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Developing Learners’ Academic Writing
Skills in Higher Education: A Study for
Educational Reform
Nahla N. Bacha
Lebanese American University, PO Box 36, Byblos, Lebanon
L2 writers are known to face problems in developing their writing skills at the univer-
sity level.These problems are even more accentuatedwith L1 Arabic non-native speak-
ers of English in required English composition courses. Some researchhas shown that
with low motivation levels the process can further be a very difficult and unrewarding
one for both the learner and the teacher.However, students need to develop their writ-
ing skills in order to cope with their university coursework in the medium of English.
This necessitatesthe searchfor learningtasks thatmeet student needs in a wider educa-
tional context. This paper outlines some of the writing theories proposed by research-
ers that have contributed to current L2 teaching/learning classroom methodologies.
Drawing upon the insights gained from these theories,one EFL freshman composition
classroom learning experience in doing practical research with L1 Arabic non-native
speakers of English is described. Results indicated that the experience was not only a
very highly motivating basis for developing students’ writing skills but alsoa valuable
one for students in acquiring necessaryacademicresearchknow-how. Implications are
made for the teaching/learning of writing and programme development in light of the
post-war educational reform in Lebanon.
Introduction
Developing learners’ writing skills in L2 has been of concern for a long time in
tertiary education (Belcher & Braine, 1995; Jordan, 1997). Students studying in insti-
tutions of higher learning in the medium of English, which may not be their native
language, have been found to face problems mainly in writing, making them unable
to cope with the institution’s literacy expectations. However, these ‘disadvantaged’
students may be able to develop writing skills significantly with positive instruc-
tionalattitudestowardsthe errors they makeand an awarenesson the teachers’ part
of learner problems (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Shaughnessy, 1977; Zamel, 1983).
The research literature in L2 writing contains a great range of different

supportive methodologies (e.g. Belcher & Braine, 1995; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996;
Jordan, 1989, 1997; Kroll, 1990;Reid, 1993;Silva, 1993;Zamel, 1983, 1992). Similar
studies on L1 Arabic non-native-speakers of English have also been found and
although their writing problems might sometimes be different (Kaplan, 1966;
Khalil, 2000; Kharma & Hajjaj, 1989), recent findings suggest that, with appropri-
ate instruction, these learners can and do improve in their writing skills (Bader,
1992; Connor, 1996; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996).
The Problem
Studies carried out on L1 Arabic non-native speakers’ English-writing prob-
lems have shown student texts to lack lexical variety, subordination and to rely
0950-0782/02/03 161-17 $20.00/0 © 2002 N.N. Bacha
LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION Vol. 16, No. 3, 2002
161
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education
heavily on redundancy that does not add any new information to the text
(Sa’Addedin & Akram, 1989, 1991; Zughoul & Husain,1985). Other studies have
indicated problems in these students’ writing in linking ideas over larger
stretches of text (Al Abed Al-Haq & Ahmed, 1994;Dudley-Evans & Swales, 1980;
Kaplan, 1966). Al Abed Al-Haq & Ahmed (1994) point out that these texts are
characteristic of writing on mechanical and sentence levels rather than on more
communicative discourse ones necessary for ‘advanced’ writing. Discourse
aspects that these students find difficult to cope with in their academic texts are in
the use of cohesive devices thatform meaningful connections between and among
sentences over larger stretches of text such as substitution,lexical cohesion, transi-
tion, deixis and so forth. Further studies in discourse have emphasised the need
for students to produce certain types of texts or genres needed by the different
disciplines in the academic community, such as summaries, reports, research
papers and the like, which the non-native speaker of English finds difficult to
produce. However, with suitable teaching/learning methods, these students can
and many have overcome their difficulties in writing in English through various

