Phương pháp đánh giá của giáo viên về dự án của học sinh trong lớp học tiếng anh tại một số trưởng trung học phổ thông tại hà nội

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
***********************

PHẠM PHÚC THÀNH

TEACHERS’ ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS’ PROJECTS
IN THE UPPER-SECONDARY ENGLISH CLASSROOMS
(Đánh giá của giáo viên về dự án của học sinh
trong các lớp học tiếng Anh bậc Trung học Phổ thông tại Hà Nội)

M.A MAJOR PROGRAM THESIS

Major

: English Language Teaching Methodology

Code

: 8140231.01

Hanoi, 2021


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
***********************

PHẠM PHÚC THÀNH

TEACHERS’ ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS’ PROJECTS
IN THE UPPER-SECONDARY ENGLISH CLASSROOMS
(Đánh giá của giáo viên về dự án của học sinh
trong các lớp học tiếng Anh bậc Trung học Phổ thông tại Hà Nội)

M.A MAJOR PROGRAM THESIS

Major

: English Language Teaching Methodology

Code

: 8140231.01

Supervisor : Dr. VŨ HẢI HÀ

Hanoi, 2021


DECLARATION
I hereby certify that the thesis titled “Teachers’ assessment of students’ projects
in the upper-secondary English classroom” is the result of my research for the
Degree of Master of Arts at the University of Languages and International Studies,
Vietnam National University, Hanoi and this thesis has not been submitted for any
other degrees.

Hanoi, 2021

Approved by
SUPERVISOR
(Signature and Full name)

Date: ………………

i


ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Dr.
Vũ Hải Hà for helping me complete this study. This paper would not have
been accomplished without his professional, constant and valuable guidance
and encouragement.
I would like to send my special thanks to my friends and colleagues for
their enthusiastic support with my working schedules, which gave me
precious time to work on the thesis.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my family who gave me
time and encouragement to overcome all the obstacles during the completion
of this study.

ii


ABSTRACT
The research aims to investigate teachers’ assessment of students’
projects and to explore students’ perceptions of teachers’ assessment in the
upper-secondary English classrooms. This is a mixed method study that
employs three instruments, including questionnaire, interview, and document
observation to collect data from 10 English teachers and from 96 students at

an upper-secondary school in Hanoi. The study revealed that three kinds of
assessment were involved in the process of assessing students’ projects and
several criteria were used by the teachers to assess students’ projects. It also
showed that the students reaped some benefits and met some difficulties when
teachers assessed their projects.

iii


TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ............................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS .............................................................................. II
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................. III
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................. IV
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. VI

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
1.1. Rationale for the study ............................................................................... 1
1.2. Research aims and objectives .................................................................... 3
1.3. Research questions .................................................................................... 4
1.4. Research scope .......................................................................................... 4
1.5. Significance of the study ........................................................................... 4
1.6. Organization .............................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................... 6
2.1. Projects and Projects-based learning ......................................................... 6
2.2. Assessment and tests ................................................................................. 7
2.2.1. Assessment of projects ........................................................................... 7
2.2.2. Purposes of assessment ........................................................................... 8
2.2.3. Kinds of assessment.............................................................................. 11
2.2.4. Assessment rubrics ............................................................................... 15

2.2.5 Assessment criteria ................................................................................ 15
2.3. Students’ perceptions of assessment ........................................................ 16
2.4. English language teaching at upper-secondary schools in Vietnam ........ 19
2.4.1. An overview of English language teaching in Vietnam ....................... 19
2.4.2. Projects in the upper-secondary English classrooms in Hanoi ............. 19
2.5. Related studies ......................................................................................... 20
2.6. Research gaps .......................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY............................................................ 23
3.1. Research design and research method ..................................................... 23
3.1.1. Research design .................................................................................... 23
3.1.2. Research method................................................................................... 23
iv


