Mathematics of quantization and quantum fields

MATHEMATICS OF QUANTIZATION
AND QUANTUM FIELDS
Unifying a range of topics that are currently scattered throughout the literature,
this book offers a unique and definitive review of some of the basic mathematical aspects of quantization and quantum field theory. The authors present both
elementary and more advanced subjects of quantum field theory in a mathematically consistent way, focusing on canonical commutation and anti-commutation
relations. They begin with a discussion of the mathematical structures underlying
free bosonic or fermionic fields, such as tensors, algebras, Fock spaces, and CCR
and CAR representations (including their symplectic and orthogonal invariance).
Applications of these topics to physical problems are discussed in later chapters.
Although most of the book is devoted to free quantum fields, it also contains
an exposition of two important aspects of interacting fields: the diagrammatic
method and the Euclidean approach to constructive quantum field theory. With
its in-depth coverage, this text is essential reading for graduate students and
researchers in departments of mathematics and physics.
´ s k i is a Professor in the Faculty of Physics at the University
Jan Derezin
of Warsaw. His research interests cover various aspects of quantum physics and
quantum field theory, especially from the rigourous point of view.
´ r a r d is a Professor at the Laboratoire de Math´ematiques
Christian Ge
at Universit´e Paris-Sud. He was previously Directeur de Recherches at CNRS.
His research interests are the spectral and scattering theory in non-relativistic
quantum mechanics and in quantum field theory.

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J. Polchinski String Theory Volume 1: An Introduction to the Bosonic String
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Mathematics of Quantization and
Quantum Fields
´
JAN DEREZI NSKI
University of Warsaw

´
CHRISTIAN G ERARD
Universit´
e Paris-Sud

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cambridge university press
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Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107011113
C

J. Derezi´
n ski and C. G´erard 2013

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2013
Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by the MPG Books Group
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data
Derezi´
n ski, Jan, 1957–
Mathematics of quantization and quantum fields / Jan Derezi´
n ski, University of Warsaw,
Poland; Christian G´erard, Universite de Paris-Sud, France.
pages cm. – (Cambridge monographs on mathematical physics)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-107-01111-3
1. Quantum theory – Mathematics.
I. G´erard, Christian, 1960– II. Title.
QC174.17.G46D47 2012
530.1201 51 – dc23
2012032862
ISBN 978-1-107-01111-3 Hardback

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Since my high school years, I have kept in my memory the following verses:
Profesor Otto Gottlieb Schmock
Pracuje ju˙z dziesi¸
aty rok
Nad dzielem co zadziwi´c ma ´swiat:
Der Kaiser, Gott und Proletariat.
As I checked recently, it is a somewhat distorted fragment of a poem by
Julian Tuwim from 1919. I think that it describes quite well the process of
writing our book.
Jan Derezi´
nski

Je d´edie ce livre `a mon pays.
Que diront tant de Ducs et tant d’hommes guerriers
Qui sont morts d’une plaie au combat les premiers,
Et pour la France ont souffert tant de labeurs extrˆemes,
La voyant aujourd’hui d´etruire par soi-mˆeme?
Ils se repentiront d’avoir tant travaill´e,
Assailli, d´efendu, guerroy´e, bataill´e,
Pour un peuple mutin divis´e de courage

Qui perd en se jouant un si bel h´eritage.
(Pierre de Ronsard, 1524–1585)
Christian G´erard

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Contents

Dedication

page vii

Introduction

1

1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

Vector spaces
Elementary linear algebra
Complex vector spaces
Complex structures
Groups and Lie algebras
Notes

8
8
17
23
32
35

2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

Operators in Hilbert spaces
Convergence and completeness
Bounded and unbounded operators
Functional calculus
Polar decomposition
Notes

36

36
38
45
53
56

3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

Tensor algebras
Direct sums and tensor products
Tensor algebra
Symmetric and anti-symmetric tensors
Creation and annihilation operators
Multi-linear symmetric and anti-symmetric forms
Volume forms, determinant and Pfaffian
Notes

57
57
64
65
73
78

85
91

4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

Analysis in L2 (Rd )
Distributions and the Fourier transformation
Weyl operators
x, D-quantization
Notes

92
92
100
106
110

5
5.1
5.2

Measures
General measure theory
Finite measures on real Hilbert spaces

111

111
121

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x

Contents

5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6

Weak distributions and the Minlos–Sazonov theorem
Gaussian measures on real Hilbert spaces
Gaussian measures on complex Hilbert spaces
Notes