techniques such as collaborative discipline-based writing classes, peer work and
teacher conferencing (Connor, 1996; Fulwiler & Young, 1990; Grabe & Kaplan,
1996; Leki, 1995b; Swales, 1990).
The writing problems for the students attending the English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) freshman programme at the Lebanese American University
(LAU) (a programme set up to help ‘low’ language proficiency students) are
very similar to the foregoing. In addition, because they have had their elemen-
tary, primary and secondary schooling in the medium of French, or English or
French and English equally, the problems may also extend to negative influenc-
ing factors not only from L1 Arabic but also L2 French (Bacha, 2000a; Yazigi,
1991).
More significantly, few students following a course of study in the medium
of English at university level in Lebanon are motivated to develop their writ-
ing skills, except when directly related to their major course of study at the
university (Yazigi, 1991). In a recent survey carried out on a total population
of 1658 students attending the EFL programme at LAU in the four required
English composition courses, motivation was reported to be significantly the
main cause for their writing difficulties when compared to use of required
textbooks, past and present classroom practices, evaluation techniques, nega-
tive interference of Arabic and/or French, and individual learning styles
(Bacha, 2000a).
In addition to the above problems, an overriding concern by many institu-
tions of higher education is in revisiting their EFL programmes in light of the
recent developments in the new national English pre-university educational
reform in post-war Lebanon. This new national English curriculum is spon-
sored by the Ministry of Education in conjunction with the National Center
for Research and Development and approved by the Council of Ministers in
1994. As part of this reform, all schools must either adopt French or English as
the medium of instruction in addition to students learning the native
language, Arabic (Shaaban & Ghaith, 1997). If schools opt to choose English as

the medium of instruction, the system of education is referred to as an English
type of education (students then would be called ‘English-educated’); if
162 Language and Education
French were chosen, then the system is referred to as a French type of educa-
tion (students referred to as ‘French- educated’). The public sector (national
education) follows mainly the French system, while privately owned schools
follow the English. However, students learn the other language (either
English or French) as a third language and, when higher education is
considered, students from either system of education might enter a French
university system or an English one depending upon their career goals. Over the
past 10 years, there has been a significant increase in students attending
English-medium universities, hence the challenge for EFL programmes at these
institutions to develop teaching/learning environments conducive to helping
students acquire the necessary writing skills for both university coursework
and the workplace.
The work of the new national English curriculum is grounded in modern theo-
ries of curriculum design and teaching methods drawing upon local experts in
the various universities in Lebanon with international consultants. The project is
aimed mainly at the public sector, involving a multiplicity of interrelated learner,
teacher, subject and contextual factors. The purpose of the English curriculum is
designed for academic achievement, social interaction and cultural enrichment
based on the following five main principles:
(1) Language learning is learning to communicate.
(2) Language varies according to the context of the communicative interac-
tion.
(3) Learning is an exposure to a new culture whereby students develop under-
standing, respect, and appreciation of cultural backgrounds.
(4) Language learners have to engage in meaningful and interactive tasks.
(5) Language skills are interdependent.
The above are achieved through:

implementing a thematic content-based approach;
developing native-like proficiency in English stressing fluency and then
accuracy;
referring to the objectives of the English language curriculum that have
clear and measurable performance tasks;
presenting language in a proper cultural context (cultural awareness
objectives);
highlighting the role of group work in the development of communica-
tive language skills (in the cooperative learning modelof classroominter-
action);
having practical implications of cooperation between English teachers
and those of other subject areas and a comprehensive staff development
program by the National Center for Research and Development.
(NCERD, 1994)
The curriculum is now in its third year of implementation, and although there
are no published rigorous research results to date as to its relative success, the
experience has indicated some positive feedback in the learning situation
(personal communication with teacher trainers, 1999).
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 163
Aim and Significance of the Study
The purpose of the present study, therefore, is to describe one classroom
task-based learning experience that could help to develop EFL students’
academic writing skills.
The significance of the present study is that it gives a first opportunity to
follow up on the content-based approach in language teaching and learning
adopted by the Ministry of Education, even though here on a very small scale. It
is also a worthwhile study in reinforcing many of the teachers’ views that
students at this ‘lower’ level of English proficiency can deal with ‘research’
tasks often thought too difficult for them. Most importantly, the research task
adopted in the study may not only motivate these learners to improve their