3.2. Data collection ......................................................................................... 24
3.2.1. Research setting .................................................................................... 24
3.2.2. Research participants ............................................................................ 24
3.2.3. Instrument ............................................................................................. 26
2.2.4. Data collection procedure ..................................................................... 31
3.3. Data analysis ............................................................................................ 32
3.4. Methodological limitations ...................................................................... 32
CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS ......................................................................... 33
4.1. Analysis of research question 1 ............................................................... 33
4.1.1. Questionnaire result .............................................................................. 33
4.1.2. Interview result ..................................................................................... 37
4.1.3. Summary of findings and data sources ................................................. 47
4.2. Analysis of research question 2 ............................................................... 50
4.2.1. Document observation .......................................................................... 50
4.2.2. Summary of findings and data sources ................................................. 58
4.3. Analysis of research question 3 ............................................................... 59

4.3.1. Questionnaire result .............................................................................. 59
4.3.2. Interview result ..................................................................................... 61
4.3.3. Summary of findings and data sources ................................................. 64
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION ...................................................................... 67
5.1. Research question 1 ................................................................................. 67
5.2. Research question 2 ................................................................................. 70
5.3. Research question 3 ................................................................................. 72
CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION .................................................................. 75
6.1. Recapitulation .......................................................................................... 75
6.2. Concluding remarks ................................................................................. 76
6.3. Pedagogical implications ......................................................................... 76
6.4. Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research .................. 76
THESIS RELATED PUBLICATIONS ...................................................... 77
REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 78
APPENDICES .................................................................................................. I
v


LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2.1 .................................................................................................................. 10
TABLE 2.2 .................................................................................................................. 13
TABLE 2.3 .................................................................................................................. 18
TABLE 3.1 .................................................................................................................. 25
TABLE 3.2 .................................................................................................................. 28
TABLE 3.3 .................................................................................................................. 30
TABLE 3.4 .................................................................................................................. 31
TABLE 4.1 .................................................................................................................. 33
TABLE 4.2 .................................................................................................................. 35
TABLE 4.3 .................................................................................................................. 36
TABLE 4.4 .................................................................................................................. 47

TABLE 4.5 .................................................................................................................. 50
TABLE 4.6 .................................................................................................................. 52
TABLE 4.7 .................................................................................................................. 58
TABLE 4.8 .................................................................................................................. 59
TABLE 4.9 .................................................................................................................. 60
TABLE 4.10 ................................................................................................................ 64

vi


CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale for the study
The English language has a remarkable history. In historical records, it was
the speech of some tribes on the continent of Europe along the North Sea (Algeo &
Butcher, 2013). As centuries went by, English has become the most widespread
language in the world. English is used by many peoples for more purposes than any
other language on Earth, so it is necessary to teach, learn, and study this language
in contemporary society.
In Vietnam, English has become the most popular foreign language since 1986. At
that time, the Vietnamese Communist Party initiated its overall economic reform
and implemented the open-door policy that helped the English language gain its
popularity. As the ability to communicate in English could open business
opportunities for people in Vietnam, English has been taught at all levels of
education across the country.
According to “Chương trình giáo dục phổ thơng mơn tiếng Anh” (English language
curriculum for Vietnamese) issued by the Ministry of Education and Training
(2018), the English language curriculum set its aim of helping Vietnamese students
to develop English communicative competence through improving macro-skills
(listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and micro-skills (pronunciation,
vocabulary, and grammar) (p. 3). After completing the English language curriculum

at the upper-secondary level, Vietnamese students can:
-

use English as a tool to talk about familiar topics such as schools,
recreational activities, jobs.

-

develop basic knowledge of the English language, including pronunciation,
grammar, and vocabulary, and understand people and culture of foreign
countries, respect the cultural diversity, and present the value of Vietnamese
culture in English.

-

use English to improve the learning quality of other subjects in the
curriculum at the upper-secondary level.
1


-

use English to pursue higher learning targets or to undertake some work after
completing the curriculum at the upper-secondary level.

-

apply different learning methods to manage a learning schedule, use
information and technology for learning and self-study, take responsibility
for learning results, and shape lifelong learning (p. 7).

