the learners' attention to language items not only for producing or understanding a
particular message, but also for gaining knowledge about the item as a part of the language
system. Language-focused instruction involves focusing on the pronunciation and spelling,
learning the meaning of words, memorizing collocations, phrases and sentences containing a

word and being corrected for incorrect use of a word. So, students can gain explicit
knowledge which can speed up and encourage further progress in the acquisition of implicit
knowledge at the same time.
Last but not least, some attention should be paid to developing fluency with vocabulary.
Fluency development tasks have the characteristics of involving no new language items,
dealing with largely familiar content and discourse types. What the teachers should focus is
to think of easy texts or simplified versions of text which can help students go through the
use of repetition, get no time pressure, and revisit texts previously encountered. Included in
these strategies are the use of graded readers for fluency development, word card
construction and consistent review of unlearned vocabulary items, recycling of information

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and vocabulary within the same text, generation of sentences, along with written and oral
output to facilitate productive usage.

2.6. Learning Vocabulary through Input Enrichment

The research is about the idea that extensive reading is good for developing students' L2
vocabulary. This view seems uncontroversial because most people would agree that reading
is a useful learning experience. Many previous studies have come to show that extensive
reading can take language learners beyond themselves and it can help them broaden their
perspectives, learn new facts and come to a better understanding of the world and our place
in it. Indeed, it is reasonable to assume that extensive reading increases our vocabulary
knowledge. Obviously, most reading materials introduce us to new words, and in many
cases, we can deduce their meanings from the written context. We can also remember some
of these new meaning associations if we continue to read and meet the new items in context
again. According to Nation (2001), the close relationship between vocabulary growth and the
large amount of meaning-focused input always exists since reading is a long major source of
vocabulary growth. Also, Krashen (1989) claims that reading in an L2 is one of the main

ways that language learners acquire new vocabulary knowledge. However, for extensive
reading to be effective, learners must be regularly exposed to large amounts of
comprehensible text. Since the knowledge gained from a single encounter with a lexical item
is likely to be forgotten unless soon followed by another encounter, repeated contextualized
exposures are necessary to consolidate and elaborate word meaning. Harmon (1999: 306)
also advocates the promotion of extensive reading as an important vehicle for vocabulary
development because students learn words from context during reading. Teachers can
promote repetition and consolidation through the use of some appropriate post-reading
activities in which learners first notice the target lexis by highlighting, underlining or circling
them, and then processing them by classifying, analyzing, or using the items productively
(Hunt & Beglar, 2005: 9).
The main goal of this thesis was to conduct an experiment that the researcher believed
would provide a more comprehensive input enrichment for grade 10 students' English
vocabulary learning through the GERP. The graded readers of generals and common topics
were employed as the main sources for students' reading outside classroom. The use of
graded readers, simplified texts, and interesting reading materials mainly followed the
logical basis and development of the vocabulary learning hypotheses which were already
proposed.

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2.7. Other Studies on Extensive Reading and Vocabulary Acquisition

Extensive reading has been empirically been proved as a very effective way of
reinforcing, confirming and deepening knowledge of vocabulary, expressions and structures,
and of developing an implicit understanding of when and how words are used (see Nation,
1997: 13-16). By reading extensively, students have good experience in noticing how
language is used in context. Actually, many studies in this area have supported the theories
on vocabulary acquisition that have been presented in the previous sections.
Grabe (1991: 391) also emphasizes that extensive reading “can enhance learners' general