126
132
136
141

6
6.1
6.2

6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6

Algebras
Algebras
C ∗ - and W ∗ -algebras
Tensor products of algebras
Modular theory
Non-commutative probability spaces
Notes

142
142
144
151
151
155
158

7
7.1
7.2
7.3

Anti-symmetric calculus
Basic anti-symmetric calculus
Operators and anti-symmetric calculus
Notes

159
159
167
172

8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6

Canonical commutation relations
CCR representations
Field operators
CCR algebras
Weyl–Wigner quantization
General coherent vectors
Notes

173
173
180
188
196
203
210

9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5

CCR on Fock space
Fock CCR representation
CCR on anti-holomorphic Gaussian L2 spaces
CCR on real Gaussian L2 spaces
Wick and anti-Wick bosonic quantization
Notes

212
213
216
218
226
238

10

Symplectic invariance of CCR in
finite-dimensions
Classical quadratic Hamiltonians
Quantum quadratic Hamiltonians
Metaplectic group
Symplectic group on a space with conjugation
Metaplectic group in the Schră

odinger representation
Notes

239
239
245
250
258
262
265

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
11

Symplectic invariance of the CCR
on Fock spaces
11.1 Symplectic group on a Kă
ahler space
11.2 Bosonic quadratic Hamiltonians on Fock spaces

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266

266
276


Contents

xi

11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7

Bosonic Bogoliubov transformations on Fock spaces
Fock sector of a CCR representation
Coherent sector of CCR representations
van Hove Hamiltonians
Notes

283
287
301
304
312

12
12.1
12.2
12.3

12.4
12.5
12.6

Canonical anti-commutation relations
CAR representations
CAR representations in finite dimensions
CAR algebras: finite dimensions
Anti-symmetric quantization and real-wave CAR representation
CAR algebras: infinite dimensions
Notes

313
313
319
323
326
331
336

13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4

CAR on Fock spaces
Fock CAR representation
Real-wave and complex-wave CAR representation on Fock spaces
Wick and anti-Wick fermionic quantization

Notes

337
337
339
345
350

14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4

Orthogonal invariance of CAR algebras
Orthogonal groups
Quadratic fermionic Hamiltonians
Pinc and Pin groups
Notes

351
351
354
358
367

15
15.1
15.2
15.3

15.4
15.5

Clifford relations
Clifford algebras
Quaternions
Clifford relations over Rq ,p
Clifford algebras over Rq ,p
Notes

368
368
370
373
382
385

16
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5

Orthogonal invariance of the CAR on Fock spaces
Orthogonal group on a Kă
ahler space
Fermionic quadratic Hamiltonians on Fock spaces
Fermionic Bogoliubov transformations on Fock spaces
Fock sector of a CAR representation

Notes

386
386
399
404
417
421

17
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4

Quasi-free states
Bosonic quasi-free states
Fermionic quasi-free states
Lattices of von Neumann algebras on a Fock space
Notes

423
424
444
462
473

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xii

Contents

18
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5

Dynamics of quantum fields
Neutral systems
Charged systems
Abstract Klein–Gordon equation and its quantization
Abstract Dirac equation and its quantization
Notes

475
478
484
492
504
511

19
19.1
19.2

19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7

Quantum fields on space-time
Minkowski space and the Poincar´e group
Quantization of the Klein–Gordon equation
Quantization of the Dirac equation
Partial differential equations on manifolds
Generalized Klein–Gordon equation on curved space-time
Generalized Dirac equation on curved space-time
Notes

512
513
516
525
537
542
549
554

20
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5

20.6
20.7

Diagrammatics
Diagrams and Gaussian integration
Perturbations of quantum dynamics
Friedrichs diagrams and products of Wick monomials
Friedrichs diagrams and the scattering operator
Feynman diagrams and vacuum expectation value
Feynman diagrams and the scattering operator
Notes

555
557
570
575
582
588
600
604

21
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6

Euclidean approach for bosons

A simple example: Brownian motion
Euclidean approach at zero temperature
Perturbations of Markov path spaces
Euclidean approach at positive temperatures
Perturbations of β-Markov path spaces
Notes