In “Tài liệu hướng dẫn dạy học theo Chương trình giáo dục phổ thơng mới”

(Teacher guide according to English language curriculum for Vietnamese) issued by
Ministry of Education and Training (2018), projects are referred to as effective
activities in foreign language teaching because projects can support studentcentered approach and promote learner autonomy, collaborative learning, and taskbased learning (p. 69). Therefore, in the current English textbooks published by
Vietnam Education Publishing House in collaboration with Pearson Education,
projects are considered an element in helping students to achieve the aim set by the
English language curriculum for Vietnamese (2018). In those English textbooks,
projects lie at the end of each unit, allowing students to do a survey or do research
on a topic and then present the results in class.
The English language curriculum for Vietnamese (2018) also stated that
assessment played an essential role in gathering information about students’ English
communicative competence during and at the end of a learning period, which
increased learner motivation and helped students to direct their learning and assisted
teachers and school managers in making judgments about students’ learning.
Assessment can be carried out in many forms, such as teachers can assess students,
teachers can have students assess other students or teachers have students assess
themselves (p. 50). In this sense, assessment is not only about giving students
grades but also about helping teachers and students to improve the teaching and
learning quality in English classrooms.
As projects and assessment are critical to assisting teachers and students in
achieving the aim set by the English language curriculum for Vietnamese (2018), it
is worth conducting a study on teachers’ assessment of students’ projects in the
English classrooms. However, the study only focuses on the following aspects:
2


Firstly, as stated above, assessment is experiencing a dramatic shift from
assessing conventionally to make evaluative judgements about students’ learning to
assessing to help teachers improve the quality of teaching and learning, and to help

students learn more effectively. In other words, many kinds of assessment exist in
English classrooms. It is essential to explore what kinds of assessment are used in
English classrooms. This will determine whether teachers used those kinds of
assessment to execute the instruction of assessment in the English language
curriculum for Vietnamese (2018).
Secondly, projects are based on a project-based learning approach, so
students can show their skills and considerable knowledge needed to complete one
project. In other words, projects are not only about improving students’ one skill or
one area of knowledge, but different competencies are involved in one project.
Therefore, it is crucial to investigate what criteria are used to assess students’
projects in English classrooms. This investigation will shed light on how teachers
understand and use projects.
Thirdly, a student-centered approach is promoted in English classrooms
according to the English language curriculum for Vietnamese (2018), which means
students are directly affected by the shift in assessment in English classrooms. To
be specific, self-assessment can be conducted in English classrooms and this may
change students’ role in English classrooms from the object of assessment to the
subject of assessment. It is thus important to explore what students think about
teachers’ assessment of projects and what difficulties students meet in their learning
when the shift in assessment occurs.
1.2. Research aims and objectives
The overarching aim of this research is to examine how teachers assess
students’ projects, and how students perceive teachers’ assessment of projects. To
fulfill the above aim, the research sets for itself 3 objectives:
Firstly, assessment has undergone a dramatic shift, leading to the emergence
of some kinds of assessment in English classrooms. The first objective is to identify
what kinds of assessment are involved in the process of assessing students’ projects;
3

Secondly, students utilise different skills and considerable knowledge to
complete one project, so many competencies are involved in projects. The second
objective is to investigate what criteria are used to assess students’ projects;
Thirdly, the shift in assessment may lead to some changes in students’
learning. The third objective is to explore how students perceive their teachers’
assessment of projects.
1.3. Research questions
The above aim and objectives can be translated into the following research
questions:
1. What kinds of assessment are involved in the process of assessing
students' projects in the upper-secondary English language classrooms in
Hanoi?
2. What criteria do these teachers use to assess these students' projects?
3. How do the students perceive the teachers' assessment of their projects?
1.4. Research scope
The study is limited to the teachers’ assessment of students’ projects and
students’ perceptions of the teachers’ assessment of their projects in upperssecondary English classrooms. The projects come from English textbooks published
by Vietnam Education Publishing house in collaboration with Pearson Education.
1.5. Significance of the study
With a strong emphasis on improving the quality of English language
teaching and learning in Vietnam, the study on teachers’ assessment of students’
projects has become significant to teachers, school managers and educational
scholars. This research has meaning to teachers in that teachers have the chance to
reflect on their current assessment of projects and to consult how other teachers
assess students’ projects. The reflection and consultation will equip teachers with a
better understanding of assessment to adjust and improve their teaching approach,
especially assessment approach.
This research is also meaningful to teachers as it offers some insights into
how students perceive teachers’ assessment of their projects. The teaching and
4