language competence" since it provides learners with practice in automaticity of word
recognition and decoding the symbols on the printed page. Extensive reading obviously
helps the students increase their exposure to the language. The quality of exposure to
language that learners receive is seen as important to their potential to acquire new forms
from the input.
In reference to L2 vocabulary acquisition, extensive reading can increase knowledge of
vocabulary. According to Nagy & Herman's (1987) survey, children between grades three
and twelve (US grade levels) can learn up to 3000 words a year. It is thought that only a
small percentage of such learning is due to direct vocabulary instruction, the remainder is
due to acquisition of words from reading. This suggests that traditional approaches to the
teaching of vocabulary, in which the number of new words taught in each class was carefully
controlled (words often being presented in related sets), is much less effective in promoting
vocabulary growth than simply getting students to spend time on silent reading of interesting
books. The book flood project in Fiji (Elley & Manghubai, 1983), in which Fijian school
children are provided with high-interest story books, reveals significant post-treatment gains
in word recognition after one year.
These findings are further supported by the study conducted by Krashen & Bribbons
(2004), which showed the positive impact of extensive reading on learner's knowledge of
vocabulary and grammar. Their research involves fourth semester students of Spanish as
foreign language at the university level in the US. The subjects participate in two kinds of
comprehensive-input based instruction, an extensive reading class that combined assigned
and self-selected reading, and a 'reading-discussion' class that consisted of assigned reading,
debates and discussions. Their research results show that students in both classes
outperformed those in traditionally taught class on a checklist vocabulary test and grammar
test.

16

Besides the obvious benefits of extensive reading mentioned above, many researches into
the effects of extensive reading on L2 language acquisition also show that extensive reading

not only helps increase and consolidate L2 learners' vocabulary and grammar, but also helps
learners develop other language skills. One of typical examples is the findings of Robb &
Susser's research, which indicate that an input-based, acquisition-oriented reading program
based on extensive reading can be seen as an effective means of fostering improvements in
students writing. In addition, it is also necessary to take more account of other advantages of
extensive reading such as motivating learners to read, consolidating previously learned
language, helping students to build confidence with extended texts and facilitating the
development of other skills (1989: 239-251).
In the context of Vietnamese schools, there have been few studies on the benefits of
extensive reading to the students’ acquisition of English as a foreign language. For example,
Quach Ngoc Anh (2006) conducted an experimental study to identify the impact of extensive
reading on the first-year university students’ reading proficiency. Her research results also
pointed out the positive impact of extensive reading on students’ reading proficiency.

2. 8. Conclusion

This Chapter has reviewed the literature on the impact of extensive reading on
vocabulary acquisition. Such an impact has been well justified by both second language
acquisition theories and empirical studies in various pedagogical contexts. However, the
relationship between extensive reading and vocabulary by Vietnamese students of English
has been under-researched. Worse still, up to now there seems to be very little that has been
done with reference to how extensive reading enhances vocabulary acquisition in the context
of Vietnamese high schools. This study is an attempt to narrow the gap. The following
Chapter will present the present study.

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CHAPTER THREE: THE STUDY

3.1. Introduction

As presented in Chapter One, this study was designed to experiment the relationship
between extensive reading and vocabulary acquisition by Grade 10 students. In order to
achieve the aim of the study, a quasi-experiment was designed and implemented in two
intact Grade 10 groups in one high school. This Chapter presents the information about the
context of the study, the rationale of using quasi-experiment, variables, the GERP, the
participants, the procedures as well as the instruments for data collection.

3.2. Context of the Study

The study was conducted at Ha Tinh Specialized School (HTSS), which is located right
in the centre of Ha Tinh city, Ha Tinh province. The school has 32 clean, beautiful class
rooms and a large school yard. Moreover, it has two AV rooms and quite a big library which
is housed in a separate building. The library has plentiful sources of reference books,
magazines and newspapers, which are convenient for all the students to make reference.
For the 2007- 2008 academic year, the school has more than 730 students (243- grade 10,
245- grade 11 and 242- grade 12), with an average of 30 students per class. There are 7
teachers of English and 70 others who are teaching different subjects at school. For recent
years, HTSS has been the leading upper secondary school of Ha Tinh Training and
Educational Service. In fact, it has received quite a few awards for being the most effective
school in Ha Tinh province.
As for the students of the school, about forty three percent of them come from many

districts all over the province, so they mainly live in hostels or rented houses where reading
materials in English tend to be scare. About 57% of them live in the city or near the city.
These students seem to have more favorable conditions for their learning both at school and
at home. Generally, the students are streamed into two major groups: specialized group and
non-specialized group. With respect to English subject, the English majored group has an
average of 7 periods per week (4 periods in the morning, 3 periods in the afternoon) while
the non English majored group just receive 3 periods per week, i.e., 4 periods less than the
former group. The teaching materials for the English majors include the textbooks prescribed
by MOEET and other supplementary materials developed and selected by the classroom
teachers. These English majors are believed to be more strongly motivated than those who