605
607
609
619
624
636
639

22
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4

Interacting bosonic fields
Free bosonic fields
P (ϕ) interaction
Scattering theory for space-cutoff P (ϕ)2 Hamiltonians
Notes

641
641
646

656
660

References
Symbols index
Subject index

661
668
671

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Introduction

Quantum fields and quantization are concepts that come from quantum physics,
the most intriguing physical theory developed in the twentieth century. In our
work we would like to describe in a coherent and comprehensive way basic aspects
of their mathematical structure.
Most of our work is devoted to the simplest kinds of quantum fields and of
quantization. We will mostly discuss mathematical aspects of free quantum fields.
We will consider the quantization only on linear phase spaces. The reader will
see that even within such a restricted scope the subject is rich, involves many
concepts and has important applications, both to quantum theory and to pure
mathematics.
A distinguished role in our work will be played by representations of the
canonical commutation and anti-commutation relations. Let us briefly discuss the

origin and the meaning of these concepts.
Let us start with canonical commutation relations, abbreviated commonly as
the CCR. Since the early days of quantum mechanics it has been noted that the
position operator x and the momentum operator D = −i∇ satisfy the following
commutation relation:
[x, D] = i1l.
If we set a∗ = √12 (x − iD), a =
annihilation operators, we obtain

√1 (x
2

(1)

+ iD), called the bosonic creation and

[a, a∗ ] = 1l.

(2)

We easily see that (1) is equivalent to (2).
Strictly speaking, the identities (1) and (2) are ill defined because it is not
clear how to interpret the commutator of unbounded operators. Weyl proposed
replacing (1) by
eiη x eiq D = e−iq η eiq D eiη x , η, q ∈ R,

(3)

which has a clear mathematical meaning. (1) is often called the CCR in the
Heisenberg form and (3) in the Weyl form.

It is natural to ask whether the commutation relations (1) determine the
operators x and D uniquely up to unitary equivalence. If we assume that we
are given two self-adjoint operators x and D acting irreducibly on a Hilbert

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2

Introduction

space and satisfying (3), then the answer is positive, as proven by Stone and von
Neumann.
Relations (1) and (2) involve a classical system with one degree of freedom.
One can also generalize the CCR to systems with many degrees of freedom.
Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom appear e.g. in the quantum
mechanical description of atoms or molecules, while systems with an infinite
number of degrees of freedom are typical for quantum many-body physics and
quantum field theory.
In the case of many degrees of freedom it is often useful to use a more abstract
setting for the CCR. One can consider a family of self-adjoint operators φ1 , φ2 , . . .
satisfying the relations
[φj , φk ] = iωj k 1l,

(4)

where ωj k is an anti-symmetric matrix. Alternatively, one can consider the
Weyl (exponentiated) form of (4) satisfied by the so-called Weyl operators

exp i i yi φi , where yi are real coefficients.
A typical example of CCR with many, possibly an infinite number of, degrees
of freedom appears in the context of second quantization, where one introduces
bosonic creation and annihilation operators a∗i , aj satisfying an extension of (2):
[ai , aj ] = [a∗i , a∗j ] = 0,
[ai , a∗j ] = δij 1l.

(5)

The Stone–von Neumann theorem can be extended to the case of regular
CCR representations for a finite-dimensional symplectic matrix ωj k . Note that
in this case the relations (4) are invariant with respect to the symplectic group.
This invariance is implemented by a projective unitary representation of the
symplectic group. It can be expressed in terms of a representation of the twofold covering of the symplectic group – the so-called metaplectic representation.
Symplectic invariance is also a characteristic feature of classical mechanics. In
fact, one usually assumes that the phase space of a classical system is a symplectic manifold and its symmetries, including the time evolution, are described
by symplectic transformations. One of the main aspects of the correspondence
principle is the fact that the symplectic invariance plays an important role both
in classical mechanics and in the context of canonical commutation relations.
The symplectic invariance of the CCR plays an important role in many problems of quantum theory and of partial differential equations. An interesting –
and historically perhaps the first – non-trivial application of this invariance is
due to Bogoliubov, who used it in the theory of superfluidity of the Bose gas;
see Bogoliubov (1947b). Since then, applications of symplectic transformations
to the study of bosonic systems often go in the physics literature under the name
Bogoliubov method.