learning process requires cooperation and mutual understanding between teachers
and students and thus, a good knowledge of students’ perceptions will help teachers
modify their teaching practice to ensure the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
Apart from teachers, school managers may acquire knowledge from this
research to come up with ideas and plans that facilitate the professional
development of teachers in their teaching institutions. With feasible plans and
innovative ideas, teachers can increase their capabilities to improve the quality of
teaching and learning for school in the long run.
This research can also be a source of reference for educational scholars
whose interest in the field of assessment and testing in Vietnam. The paper may
provide educational scholars with a sound foundation for further investigation in
teachers’ assessment of students’ projects in English classrooms.
1.6. Organization
The paper consists of four chapters. Chapter I – Literature Review attempts
to review the theoretical background and to summarize the related studies whereby
explaining the research gap. The procedure for collecting data is described in detail
in chapter II – Methodology. Chapter III – Findings presents the way data are
analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. In Chapter IV – Discussion, the results are
evaluated in relation to the related studies in the field.

5


CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter will review the theoretical background and will summarize
related studies to identify the research gap.
2.1. Projects and Projects-based learning
Projects are referred to as an act of creation that involves both production and

complexity (Lenz et al., 2015). In this sense, students make effort to analyze
information, which is used to create a product at the end of a project. Projects are also
characterized by three stages, including drawing up a plan, carrying out a project, and
reviewing the product (Fried-Booth, 1986). This viewpoint is similar to that of Phillips
et al. (1998) who stated that a project is a unit of work with three phases (beginning,
middle, and end). Another aspect that Phillips et al. (1998) attached to a project is that
students can gain a sense of achievement after completing a project. In general, there is
little agreement in the definitions of projects.
Project-based learning is described as a complex learning activity that requires
students to combine theory and practice to create a product (Cuong & Meier, 2010).
Similarly, project-based learning refers to a set of tasks that students use various skills
such as design, problem-solving, research, to make a meaningful product (Chapman,
2016). Project-based learning also allows students to collaborate with other students to
address issues of students’ concerns (Krauss & Boss, 2013). From the definitions stated
above, project-based learning affords students the opportunity to apply various skills
and considerable knowledge to solve authentic problems.
The term “projects” differs from “project-based learning” in 5 aspects
(Larmer et al., 2015). Firstly, a project is used as an add-on activity at the end of a
unit, while a project is a unit in project-based learning. Secondly, a project requires
students to do a specific task given by their teachers, whereas project-based learning
allows students to choose a problem that they would prefer to solve. Thirdly, a
project can be completed by an individual at home, but project-based learning
facilitates students’ collaboration under teacher guidance mostly during school
hours. Fourthly, a project directs students to make a product, while project-based
6


learning focuses on both the sustained inquiry processes and the creation of a
product. Lastly, a project is considered an exercise at school, whereas project-based
learning allows students to apply their knowledge in a real-world context.

In conclusion, there are some striking differences between projects
and project-based learning. However, projects are based on a project-based
learning approach.
2.2. Assessment and tests
Assessment refers to “all those activities undertaken by teachers, and by their
students in assessing themselves, which provide information to be used as feedback
to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged” (Black &
Wiliam, 1998, p. 2). In this sense, assessment is carried out by teachers and students,
and it can be classroom tests as well as teachers’ daily judgments in the classroom.
Nitko and Brookhart (2014) also distinguished between assessment and tests.
Assessment involves using several techniques such as observations, tests, projects
to seek information for making decisions about students, curricula, programs,
school, and educational policy. A test is characterized as an instrument or
systematic procedure that uses a numerical scale or scheme to describe many
characteristics of a student. A test is one among many tools that teachers can use to
carry out an assessment.
Similarly, an assessment includes procedures with fewer controls and
restrictions than tests (Green, 2014). Assessment refers to a broader range of
activities to obtain and evaluate language data than tests. In other words, an
assessment provides more options for teachers to collect evidence about students’
learning than tests.
Therefore, assessment is a more general term than tests because the former
describes different methods that help teachers to gather data for making judgments
about students’ learning.
2.2.1. Assessment of projects
Assessment is an integral part of projects. During the process that students
complete their projects, formative assessment can be used by teachers to monitor
7