skills, but also give them those needed in the academic disciplines and the job
market.
The study described below focuses on the implications of writing theories to
the development of learners’ writing skills and the application of the theory in
the practical research task.
Implications from Writing Theories
Writing is significant in students’ academic course of study as most examina-
tions, reports and research work depend on it. Also, the writing process helps to
develop the students’ cognitive skills in acquiring the necessary strategies such
as analysis, synthesis, inference and so forth, instrumental in the learning
process.
In this context, both L1 and L2 English-writing theories have influenced much
present-day classroom practice (e.g. Crusius, 1989; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996).
Crusius’s (1989) comment articulates this: ‘In our field … they [theories] have
been and are still the most influential, playing major roles in conceiving writing,
course syllabi, and texts’ (p. 3). Four of the main L1 theories that have been influ-
ential and on which much of L2 writing methodology has drawn, specifically in
the process and product writing approaches, are those expounded by: (1) the
expressive school of thought (e.g. Moffet, 1968); (2) the cognitive school of
thought (e.g. Britton
et al.
, 1975; Kinneavy, 1980); (3) the interactionists (e.g.
Swales, 1990); and (4) the social constructivists (e.g. Halliday & Martin, 1993).
These theories could all be viewed in light ofKinneavy’s (1971 in 1980)communi-
cation triangle (see Figure 1) which comprises three essential parts of writing: the
encoder (writer), the audience (decoder or reader), and reality and truth
(context), all crucial to the process of producing a text. Basically,the expressionist
model argues for ‘expressive, self actualizing writing in which students “discov-
ered” ideas and themselves through free-writing and brainstorming’ (Kroll,
164 Language and Education

Figure 1 Kinneavy’s communication triangle (1971 in 1980)
1990). Moffet’s (1968) model focused on the writer, audience and the different
types of texts and was mainly influential in the American elementary and
secondary schools. The process approach, as we know it today, had its roots in
this expressionist model. The cognitivist model (Flower & Hayes, 1981) although
overlapping with that of the expressionists, focused more on the rhetorical
modes of discourse as end products and showed the relation between syntax,
semantics and pragmatics. In this sense, there was more emphasis on both the
process and the product in writing. The approach was more influential at the
secondary and tertiary levels of writing. The interactionists focused more on the
reader’s schemata (that is, knowledge of the world), and thus writing was
focused more for a particular audience. The social constructionists spoke of
discourse communities in which the writer had to take into consideration the
norms and expectations of the tasks and writing models required. For example,
in an academic context, the writer’s intended audience are those who expect
scholastic forms such as research papers, reports and the like which are organ-
ised and worded according to standardised academic criteria within the context
of the academic community. Thus, a research or term paper must conform to
certain academic, organisational, language and content criteria which may vary
from one discipline to another.
Although L1 theories influenced many L2 theories and instruction, research-
ers noted that L2 non-native students’ needs differ (Johns, 1990). Four instruc-
tional methods have been influential in EFL: controlled, rhetorical, process and
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and specifically English for Academic
Purposes (EAP), on which the present study draws. First, controlled writing
emphasised pattern practice and grammar accuracy based on the audio-lingual
approach (Fries, 1949, in Kroll, 1990). Second, the rhetorical approach focused on
models of writingabove the sentence level and advocated the different rhetorical
modes of narration, cause–effect, comparison–contrast,argumentation, etc., and
took into account the cultural and linguistic background of the writer as possible