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are not specializing in English as most of them plan to enter university to which English is
one of the entrance examinations. Indeed, most non English majored students are rarely
encouraged to read extensively since opportunities for their teacher to include supplementary
classroom activities beyond the content prescribed in nationally authorized textbooks are
quite limited.
This quasi-experiment was conducted with the group of students who are not specializing
in English with The reason for choosing this group is to improve their current situation of
learning English in general, English vocabulary in particular, which has been assumed to be
far from being successful or effective for years. Also, the research experiment was carried
out with the hope that English teachers in input-poor EFL settings should increase reading
input within no English majored students’ linguistic levels both inside and outside of the
classroom.

3.3. The Rationale of Using Quasi-Experiment

According to Christenson's (2004) statement, "The quasi-experimental method can be
used in a situation that doesn't meet all the requirements necessary for controlling the

influence of extraneous variables". Also, W. Borg & M. Borg, (1988, p.680) claim that "If
you want to make causal statements, you should conduct a true experiment. If you cannot
use random assignment to design a true experiment, a quasi experiment is the second best
choice". Since random assignment of subjects to the experimental and control groups is not
always possible, particularly in field studies, quasi-experiments become appropriate for
accomplishing the subject assignment in particular contexts. In these circumstances, the
researcher should pay attention to the specific issues that may arise when subjects are not
randomly assigned. In comparison with a true experimental design, L. H. Kidder, (1980: 43)
also says that "Quasi-experiments are research designs that do not have randomly assigned
treatment and comparison groups … You forfeit control when you do not use random
assignment, but you can still conduct research and analyze cause-effect relationships without
a true experiment". Indeed, in a quasi-experiment, the researcher can still examine the cause-
effect relationships by observing what happens, when, and to whom; and by deciding what
and when to measure. Besides the above, the quasi-experimental design is more likely to
have external validity as it is conducted under conditions closer to those normally found in
educational contexts. Furthermore, since this design is less intrusive and disruptive than the
true-experimental design, it is easier to gain access to the subject to the population and thus
more convenient to conduct such research (Selinger & Shohamy (1989: 149). As a result, it

19

helps the researcher save a lot of time in grouping the participants, which was impossible
under the present conditions.
Despite its practical benefits, the quasi-experimental design also has some shortcomings
compared with the true-experiment. For instance, the pre-assignment to groups of
participants makes it hard for the researcher to control the extraneous variables such as
gender, group size, age, English readiness, which may threaten the reliability and internal
validity of the research. To increase the strength of the design, the researcher first attempted
to equate the number of male and female students in the two groups by removing one male
student in the control group and one female student in the experimental group from the study

before the experiment. Then the scores in their school entrance examination were taken into
account to see any difference in their English proficiency. In this way, some extraneous
variables that may affect their extensive reading and L2 vocabulary acquisition can be partly
solved.
In short, as all above factors are examined, the quasi- experimental design becomes the
most practical and feasible for the researcher to conduct the present study. Besides the pretest
and posttest design that acts as the main instrument of this study, a multiple-choice
questionnaire was used to elicit the experimental students' opinions and attitudes towards the
GERP, based on which suggestions for further study or improvement would be made.

3.4. Variables

As mentioned above, the quasi-experimental design was used in the study as an
appropriate approach to establish the cause-effect relationship between extensive reading and
grade 10 students' English vocabulary acquisition. Therefore, the study was designed to
examine the relationship between the independents variable (the extensive reading) and the
dependent variable (the vocabulary test score).
In this quasi-experimental study, the extensive reading could be measured by the amount
of the optional reading materials guided partly by the researcher, the books chosen according
to the students' interest, and the time spent on extensive reading. The guided extensive
reading was seen as the comprehensive input acquired outside the classroom by students
who were encouraged to have extra reading at their disposal. Specifically, they had freedom
in spending the time and choosing books according to their interest and reading ability. The
values of the independent variable were defined from the experimental students' weekly
reports which covered the information on the books they had read and the amount of time
spent on extensive reading per week.