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Introduction

3

Let us now discuss the canonical anti-commutation relations, abbreviated commonly as the CAR. They are closely related to the so-called Clifford relations,
which appeared in mathematics before quantum theory, in Clifford (1878). We
say that operators φ1 , . . . , φn satisfy Clifford relations if
[φi , φj ]+ = 2gij 1l,

(6)

where gij is a symmetric non-degenerate matrix and [A, B]+ := AB + BA
denotes the anti-commutator of A and B. It is not difficult to show that if the
representation (6) is irreducible, then it is unique up to a unitary equivalence for
n even, and there are two inequivalent representations for n odd.
In quantum physics, CAR appeared in the description of fermions. If a∗1 , . . . , a∗m
are fermionic creation and a1 , . . . , am fermionic annihilation operators, then they
satisfy
[a∗i , a∗j ]+ = 0, [ai , aj ]+ = 0, [a∗i , aj ]+ = δij 1l.
If we set φ2j −1 := a∗j + aj , φ2j := 1i (a∗j − aj ), then they satisfy the relations (6)
with n = 2m and gij = δij . Besides, the operators φi are then self-adjoint.
Another family of operators satisfying the CAR in quantum physics are the
Pauli matrices used in the description of spin 12 particles. The Dirac matrices
also satisfy Clifford relations, with gij equal to the Minkowski metric tensor.
Clearly, the relations (6) with gij = δij are preserved by orthogonal transformations applied to (φ1 , . . . , φn ). The orthogonal invariance of CAR is implemented by a projective unitary representation. It can be also expressed in terms
of a representation of the double covering of the orthogonal group, called the
Pin group.
The orthogonal invariance of CAR relations appears in many disguises in algebra, differential geometry and quantum physics. In quantum physics its applications are again often called the Bogoliubov method. A particularly interesting
application of this method can be found in the theory of superconductivity and

goes back to Bogoliubov (1958).
The notion of CCR and CAR representations is quite elementary in the case
of a finite number of degrees of freedom. It becomes much deeper for an infinite
number of degrees of freedom. In this case there exist many inequivalent CCR
and CAR representations, a fact that was not recognized before the 1950s.
The most commonly used CCR and CAR representations are the so-called Fock
representations, acting on bosonic, resp. fermionic Fock spaces. These spaces have
a distinguished vector Ω called the vacuum, killed by annihilation operators and
cyclic with respect to creation operators.
In the case of an infinite number of degrees of freedom, the symplectic or
orthogonal invariance of representations of CCR, resp. CAR becomes much more
subtle. In particular, not every symplectic, resp. orthogonal transformation is
unitarily implementable on the Fock space. The Shale, resp. Shale–Stinespring
theorem say that implementable symplectic, resp. orthogonal transformations

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4

Introduction

belong to a relatively small group Spj (Y), resp. Oj (Y). Other interesting objects
in the case of an infinite number of degrees of freedom are the analogs of the
metaplectic and Pin representation.
CCR and CAR representations provide a convenient setting to describe various
forms of quantization. By a quantization we usually mean a map that transforms
a function on a classical phase space into an operator and has some good properties. Of course, this is not a precise definition – actually, there seems to be no

generally accepted definition of the term “quantization”. Clearly, some quantizations are better and more useful than others.
We describe a number of the most important and useful quantizations. In
the case of CCR, they include the Weyl, Wick, anti-Wick, x, D- and D, xquantizations. In the case of CAR, we discuss the anti-symmetric, Wick and
anti-Wick quantizations. Among these quantizations, the Weyl, resp. the antisymmetric quantization play a distinguished role, since they preserve the underlying symmetry of the CCR, resp. CAR – the symplectic, resp. orthogonal group.
However, they are not very useful for an infinite number of degrees of freedom, in
which case the Wick quantization is much better behaved. The x, D-quantization
is a favorite tool in the microlocal analysis of partial differential equations.
The non-uniqueness of CCR or CAR representations for an infinite number
of degrees of freedom is a motivation for adopting a purely algebraic point of
view, without considering a particular representation. This leads to the use of
operator algebras in the description of the CCR and CAR. This is easily done
in the case of the CAR, where there exists an obvious candidate for the CAR
C ∗ -algebra corresponding to a given Euclidean space. This algebra belongs to
the well-known class of uniformly hyper-finite algebras, the so-called UHF(2∞ )
algebra. We also have a natural CAR W ∗ -algebra. It has the structure of the
well-known injective type II1 factor.
In the case of the CCR, the choice of the corresponding C ∗ -algebra is less
obvious. The most popular choice seems to be the C ∗ -algebra generated by the
Weyl operators, called sometimes the Weyl CCR algebra. One can, however,
argue that the Weyl CCR algebra is not very physical and that there are other
more natural choices of the C ∗ -algebra of CCR.
Essentially all CCR and CAR representations used in practical computations
belong to the so-called quasi-free representations. They appear naturally, e.g. in
the description of thermal states of the Bose and Fermi gas. They have interesting
mathematical properties from the point of view of operator algebras. In particular, they provide interesting and physically well motivated examples of factors
of type II and III. They also give good illustrations for the Tomita–Takesaki
modular theory and for the so-called standard form of a W ∗ -algebra.
The formalism of CCR and CAR representations gives a convenient language
for many useful aspects of quantum field theory. This is especially true in the
case of free quantum fields, where representations of the CCR and CAR constitute, in one form or another, a part of the standard language. More or less