negative interfering factors in L2 English writing. Later research indicated that it
is perhaps more of an instructional issue rather than a cross-cultural matter
(Grabe & Kaplan, 1996).
The rhetorical approach was challenged by researchers and linguists who
advocated a more process type of writing in which learners go through prelimi-
nary writing (brainstorming and outlining), drafting the product (revising and
reformulating) and post-writing stages (editing and proofreading) before a
product is finalised (Kroll, 1990). The proliferation of the process approach in the
past two decades has been questioned (e.g. Robinson, 1988) especially by the ESP
approach in which the exponents (Halliday & Martin, 1993; Swales, 1990) view
the necessity to focus on more specific writing tasks or genre related to the differ-
ent discourse communities, be they academic, professional or other. Some ongo-
ing research in the English programme at the Lebanese American University has
indicated a need for more writing tasks related to research and report writing
(Bacha, 2000b). Although there is controversy as to what extent the English
faculty should teach the content-based writing of the disciplines (Braine, 1988;
Horowitz, 1986;Johns, 1988;Spack, 1988a,1988b),the role of proficient writing in
fostering the thinking process and academic success cannot be underestimated
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 165
(Horowitz, 1986; Johns 1988; Jordan, 1997; Reid, 1993; Robinson, 1988; Swales,
1990; Vygotsky, 1962).
Methodology
In light of the above theories, recent studies in academic writing, and the writ-
ing problems of the students in the EFL programme, a research writing activity
was designed using the essay as a framework.
1
Participants
The study involved 30 L1 Arabic non-native speakers of English who were
attending one freshman English 101 course (the first of the three required compo-
sition courses) in the EFL programme at the Lebanese American University. The

students had followed a pre-university course of study in either French or
English and were now enrolled in various majors in one of the four disciplines:
Arts and Sciences, Business, Engineering and Architecture, and Pharmacy. The
students’ ages ranged between 17 and 19 with 20 females and 10 males, 18 were
French-educated and the rest English-educated. However, since the focus of the
present study is to concentrate on the process of writing, age, gender, major, L2
or L3 were not influencing variables or of concern in the study.
Procedure
Over the last month (January) of the Fall 1999 semester (October to January)
and based on the pilot study done in the previous semester, a research essay writ-
ing activity was refined and better clarified for the students using models as
guides for each step in the writing process. The freshman English 101 course
involves writing essays of different rhetorical modes, drafted and finalised in
class time according to the process/product approach with reference to the read-
ings from the course textbook (Leki, 1995a). The study focuses on the last of the
four essays students write in the course. The essay is in the comparison–contrast
rhetorical mode, often found difficult and uninteresting for the students and thus
the challenge to revisit it in the learning situation.
The study specifically is comprised of eight steps, discussed and illustrated
below with one student’s work chosen at random (see Appendices). Results of
the relative success of the study are then discussed.
Step 1: Choosing a topic
Choice of topic was left to each individual student. Some chose to relate it to
their major at the university in the various schools mentioned above, while
others to their personal interest. In summary, the topics could be grouped under
five broad headings given here in order of popularity: business (e.g. mobile
phones, computers, Internet, cars, etc.), politics (e.g. Queen Elizabeth, Winston
Churchill, labour market, television, sportsand money, etc.); health (e.g. cloning,
diets, nutrition, disorders, sex, smoking, stress, etc.); social (e.g. child crime,
divorce, marriage, Marilyn Monroe, romantic movies, sex discrimination, etc.);

and education (e.g. class attendance, library use). It was interesting to see the
variety of topics as well as a near representation of the disciplines in which the
students were enrolled. This indicated that the opportunity of choosing their
166 Language and Education
own topics was well exploited on the part of the students. In order to obtain
support for their research paper, students were requested to administer a
self-made survey on their topic, interview an expert in the field and find a rele-
vant Internet article. Thus, the students need not rely only on ‘library sources’
that they have found ‘boring’ and difficult at times to find, but can also be
involved in using all the four language skills: speaking, listening, reading and
writing in a more learner-centred activity (Nunan, 1997).
Step 2: Carrying out a survey and analysing the results
After limiting the topic, students carried out a survey in the class and/or on
campus from which they could obtain evidence. The main variables used were
gender, major at the university and age. The students were shown how to keep
the questions simply phrased, relevant to their topic and varied, using no more
than five or six questions consisting of fixed response (no or yes), scaled or multi-
ple choice, and one open-ended question (see sample in Appendix A).
Students enjoyed this step as it gave them the ‘authority’ to question their
colleagues in a professional way. Many reported that they were also surprised by
the results, as what they thought to be a fact sometimes proved to be the contrary.
This was a good learning experience in itself, since it taught them not to take
things at face value. The number of respondents was left up to the students, but it
was pointed out that if they wanted to generalise the results to the population
they sampled, a representative number would need to be obtained.
In analysing the results, students were shown how they could do it both
manually and on the computer using one or more of the variables, although they
needed to report according to only one (see Appendix B).
Step 3: Carrying out an interview
The second type of source was to interview an expert related to the topic