students’ progress and adjust teachers’ instruction (Krauss & Boss, 2013).
Formative assessment provides teachers with some information about students’
understanding to facilitate successful learning (Boss & Krauss, 2007).
According to Boss and Krauss (2007), teachers can assess students’ progress
and performance by using scoring rubrics that can focus on many categories such as
content knowledge, discrete skills, or dispositions (independent work habits,
collaboration, effort, or use of time). It is noted that teachers should share an
assessment rubric with students and students need to understand the assessment
rubric as it can help students to complete projects at their best. A scoring rubric is
composed of the dimension of performance and the scale of values for rating
performance on each dimension.
Apart from scoring rubrics, teachers can use reflection activities throughout a
project to encourages students to practice self-assessment. Boss and Krauss (2007)
asserted that when students assess their project, they identify their strengths and
weaknesses, thereby understanding the learning goals, directing their learning, and
improving metacognitive strategies.
As highlighted by Phillips et al. (1999), assessment is beneficial for both
teachers and students. Teachers can use formative assessment to adapt materials and
methods during a project. Formative assessment can raise students’ awareness of
individual achievement in groups and of learning progress, thereby helping students
become more independent learners.
To sum up, teachers should use formative assessment to assess students’
projects because formative assessment can help teachers to keep track of students’
progress and modify the instruction so that students can create a project of high
quality. Formative assessment also helps students to monitor and direct their
learning process and to become independent learners.
2.2.2. Purposes of assessment
In any assessment, the first step is to clarify the purpose of gathering
information because understanding the reason for assessment will influence the way
assessment occurs (McMillan, 2017). Language data are often collected for two

8


major purposes: the first one is linked with assessing the degree of students’
progress towards a learning goal, the other is associated with assessing whether a
learner’s language ability meets the predetermined requirements (Green, 2014).
Assessment is also used to inform many educational decisions, which can be
grouped into 3 types: policy; curricula, programs, and schools; students. The first
type describes decisions about policy includes district policy, state policy, and
national policy. The second type consists of decisions about curricula, programs,
and schools. The third type refers to decisions about students, namely, (1) managing
instruction, (2) placing students into programs, (3) classifying students, (4)
counselling and guiding students, (5) selecting students, and (6) certifying students
(Nitko & Brookhart, 2014).
Assessment occurs for the following purposes: (1) initial diagnosis that
identifies strengths and weaknesses of students that need to be addressed, (2)
ongoing diagnosis that leads to decisions about instructions, (3) ongoing collection
of evidence regarding students’ progress and learners’ needs to share students and
their parents, (4) ongoing collection of evidence concerning learners’ progress that
can be reported against externally developed criteria, and (5) reporting learners’
achievement at the end of the school year (McKay, 2006).
Assessment involves using evidence of student learning to help teachers to (1)
diagnose student strengths, weaknesses, misunderstandings, and learning errors, (2)
monitor students’ effort and progress toward achieving objectives, (3) assign grades,
(4) determine instructional effectiveness (5) provide students feedback, (6) prepare
students for high-stakes tests, and (7) motivate students (McMillan, 2017).
Assessment serves multiple purposes that may fall into three major
categories: 1) Instructional, 2) Student-Centred, and 3) Administrative, as shown in
Table 2.1.