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Introduction

5

explicitly they are used in all textbooks on quantum field theory. Usually the
authors first discuss quantum fields classically. In other words, they just describe
algebraic relations satisfied by the fields without specifying their representation.
In relativistic quantum field theory these relations are usually derived from some
form of classical field equations, like the Klein–Gordon equation for bosonic fields
and the Dirac equation for fermionic fields.
In the next step a representation of CCR or CAR relations on a Hilbert space
is introduced. The choice of this representation usually depends on the dynamics
and the temperature. At the zero temperature, it is usually the Fock
representation determined by the requirement that the dynamics should be
implemented by a self-adjoint, bounded from below Hamiltonian. At positive
temperatures one usually chooses the GNS representation given by an appropriate KMS state.
Another related topic is the problem of the unitary implementability of various
symmetries of a given theory, such as for example Lorentz transformations in
relativistic models. If the generator of the dynamics depends on time, one can
also ask whether there exists a time-dependent Hamiltonian that implements the
dynamics.
Models of quantum field theory that appear in realistic applications are usually
interacting, meaning that they cannot be derived from a linear transformation of
the underlying phase space. Interacting models are usually described as formal

perturbations of free ones. Various terms in perturbation expansions are graphically depicted with diagrams. The diagrammatic method is a standard tool for
the perturbative computation of various physical quantities.
In the 1950s, mathematical physicists started to apply methods from spectral
theory to construct rigorously interacting quantum field theory models. After a
while, this subject became dominated by the so-called Euclidean methods. The
main idea of these methods is to make the real time variable purely imaginary.
The Euclidean point of view is nowadays often used as the basic one, at both
zero and positive temperature.
Many concepts that we discuss in our work originated in quantum physics and
have a strong physical motivation. We believe that our work (or at least some of
its parts) can be useful in teaching some chapters of quantum physics. In fact,
we believe that the mathematical style is often better suited to explaining some
concepts of quantum theory than the style found in many physics textbooks.
Note, however, that the reader does not have to know physics at all in order to
follow and, it is hoped, to appreciate our work. In our opinion, essentially all the
concepts and results that we discuss are natural and appealing from the point
of view of pure mathematics.
We expect that the reader is familiar and comfortable with a relatively broad
spectrum of mathematics. We freely use various basic facts and concepts from
linear algebra, real analysis, the theory of operators on Hilbert spaces, operator
algebras and measure theory.