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In order to measure students' vocabulary acquisition from the GERP, the pretest and

posttest were employed as a valid and reliable means for this study. The vocabulary test
scores of both control and experimental groups were carefully computed and compared
before and after the experiment by a t-test.

3.5. Participants


The subjects of the study are the two groups of grade 10 students, non-English majors,
who are learning at HTSS. These students were selected as a subset of the population by
means of cluster sampling. Under the present condition, the quasi-experimental design was
used so as to be able to obtain control over sources of invalidity and non-equivalent groups
which did not involve the random assignment of each subject to both groups. The following
table presents main background information about participants such as gender, age and their
predetermined English proficiency.
Table 1: Background information about the subjects of the study
Experimental Controlled Total number of participants
Male
18 18 36
Female
12 12 24
Total
30 30 60
Age 15-16 15-16 15-16
English proficiency
Elementary Elementary Elementary

This research took the whole class as a unit in the experiment. Two existing classes
(Class 10 T and Class 10 L) were already pre-assigned to the experimental group and the
control group before the study. The total number of students in both groups was 60, 30 per
each. Their age ranged from 15 to16. There were 24 girls and 36 boys, 73% of them came

from the central city, the rest came from the suburbs and other rural districts of Ha Tinh
province. Judging their results of the school entrance examination in English at the
beginning of the 2007-2008 school year, we were able to assume that their English
proficiency level was roughly attributed to Elementary. Despite the fact that they had spent
four years studying English at lower secondary schools the problem, their background
knowledge of vocabulary and grammar and other practical skills were still limited as they
kept on learning English at an upper-secondary school. In fact, many students have spent
little time in studying or reading English after school. Thus, without any ER program they
would be likely to do little reading at home. A teaching period of English at school usually

21

lasts 45 minutes. Specifically, grade 10 students receive three 45 minute English classes per
week except for the English majored students who study the advanced English program
taught at English specialized classes get 4 periods weekly.
In this study, both groups regularly received three weekly English classes taught by the
researcher according to the school timetable. This was an advantage for the researcher to
take control over the students' learning process and eliminate other variables coming from
the teacher during the treatment. Although all the participants were taught by the same
teacher, some changes in teaching were made for the experimental group according to the
characteristics of the guided extensive reading program. The control group still received the
conventional teaching which followed the same teaching model employed by the other
teachers of English at school for years. The reading texts that the control group took
frequently were of fixed selections from the textbook Tieng Anh 10, which was designed for
10th form students as a whole. Meanwhile, the experimental group who took part in the
GERP read texts of their choice at their level and then did several post-reading activities
besides their three weekly classes.
However, there was a matter of fact that extensive reading had been unfamiliar or even
unknown to most of the students involved in this study since this was the first time they had
ever had a chance to get familiar with the program. Although students had freedom to choose

graded readers at their disposal, they still faced quite a few difficulties in selecting and using
books, managing their reading time as well employing their reading strategies. Without the
teacher's guidance, the students' first practice in an extensive reading program would be far
from being successful or different.

3.6. The Guided Extensive Reading Program

This program was adapted from Hsui's (2000: 31) Guided Independent Reading (GIR)
Program, which, as she suggests, "may be used as a supplementary reading program in upper
primary (5th and 6th grade) and lower secondary (7th to 9th grade) classrooms….for
students who can read with varying degrees of proficiency, but who generally will not read
for various reasons, such as failure to develop a love for reading, unavailability of
appropriate reading materials, insufficient time to read extensively because of school
demands, and lack of motivation to read extensively". We realized that the way in which
Hsui's GIR program was structured would benefit students in most upper secondary schools
in Ha Tinh, where English is a foreign language for the majority of the students. In the
present context, the study, based on a quasi-experiment, attempted to experiment the GERP

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on 30 grade 10 students at HTSS in order to examine the effects of extensive reading on their
English vocabulary acquisition after a period of 16 weeks in the first semester of the 2007-
2008 academic year. The GERP was carried out as the "Home Reading Program" since most
of students' reading activities were done at home. The program exploited the collections of
simple passages and graded readers available in the school library and on the internet. After
each reader or passage, students were required to do some follow-up activities related to
their home reading. A detailed description of reading materials, post reading activities, the
teacher's guidance and procedures is presented as follows.