9


Table 2.1
Purposes of assessment
Categories

Purposes
• to group my students at the right level of instruction in
my class

Instructional

• to plan my instruction
• to diagnose strengths and weaknesses in my own
teaching and instruction
• to obtain information on my students’ progress
• to provide feedback to my students as they progress
through the course
• to diagnose strengths and weaknesses in my students
• to motivate my students to learn

Student-Centred

• to make my students work harder
• to formally document growth in learning of my
students
• to prepare my students for standardized tests they will
take in the future (e.g., International English Language
Testing System, Standard Assessment Test)

• to provide information to the central administration

Administrative

(e.g., school, university)
• to provide information to an outside funding agency

Note. Adapted from Assessment in the Language Classroom, by L. Cheng and J.
Fox, 2017, p. 10, Palgrave. Copyright 2017 by Palgrave.
As can be seen from Table 2.1, the Instructional category may be considered
the most essential as teachers gather information on students’ learning,
understanding, and skills to plan and adjust their instruction. The second category
“Student-Centred” includes diagnostic assessment activities that help to identify

10


students’ strengths and weaknesses. In the third category, grading is used to inform
the student of their achievement, which has effects on a student’s self-perception,
learning motivation, the prioritization of curriculum expectations, and parental
expectations.
2.2.3. Kinds of assessment
2.2.3.1. Summative assessment and Formative assessment
Both summative assessment and formative assessment help to make
decisions about students’ learning, but they differ in purposes. The purpose of
summative assessment is to measure a student’s capability in relation to the goals of
a program, whereas formative assessment focuses on providing feedback during the
teaching and learning process (Gipps & Murphy, 1994, as cited in East, 2016). In
other words, summative assessment emphasizes outcomes, which represents the
starkest contrast to formative assessment that emphasizes enhancing the quality of

teaching and learning.
The difference in purpose between summative and formative assessment
is also highlighted in the study by Nitko and Brookhart (2014). The purpose of
the former is to assign grades to students, to report to students and parents
about achievement, and to report to the teacher about the effectiveness of
teaching and learning. The latter serves many purposes, including (1) planning
instructional activities, (2) placing students into learning sequences, (3)
monitoring students’ progress, (4) diagnosing learning difficulties, and (5)
feedback to students on how to improve.
In summative assessment, results are recorded as grades or scores to
determine whether students have fulfilled the learning outcome at the conclusion of
a defined instructional period. However, formative assessment helps to make
decisions that direct the teaching and learning process (Cheng & Fox, 2017).
Therefore, summative assessment is used to inform students’ learning
achievement through marks or grades at the end of a course, while formative
assessment occurs to help teachers gather and interpret data concerning students’
learning so as to improve the quality of teaching and learning during a course.
11


2.3.3.2. Assessment of learning, Assessment for learning, and Assessment as learning
Formative assessment and Summative assessment entered the language of
educations in the 1960s and 1970s, but these kinds of assessment were mainly
associated with making statements about students’ strengths and weaknesses (Earl
& Katz, 2006). From Earl and Katz’s viewpoint, the focus in educational policy has
been on preparing students for the fast-changing world in the 21st century. This
raises the expectations for students in breadth and depth, which affects the roles of
teachers and students in assessment. Thus, assessment of learning, assessment for
learning, and assessment as learning have emerged to meet societal changes.
According to Earl and Katz (2006), assessment of learning, assessment for

learning, and assessment of learning serve three distinct but inter-related purposes
for classroom assessment. Assessment of learning is used to determine what
students know and can do, whether students have achieved the expected learning
outcomes, and how students are placed in relation to others. Teachers use this kind
of assessment to provide accurate statements of students’ proficiency so that the
recipients of the information can make reasonable decisions. On the other hand,
assessment for learning is designed to give teachers information to modify teaching
and learning activities. Teachers can also use this information to provide feedback
that helps students advance their learning. Assessment as learning is a process of
developing and supporting metacognition for students. It emphasizes the role of the
student as the critical connector between assessment and learning. This kind of
assessment occurs when students monitor their own learning and use the
information from this monitoring to make adjustments, adaptations, and changes in
their understanding. Earl and Katz (2006) also stated that assessment of learning is
used to measure learning and report the judgments about students’ performance to
others. Assessment for learning is designed for diagnostic purposes and for
providing feedback in the teaching and learning process, which is often informal
and implicit. Assessment as learning takes place when students become critical of
their learning, which is rare.