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6

Introduction

The theory of the CCR and CAR involves a large number of concepts coming
from algebra, analysis and physics. Therefore, it is not surprising that the literature about this subject is very scattered, and uses various conventions, notations
and terminology.
We have made an effort to introduce terminology and notation that is as
consistent and transparent as possible. In particular, we tried to stress close
analogies between the CCR and CAR. Therefore, we have tried to present both
formalisms in a possibly parallel way. We make an effort to present many topics in
their greatest mathematical generality. We believe that this way of presentation
is efficient, especially for mathematically mature readers.
The literature devoted to topics contained in our book is quite large. Let us
mention some of the monographs. The exposition of the C ∗ -algebraic approach
to the CCR and CAR can be found in Bratteli–Robinson (1996). This monograph also provides extensive historical remarks. One could also consult an older
monograph, Emch (1972). Modern exposition of the mathematical formalism of
second quantization can be also found e.g. in Glimm–Jaffe (1987) and Baez–
Segal–Zhou (1991). We would also like to mention the book by Neretin (1996),
which describes infinite-dimensional metaplectic and Pin groups, and review articles by Varilly–Gracia-Bondia (1992, 1994). A very comprehensive article devoted
to CAR C ∗ -algebras was written by Araki (1987). Introductions to Clifford algebras can be found in Lawson–Michelson (1989) and Trautman (2006).
The book can be naturally divided into four parts.
(1) Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6 and 7 are mostly collections of basic mathematical
facts and definitions, which we use in the remaining part of our work. Not all
the mathematical formalism presented in these chapters is of equal importance for the main topic of work. Perhaps, most readers are advised to skip
these chapters on the first reading, consulting them when needed.
(2) Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11 are devoted to the canonical commutation relations.
We discuss in particular various kinds of quantization of bosonic systems and
the bosonic Fock representation. We describe the metaplectic group and its
various infinite-dimensional generalizations.
(3) In Chaps. 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 we develop the theory of canonical anticommutation relations. It is to a large extent parallel to the previous chapters devoted to the CCR. We discuss, in particular, the fermionic Fock representation. As compared with the bosonic case, a bigger role is played by
operator algebras. We give also a brief introduction to Clifford relations for
an arbitrary signature. We discuss the Pin and Spin groups and their various

infinite-dimensional generalizations.
(4) The common theme of the remaining part of the book, that is, Chaps. 17,
18, 19, 20, 21 and 22, is the concept of quantum dynamics – one-parameter
unitary groups that describe the evolution of quantum systems. In all these
chapters we treat the bosonic and fermionic cases in a parallel way, except
for Chaps. 21 and 22, where we restrict ourselves to bosons.

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Introduction

7

In Chap. 17 we discuss quasi-free states. These usually arise as KMS states
for a physical system equipped with a free dynamics. In Chaps. 18 and 19
we study quantization of free fields, first in the abstract context, then on a
(possibly, curved) space-time. Chapters 20, 21 and 22 are devoted to interacting quantum field theory. In Chap. 20 we discuss in an abstract setting
the method of Feynman diagrams. In Chap. 21 we describe the Euclidean
method, used to construct interacting bosonic theories. In Chap. 22 we apply
Euclidean methods to construct the so-called space-cutoff P (ϕ)2 model.

Acknowledgement
The research of J. D. was supported in part by the National Science Center
(NCN), grant No. 2011/01/B/ST1/04929.

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1
Vector spaces

In this chapter we fix our terminology and notation, mostly related to (real
and complex) linear algebra. We will consider only algebraic properties. Infinitedimensional vector spaces will not be equipped with any topology.
Let us stress that using precise terminology and notation concerning linear
algebra is very useful in describing various aspects of quantization and quantum
fields. Even though the material of this chapter is elementary, the terminology
and notation introduced in this chapter will play an important role throughout
our work. In particular we should draw the reader’s attention to the notion of
the complex conjugate space (Subsect. 1.2.3), and of the holomorphic and antiholomorphic subspaces (Subsect. 1.3.6).
Throughout the book K will denote either the field R or C, all vector spaces
being either real or complex, unless specified otherwise.

1.1 Elementary linear algebra
The material of this section is well known and elementary. Among other things,
we discuss four basic kinds of structures, which will serve as the starting point
for quantization:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Symplectic spaces – classical phase spaces of neutral bosons,
Euclidean spaces – classical phase spaces of neutral fermions,
Charged symplectic spaces – classical phase spaces of charged bosons,
Unitary spaces – classical phase spaces of charged fermions.

Throughout the section, Y, Y1 , Y2 , W are vector spaces over K.

1.1.1 Vector spaces and linear operators
Definition 1.1 If U ⊂ Y, then Span U denotes the space of finite linear combinations of elements of U.
Definition 1.2 Y1 ⊕ Y2 denotes the external direct sum of Y1 and Y2 , that is,
the Cartesian product Y1 × Y2 equipped with its vector space structure. If Y1 , Y2
are subspaces of a vector space Y and Y1 ∩ Y2 = {0}, then the same notation
Y1 ⊕ Y2 stands for the internal direct sum of Y1 and Y2 , that is, Y1 + Y2 (which
is a subspace of Y).