chosen, tape it if permission were granted andtranscribe it (see Appendix C). The
pre-, during and post-steps of interviewing were discussed with the class prior to
the interviewing process. Scheduling and confirming the interview, wearing the
correct apparel, being respectful, relevant and concise during the interview and
thanking the interviewer after the interview were stressed, as was accurate tran-
scription.
Step 4: Summarising an article
A third source needed for their research essay was to summarise a relevant,
credible article from the Internet. This exercise reinforced their summary skills
(see Appendix D).
Only significant evidence from the sources was to be used in the research essay,
which stressed students’ decision-making skills concerning relevant inclusion of
content. This was considered an important cognitive exercise in research writing
as most students from their pre-university schooling have been known to include
more information than necessary, a characteristic of the learning culture.
Step 5: Writing the first draft
The comparison–contrastformat was discussed and theblock- and chain-organi-
sational models were examined (see Appendix E of one type of organisational
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 167
model). Students were asked to choose one or two questions from the survey and
write an essay of two body paragraphs mentioning the similarities and differ-
ences they found concerning one variable, following the model outline. For
example, in the ‘Internet Addiction’ paper, the student found that although male
as female students differ in owning a computer, males use the Internet as often as
females. Incorporating relevant material from the article, interview and survey
in the essay would help students read material of their choice and at their indi-
vidual literacy level and capacities.
Students were then asked to mention the statistical finding as well as to inter-
pret the results in the light of the interview, the article and/or their own experi-
ence. They found interpretation of the ideas the most difficult to do, as they had

been used to reading for literal comprehension and not for higher order cognitive
purposes. In the sample research paper, however, an attempt is made at interpre-
tation in giving reasons why females might own fewer personal computers. The
process of giving thought to these issues was the main aim of including them
since interpretation of findings is often a neglected area in EFL instruction in
pre-university education in Lebanon.
Format of presentation was discussed and modelled and the MLA documen-
tation of sources was followed, being the one required in the programme. First
drafts were read by the teacher mainly for content and organisation, leaving
language and mechanical aspects for a further draft.
Step 6: Revising the first draft
Students revised the first draft in class, taking into account teacher comments
for improvement. Peer response was not conducted in the classroom owing to
past experience with previous classes in which some students displayed a nega-
tive attitude to their ability to carry out such an ‘important teacher job’ (as they
put it). However, the researcher believes that peer response should be encour-
aged in the future. It was not included in this experiment as implementing the
strategy needed time and more experimentation. The sample student’s first draft
was well organised; however, it needed more interpretation of the results and
sentence improvement in subordination.
Step 7: Writing a final draft
Writing the final draft was an open-book assignment, with students taking
into account teacher comments on organisation and content, and editing for
language and mechanical errors (see Appendix F). It is clear that even this final
draft could be further improved.
Step 8: Outlining and summarising the final draft
The purpose of students outlining and summarising their own individual
research papers was to give them a realistic situation in which often an abstract
and outline or table of contents are requested. Also, this exercise would give
them a final global view of their own work and better prepare them to share their