12


The features of Assessment of learning, Assessment for learning, and
Assessment as learning are summarized in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2
Features of Assessment of learning, Assessment for learning, and Assessment as
learning
Approach

Purpose

Reference Points

Key assessor

Assessment of Judgments about
learning
(Aol)
Assessment
for learning
(Afl)
Assessment as
learning
(Aal)

placement, promotion,

Other students

Teacher

credentials
Information for teachers’

External standards or

instructional decisions

expectations

Self-monitoring and self-

Personal goals and

correction or adjustment

external standards

Teacher

Student

Note. Adapted from Assessment as Learning: Using Classroom Assessment to
Maximise Student Learning, by L. Earl, 2003, Corwin Press. Copyright 2003 by
Corwin Press.
As can be seen from Table 2.2, the major differences between Assessment of
learning (Aol), Assessment for learning (Afl), and Assessment as learning (Aal) lie
in three dimensions, namely purpose, reference points, and key assessor. Regarding
purpose, Aol is intended to measure learning, categorise students and report the
judgments about students to others, while Afl focuses on collecting a wide range of
data for teachers to modify the learning for their students. Aal, on the other hand,
emphasizes the role of students as connectors between the assessment and the
learning process, so that students can personally monitor their learning process and
make changes in their understanding. For the second dimension, Aol uses “other
students” as reference points to judge the learning position of one student in relation
13


to other students. Afl utilizes either “external standards” or “expectations” to assess

a student’s work, whereas Aal combines both “personal goals” and “external
standards” to direct students’ learning. Concerning key assessors, both Aol and Afl
are conducted by the teacher while Aal is carried out by the student.
Assessment of learning is used to make judgments about a student’s learning
status after a learning process has been completed, while assessment for learning
refers to the process that teachers seek and interpret evidence to help students
accomplish the learning objectives. Assessment as learning occurs when students
regulate and reflect on their learning progress to achieve their learning goals (Cheng
& Fox, 2017).
Assessment of learning, also known as a summative assessment, represents a
final assessment to evaluate and rank a student in a student report card that can be
delivered to parents, teachers, administrators, and the community at large.
Assessment for learning, often referred to as formative assessment, is an ongoing
assessment of students’ learning and their understanding to help teachers modify the
next lesson. Assessment as learning occurs when students assess themselves and
others, which involves self-assessment, peer assessment, and sharing criteria with
learners (MacMath et al., 2009).
Saefurrohman and Balinas (2016) conducted a study to investigate English
Teachers’ Classroom Assessment practice in the Philippines and Indonesia. The
study found that English teachers considered Assessment for learning to be the first
purpose of assessment. It was followed by Assessment of learning. The last purpose
of assessment is seen in Assessment as learning.
In short, Assessment of learning serves the purposes of grading students and
providing information about students’ learning to other people. Assessment for
learning is associated with collecting evidence on students’ learning to help
teachers find ways of improving the quality of teaching and learning. Assessment as
learning requires students to monitor their learning progress and find strategies to
address their learning difficulties.

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2.2.4. Assessment rubrics
Rubrics are appropriate for performance-based assessment because they help
maintain consistency in the assessment process (Arter & McTighe, 2001). Arter and
McTighe also stated that rubrics can be used as a teaching tool that supports
students’ learning therefore they serve the purposes of learning, evaluation and
accountability.
2.2.4.1. Analytic Rubrics
With analytic rubrics, teachers can deconstruct a learner’s performance into
different dimensions. Each dimension is presented by a criterion, so identifying all
the criteria for assessment will help test developers understand about what they are
requiring of test takers and raters, and to think through the consequence of such
requirements (McNamara, 1996). The total scores can be calculated by adding up
the individual scores (Moskal, 2000). Analytic rubrics focus the attention of both
teachers and students on the pre-established aspects for assessment (Arter &
McTighe, 2001). They also offer detailed feedback, consistent scoring, high fairness,
validity, and reliability in performance-based assessment (Thornburry, 2005).
2.2.4.2. Holistic Rubrics
Holistic rubrics are based on raters’ general and overall impressions to give a
score for a learner’s performance. These rubrics do not evaluate each separate
criteria in the same way as analytic rubrics (Nitko, 2001). As holistic rubrics
produce a single grade to measure the learners’ performance, they offer no detailed
feedback. They are time-saving, and therefore typically implemented when teachers
have to assess a number of students (Thornbury, 2005). Thus, holistic rubrics are
not suitable for formative assessment.
2.2.5 Assessment criteria
Criteria are dimensions in students’ products or performance to evaluate their
progress toward meeting the learning targets (McMillan, 2017). McMillan also
noted that the dimensions should reflect teachers’ instructional goals and observable