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1.1 Elementary linear algebra

9

Definition 1.3 L(Y, W) denotes the space of linear maps from Y to W. We set
L(Y) := L(Y, Y).
Definition 1.4 Lfd (Y, W), resp. Lfd (Y) denote the space of finite-dimensional
(or finite rank) linear operators in L(Y, W), resp. L(Y).
Definition 1.5 Let ai ∈ L(Yi , W), i = 1, 2. We say that a1 ⊂ a2 if Y1 ⊂ Y2 and
a1 is the restriction of a2 to Y1 , that is, a2 Y = a1 .
1
Definition 1.6 If a ∈ L(Y, W), then Ker a denotes the kernel (or null space)
of a and Ran a denotes its range.
Definition 1.7 1lY stands for the identity on Y.

1.1.2 2 × 2 block matrices
If Y = Y+ ⊕ Y− , every r ∈ L(Y) can be written as a 2 × 2 block matrix. The
following decomposition, possible if a is invertible, is often useful:
a b
1l
=
c d
ca−1

r=

0
1l

a
0
0 d − ca−1 b

Here are some expressions for the inverse of r:
1l −a−1 b
0
a−1
r−1 =
0
1l
0
(d − ca−1 b)−1
=

(a − bd−1 c)−1

(b − ac−1 d)−1

1l
0

a−1 b
.
1l

1l
−ca−1

0
1l

(c − db−1 a)−1
.
(d − ca−1 b)−1

(1.1)

(1.2)
(1.3)

If Y is finite-dimensional, then, using the decomposition (1.1), we obtain the
following formulas for the determinant:
det r = det a det(d − ca−1 b)
= det c det b det(ac−1 db−1 − 1l).

(1.4)

1.1.3 Duality
Definition 1.8 The dual of Y, denoted by Y # , is the space of linear functionals
on Y. Three kinds of notation for the action of v ∈ Y # on y ∈ Y will be used:
(1) the bra–ket notation v|y = y|v ,
(2) the simplified notation v · y = y · v,
(3) the functional notation v(y).
There is a canonical injection Y → Y # # . We have Y = Y # # iff dimY < ∞.
Definition 1.9 If y ∈ Y, we will sometimes write |y for the operator
K

λ → |y λ := λy ∈ Y.

If v ∈ Y # , we will sometimes write v| instead of v.

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10

Vector spaces

As an example of this notation, suppose that y ∈ Y and v ∈ Y # satisfy v|y =
1. Then |y v| is the projection onto the space spanned by y along the kernel of
v.
Definition 1.10 Let (e1 , . . . , en ) be a basis of a finite-dimensional space Y. Then
there exists a unique basis of Y # , (e1 , . . . , en ), called the dual basis, such that
ei |ej = δji .

1.1.4 Annihilator
Definition 1.11 The annihilator of X ⊂ Y is defined as
X an := v ∈ Y # :

v|y = 0, y ∈ X .

The pre-annihilator of V ⊂ Y # is defined as
Van := y ∈ Y :

v|y = 0, v ∈ V .

Note that
(X an )an = SpanX , (Van )an = SpanV.

1.1.5 Transpose of an operator
Definition 1.12 If a ∈ L(Y1 , Y2 ), then a# will denote the transpose of a, that
is, the operator in L(Y2# , Y1# ) defined by
a# v|y := v|ay ,

v ∈ Y2# , y ∈ Y1 .

(1.5)

Note that a is bijective iff a# is. We have a# # ∈ L(Y1# # , Y2# # ) and a ⊂ a# # .

1.1.6 Dual pairs
Definition 1.13 A dual pair is a pair (V, Y) of vector spaces equipped with a
bilinear form
(V, Y)

(v, y) → v|y ∈ K

such that
v|y = 0, v ∈ V ⇒ y = 0,

(1.6)

v|y = 0, y ∈ Y ⇒ v = 0.

(1.7)

Clearly, if (V, Y) is a dual pair, then so is (Y, V). If Y is finite-dimensional and
(V, Y) is a dual pair, then V is naturally isomorphic to Y # .
In general, (V, Y) is a dual pair iff V can be identified with a subspace of Y #
(this automatically guarantees (1.7)) satisfying Van = {0} (this implies (1.6)).

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1.1 Elementary linear algebra

11

1.1.7 Bilinear forms
Definition 1.14 Elements of L(Y, Y # ) will be called bilinear forms.
Let ν ∈ L(Y, Y # ). Then ν determines a bilinear map on Y:
Y ×Y

(y1 , y2 ) → y1 · νy2 = y1 |νy2 ∈ K.