findings with their colleagues in the final oral class report. The outline and
summary of the sample student’s work have not been included, not being the
specific focus of the present paper.
168 Language and Education
Results and Discussion
The research activityusing the essay asa frameworkproduced much better prod-
ucts than any of the essay writing during the semester or in previous semesters.This
was reflected in the grades based on evaluating the writing according to the ESL
CompositionProfile ofJacobs
et al.
(1981).When compared to the three essays given
in the same semester, an average class writing grade of 77% was attained on the
research essay compared to an average of 63% for essay 1, 68% for essay 2 and 70%
for essay 3. What is important though is not that the students progressed over the
semester, which is probably expected, but that the average final essay grades over
the past three semesters were between 68–73% even when take-home essays had
been given. Also, the grades on the research writing activity were higher than the
teacher’s expectations. It was expected that an average of 70% would be attained
with very few grades above 80%. What is more revealing than the average grades
can show, is that 10 students gained grades above 80% (three 90%), five in the 60s
and the rest in the 70s, a spread of grades not previously attained.
A more significant result is the fact that, this time, some students who were
considered ‘lower’ achievers at the beginning of the semester were able to attain
grades above 80%. The student sample essay earned an 85% final product score
accordingtothe freshman English 101 objectives, while the other three essays writ-
ten by the same student scored 60%, 70% and 65% respectively, not very satisfac-
tory by the institution’s standards. These three grades also clearly show a (not
uncommon) regression in the third essay, in which often fatigue, topic choice, time
and other variables may influence the writing process (Kroll, 1990; Yazigi, 1991).
When interviewed on their experience with the research task, the students

expressed interest. They did notknow that the assignment had been adapted into
a research task until after it was completed. Some commented, however, that
more work had been demanded compared to the other assignments or other
semesters, that there was no time to carry out and transcribe a good interview,
and that there was difficulty in finding relevant articles in both the library and on
the Internet. These difficulties were experienced by some of the students proba-
bly due to the fact that this was the first time they were carrying out ‘research’, it
being the first semester at the university for the majority of the students. Also, the
activity was carried out towards the end of the semester and time may have been
a limiting factor for many who were under pressure to complete assignments for
their other courses. However, a few of the students did return the following
semester for further help on their research projects for their courses in other disci-
plines; it is hoped that more will appreciate the activity.
L2 learners do have problems in writing and may not be motivated to develop
their writing skills; however, the students’work in the study suggests that practi-
cal research writing may be a motivating basis in helping lower language-profi-
cient learners to improve. Although research in its own right has been found to be
quite a difficult and complex activity for any freshman student (Ford, 1995), the
practicalapproach used in the present study with the essay as a framework facili-
tated the task. The use of supporting material through the survey findings, inter-
view comments and Internet article made the task more interesting and gave the
‘weaker’ students the confidence they lacked in reading, writing and doing
‘research’ work with readily available evidence often difficult to obtain in Leba-
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 169
non. It also allowed students to do research on topics they were interested or had
experience in such as surfing the Net, using statistics, interviewing business
people and sharing their ideas in the oral presentation with their colleagues at the
end of the semester.
The results of the study are far-reaching for English programme development
at the university in which the study was carried out. Teachers are of the opinion

that research should be learned at a much later stage of the English curriculum;
however, the study does indicate that it is possible for students to cope with
developing their writing skills through research. The ‘research essay’ is not,
however, the only way to help motivate and develop learners’ writing. Different
teaching/learning techniques can be used to exploit the essay (Hunter-Carsch,
1990) as a framework for discipline-related tasks. Discipline-related discourse
can be drawn upon to motivate students to want to improve their writing skills
and students can interact with various types of resources in a much more
dynamic way. These resources need to be identified, researched and included in
a curriculum which enables the learners to develop their writing proficiency.
Conclusion
The purpose of the present study was to identify writing theories which could
be drawn upon to help less proficient learners improve their language skills,
specifically writing through a practical research task. Kinneavy’s writing model
(1971 in 1980), mentioned earlier, is perhaps still relevant today to the latter. The
suggested model of the research paper based on Kinneavy’s model (see Figure 2)
emphasises the reciprocal relationship between the reader and the writer in the
production and processing of a text – in this case the research essay – in confor-
mity with the academic community and its conventions concerning research
writing. Although the reader in the present study was not involved as such, the
reader is included in the diagram as presumably research is to be shared ulti-
mately with others in the same discourse community that writers must conform
to. More precisely as it relates to the present study, the inverted triangle frame-
work could be seen to represent the overall approach to any writing task, which
begins with broad, general assumptions or research questions, moving on to
more specific theses and evidence. The model could be adapted to other types of
research and/or writing tasks in the academic community.
Having students interact in practical research, even in a basic freshman
English composition course, and using the essay as a framework proved initially
to be a valuable learning experience, one in which students learned a disci-