3.6.1. Reading Materials

The reading materials were short, simple and easy passages or stories collected from
graded readers ranged from level 1 to level 4. About 48 passages were chosen to accord with
perceived students' interest and then modified for easy reading (see Appendix 2 for a sample
of extensive passage). Most selected passages had familiar topics such as friendship,
education, sports, movies, culture, music, current event, etc. These topics were different
from those in the authorized textbooks since they easily went out of date. The headwords in
each passage and story were assumed to be appropriate to students’ proficiency and
vocabulary level.
In addition to passages distributed in lessons in class, students were also encouraged to
read graded readers different genres, such as romance, adventures, science fiction, action
thrillers, and biography. Graded readers are “extended texts, mostly fiction, written in
language reduced in terms of structures and vocabulary” (Hill, 1997: 57). Thus, they are
regarded as a major teaching resource for many instructors in language learning. In an
extensive reading program for elementary and intermediate foreign or second language
learners, graded readers need to play an important role (Day & Bamford, 1998; Hill, 1997).
This is because the various levels of graded readers provide ideal vocabulary coverage
conditions for a range of levels of achievement within the elementary and intermediate
levels. The selection of graded readers for the GERP in this study followed the principles
proposed in Krashen's (1982) input hypothesis, which was discussed clearly in section 2.5.
At the beginning of the program, 62 graded readers from Collins English Library (A),
Ladder Series Books (B), Longman Structural Readers (C), Oxford Bookworms (D), Oxford
Progressive English Readers (E), and Streamline Graded Readers were introduced to
participants (see Appendix 6 for list of graded readers used in the GERP).


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3.6.2. Post -Reading Activities
The post-reading tasks were simple, encouraging and were done in a low anxiety

environment. They were comprehension questions, vocabulary quizzes and book summary.
Though follow-up activities were used less frequently in the ER programs than other reading
programs, they were used as reliable means to check whether and how students had read
their assigned passages and chosen readers. Follow-up tasks were carried out in such way
that students still kept interest in their readings and did not have a feeling of being
burdensome. Specifically, after reading a passage or story which was distributed in each
lesson, students were required to answer at least two comprehension questions and a
vocabulary quiz (see Appendix 2). The comprehension questions were about the plot of the
story (the main characters and the most important events) and the vocabulary quiz was
related to word-meaning recognition, word-collocations, pronunciation and spelling.
As regards the summarizing task, the students were asked to write a brief report about the
reader or story they had read, in which they must report how many pages they had read, what
their story was about and express what they liked most about the main characters, the
exciting events and the main contents of the story in a book report form (see Appendix 4 for
a sample of book report). Writing a summary of the story, according to Deacon and Murphey
(2001: 12), "helps students to show […] what they understood". By doing so, the students
have chance to review and recycle key ideas and vocabulary from what they read. Besides
the above, students were also motivated to retell their classmates about the stories they had
read at home. According Smith (1988: 277), retelling stories would help learners improve
comprehension. Through this task, students learned to express themselves in front of the
class, no matter how difficult at first, in English. This activity would also help to motivate
them to read more books, as it created a sense of accomplishment in having read one book
after another. Moreover, through what students expressed, the teacher also recorded some
observations of students' progress in diaries and then offered some help in time.