(1.8)

Definition 1.15 We say that ν is non-degenerate if Ker ν = 0.
Definition 1.16 We say that r ∈ L(Y) preserves the form ν if
r# νr = ν, i.e.

(ry1 ) · νry2 = y1 · νy2 , y1 , y2 ∈ Y.

We say that a ∈ L(Y) infinitesimally preserves the form ν if
a# ν + νa = 0, i.e.

(ay1 ) · νy2 = −y1 · νay2 , y1 , y2 ∈ Y.

Remark 1.17 We will use three kinds of notation for bilinear forms:
(1) the bra–ket notation y1 |νy2 , going back to Dirac,
(2) the simplified notation y1 · νy2 ,
(3) the functional notation ν(y1 , y2 ).
Usually, we prefer the first two kinds of notation (both appear in (1.8)).

1.1.8 Symmetric forms
Definition 1.18 We will say that ν ∈ L(Y, Y # ) is symmetric if
ν ⊂ ν # , i.e.

y1 · νy2 = y2 · νy1 , y1 , y2 ∈ Y.

The space of all symmetric elements of L(Y, Y # ) will be denoted by Ls (Y, Y # ).
Let ν ∈ Ls (Y, Y # ).

Definition 1.19 A subspace X ⊂ Y is called isotropic if
y1 · νy2 = 0,

y1 , y 2 ∈ X .

Definition 1.20 Let Y be a real vector space. ν is called positive semi-definite
if y · νy ≥ 0 for y ∈ Y. It is called positive definite if y · νy > 0 for y = 0.
A positive definite form is always non-degenerate.
Assume that ν is non-degenerate. Using that ν is symmetric and nondegenerate we see that v|y = 0 for all v ∈ νY implies y = 0. Thus (νY, Y)
is a dual pair and Y can be treated as a subspace of (νY)# . Hence, ν −1 , a priori defined as a map from νY to Y, can be understood as a map from νY to
(νY)# . We easily check that ν −1 is symmetric and non-degenerate. If ν is positive
definite, then so is ν −1 .

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12

Vector spaces

Proposition 1.21 Let Y be finite-dimensional. Then,
(1) ν ∈ Ls (Y, Y # ) iff ν # = ν.
(2) If ν is non-degenerate, then νY = Y # , so that ν −1 ∈ Ls (Y # , Y) is a nondegenerate symmetric form.

1.1.9 (Pseudo-)Euclidean spaces
Definition 1.22 A couple (Y, ν), where ν ∈ Ls (Y, Y # ) is non-degenerate, is
called a pseudo-Euclidean space. If Y is real and ν is positive definite, then
(Y, ν) is called a Euclidean space. In such a case we can define the norm of

√
y ∈ Y, denoted by y := y · νy. If Y is complete for this norm, it is called a
real Hilbert space.
Let (Y, ν) be a pseudo-Euclidean space.
Definition 1.23 If X ⊂ Y, then X ν ⊥ denotes the ν-orthogonal complement of
X:
X ν ⊥ := {y ∈ Y : y · νx = 0, x ∈ X }.
Definition 1.24 A symmetric form on a real space, especially if it is positive
definite, is often called a scalar product and denoted y1 |y2 or y1 · y2 . In such a
case, the orthogonal complement of X is denoted X ⊥ . For x ∈ Y, x| will denote
the following operator:
Y

y → x|y := x|y ∈ K.

If x|x = 1, then |x x| is the orthogonal projection onto x.
Most Euclidean spaces considered in our work will be real Hilbert spaces. Real
Hilbert spaces will be further discussed in Subsect. 2.2.2.
1.1.10 Inertia of a symmetric form
Let Y be a finite-dimensional space equipped with a symmetric form ν. In the
real case we can find a basis
(e1,+ , . . . , ep,+ , e1,− , . . . , eq ,− , e1 , . . . , er )
such that if
(e1,+ , . . . , ep,+ , e1,− , . . . , eq ,− , e1 , . . . , er )
is the dual basis in Y # , then
νej,+ = ej,+ ,

νej,− = −ej,− ,

νej = 0.

The numbers (p, q) do not depend on the choice of the basis. ν is positive definite
iff q = r = 0.
Definition 1.25 We set inert ν := p − q.

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