aspects of students’ performance.
Criteria are also the explicit statements of expectations, which are based on
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intended learning outcomes to describe the skills, knowledge, attitudes, and
capabilities that students should achieve during a course (Cheng & Fox, 2017).
Cheng and Fox also suggested that the explicit statements of expectations should be
written down by teachers and shared with students. Thus, teachers can evaluate the
alignment of content, activities, and assessment; students can understand the course
and develop a better sense of standards they need to meet.
Besides, criteria are characterized by brief descriptions that differentiate students’
performance according to grades or marks. The criteria serve twofold purposes: firstly,
they allow students to understand how their performance will be assessed, and what
students can do to enhance the quality of their performance, and secondly, the criteria can
improve the quality of marking because they can increase the validity and reliability of
marks when assessing students’ performance (Elander, 2002).
In classroom-based assessment, criteria should be established in advance as part
of the published syllabus (Partington, 1994). When criteria are attached to the
assignment topic, students can explain their grades and prepare for further assignments
(Elander, 2002). Also, assessment criteria are useful when teachers want to promote
deep approaches to learning that involves learners’ attempts to understand the material
rather than memorise and reproduce it (Marton & Saljo, 1976).
However, some students find it a struggle translating some criteria with an
abstract description of desirable qualities into concrete actions that can improve
their work (Longhurst & Nortion, 1997). Besides, many students believed that
markers would be impressed by strategies that were not part of the assessment
criteria (Norton et al., 1999).
2.3. Students’ perceptions of assessment
Understanding how people perceive an event, an object, or even other people

is central to promoting positive behavior and lessening undesirable behavior.
However, students’ perceptions of assessment have received little attention
(McMillan, 2016). Perceptions refer to what students think, believe, and feel, so
they can be cognition (thinking) and emotion (feeling) (Ajzen, 2005). Students’
perceptions are part of an assessment process and they can affect students’ learning
and motivation (Boekaerts & Cascallar, 2006).
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McMillan (2016) developed a framework for understanding students’
perceptions of assessment. The framework consists of 3 phases of assessment
(before, during, and after assessment) in which students’ perceptions and emotions
are examined. In the before phase, the perceptions and emotions can affect students’
preparation effort and expectations for success. Thus, students’ perceptions in this
phase are dichotomized into either trait or state characteristics. Trait-related
perceptions are based on relatively stable and consistent personality dispositions
that students bring to most assessment tasks, regardless of assessment event, while
state dimension may vary from time to time, depending on the nature of assessment
on a single occasion. Students’ perceptions and emotions are also elicited during an
assessment event. Students may perceive the level of difficulty, preparation effort,
and expectations about performance and may experience such emotions as hope,
relief, anxiety, and contentment. After an assessment event, students may have
emotions such as relief, hope, happiness, satisfaction, fear and may perceive
fairness and difficulty. When students receive the results and feedback, they will
have a range of emotions and will form beliefs that influence their subsequent
behavior and learning motivation (McMillan & Turner, 2014).
Apart from the work by McMillan (2016), some studies attempted to explore
students’ perceptions of in-class English assessment (Agasøster, 2015; Al-Nouh et
al., 2015; Tsagari, 2013). The study by Agasøster (2015) reported that more than
two-thirds of the students were not aware of the criteria by which they were being

assessed, and only a third of the students could list some assessment criteria. The
criteria were little transparent to the students because such knowledge of criteria
could be achieved through practical examples rather than a description of criteria.
Besides, nearly half of the students perceived that they received both oral and
written feedback from the teachers. Another study by Al-Nouh et al. (2015)
suggested that the students needed to be made aware of the criteria used for
assessing their performance so that they could prepare well. The result also showed
that the students needed to see a model before they performed. Tsagari (2013)
carried out a study that investigated EFL students’ views toward assessment
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