3.6.3. The Teacher's Guidance

There was a matter of fact that extensive reading had been unfamiliar or even unknown
to most grade 10 students at HTSS since this was the first time they had ever had a chance to
get familiar with the program. Although students had freedom to choose graded readers at

their disposal, they still faced quite a few difficulties in selecting and using books, managing
their reading time as well as employing their reading strategies. Without the teacher's
guidance, the students' first practice in an extensive reading program would be far from

24

being successful or different. According to Anderson (1996), the teacher's guidance to
students in selecting books can make their independent reading periods productive. In this
study, students were directed to deal with books at their appropriate reading level and point
out books that might be of interest to them. In addition, students were guided to exchange
with each other about what they had read, which helped contribute to the effectiveness of
independent reading time. Research also indicates that as students received the right
assistance from their teachers, they would feel more confident to keep reading their book
collection. Another problem with extensive reading is that extensive reading alone cannot
ensure that students can develop the kind of word-learning strategies as they need to become
independent vocabulary learners. In fact, most 10th grade students have not developed the
decoding and comprehension skills necessary for wide reading. They still need intentional,
explicit teaching of specific word-learning strategies. Thus, the teacher's guidance and
explicit instruction in time are always important factors that support much of students'
success in learning L2 vocabulary.

3.7. Procedures

The study was conducted over a period of 4 months, beginning from September 10th,
2007 and finishing by January 11th, 2008 at HTSS, Ha Tinh City. The procedures of the
study involved the chronological steps as follows:
1. Study the literature review underlying the study before carrying out the research;
2. Establish the methodological framework for the study;
3. Design and administer the pretest to both groups (experimental and control groups);
4. Identify any difference in the pretest scores between the two groups

5. Apply the guided extensive reading program on the experimental group;
6. Design and administer the posttest (version of the pretest) to both groups;
7. Analyze both groups' posttest scores to establish the difference in vocabulary
acquisition between the two groups after four months;
8. Deliver the questionnaire to the experimental group to get their ideas of the GERP;
9. Collect and analyze all the data for the results of the study; and
10. Discuss the findings and draw out conclusions and suggestions for further study.
The procedure of how this quasi-experimental study was conducted was presented in
detail as follows:
For the first class meeting, all the experimental students were delivered a handout of
photocopies of the first page from graded readers. This process helped students with a

25

general look before choosing their books appropriate for their reading level. All books were
then marked on the front cover of each with a round, colored seal indicating reading level
(green = level 1 (easiest), blue = 2, yellow = 3, orange = 4, red. The number of reading pages
was also estimated and recorded on the colored seal. In each subsequent class session, books
were set out on tables, and during the last five minute break of class, students were
encouraged to select their proper readers. To administer the books easily, a simple check-out
system was used in which students recorded the books they borrowed and check-out and
return dates (see Appendix 5 for a sample of personal check-out system).
All the experimental students were asked to read their assigned passages and chosen
readers before coming to class. Each student was required to finish at least one graded reader
per a two-week period. In class, either at the beginning or at the end of the lesson, the
teacher asked the students to submit their summary worksheets for some feedback and
comments which were done at home by the teacher. These summaries formed the basis for
in-class post-reading activities which were done at least once two weeks. On regular basis,
students received the teacher's comments and feedback which focused mainly on the content
rather on the mechanics.

With regard to the GERP passages distributed in each lesson, all the students in the
experimental group were required to read them before the next lesson. Specifically, at the
beginning of each lesson, the teacher first explained the topic to the students in easy English
and read the passage to the students aloud. As for ER programs for elementary school levels,
the teacher and learners share reading experiences with the teacher reading the texts aloud
for learners while allowing time for learners to discuss the contents among themselves (Elley
& Mangubhai, 1983). After reading the text once, the instructor checked students’
understanding of some key words listed below the texts by asking them the meanings of the
words. Then, the reading was concluded by checking some comprehension questions on the
texts. The whole procedure took from five to eight minutes. (See Appendix 1 for a sample of
lesson plan, week 4). The length of time was important because most of the class time in
EFL classrooms at the researcher’s school must be devoted to activities related to authorized
textbooks. Therefore, in the context of this study, extensive reading must take a secondary
role to these activities because the objectives of the course are not only to improve English
vocabulary acquisition, proficiency but also other skills which are prescribed in the textbook
(see Appendix 3 for a reading passage in the textbook Ting Anh 10 ). In this study, the
experimental treatment was done together with the new textbook Ting Anh 10. The