170 Language and Education
Figure 2 Suggested model of the research essay
pline-related task or the process of the task, interacted with different texts and
language skills and above all increased their interest in the assignment. The
students could ‘stretch out’ of the English classroom into other classrooms and
places, making the development of their writing more genuine and used for a
motivating purpose. No doubt it is no easy task to help the more ‘disadvantaged’
develop their writing proficiency, but it is believed it is here that we as curricu-
lum designers and educators can make the most difference.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Research Council at the Lebanese American University for
supporting a travel grant to present the above paper at the TESOL Greece
Convention in March 1999. I alsoextend my appreciation to the students for their
active involvement in the classroom experience.
Correspondence
Any correspondence should be directed to Dr N.N. Bacha, Lebanese Ameri-
can University, PO Box 36, Byblos, Lebanon ().
Note
1. The practicalresearch assignment was included in the English 101 syllabus beginning
the academic year 2000–01. Readers are welcome to contact the author concerning the
present study ().
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172 Language and Education
Appendix A:
Sample Student Questionnaire
The final submitted work of the student has been kept with minor editing.
Permission has been obtained to reproduce student’s work.
Sex : ___________________
Age : ___________________

Major: ___________________
1) Do you have a personal computer at home?
Yes No
2) Do you usually work on the Internet?
Yes No
3) How many hours do you spend on the Internet per week?
4 8 15
20 35 More
Other Specify ____________
4) How do you rate yourself as an Internet user?
Hardly Use It Average User
Heavy User Addicted User
Other Specify ________________
5) How much does the use of the Internet affect your social life?
A Lot Some
A Little None
6) Do you think that the heavy use of the Internet has some kind of effect on a
person’s social life? Explain.
Appendix B: Analysing, Interpreting and Arranging Data (n = 50)
After computing the results, the student made a summary statement appear-
ing after each relevant question. Tables prepared by the student have been
included only for questions 1 and 2 for illustrative purposes.
(1) Do you have a personal computer at home?
It seems that more males than females have a personal computer at home.
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 173
Table 1 Percentage of male and female students with personal home computer
Total% Male Female
78
n
= 25

83.33%
50%
n
= 14
70%
28%
Yes
22
n
= 5
16.67%
10%
n
= 6
30%
12%
No
(2) Do you usually work on the Internet?
It seems that both males and females work equally on the Internet.
(3) How many hours do you spend on the Internet per week?
It seems that most of males and females work on the Internet between 0 and
4 hours a week, only a very small number work more than 15 hours a week
and nobody works on the Internet more than 30 hours a week.
(4) How do you rate yourself as an Internet user?
Most males and females are average users. Few are heavy Internet users and
nobody is an Internet addict.
(5) How much does the use of the Internet affect your social life?
It seems that females and males arenot affected socially by the Internet. (Not
included in the research paper as the results were not deemed necessary.)
(6) Omitted from the research analysis by the student as the results were

considered unimportant and irrelevant.
Appendix C: Transcribed Interview
Person interviewed: owner of an Internet company
Question 1: What is your opinion about the Internet?
Answer 1: When it comes to the Internet, you cannot but give a general opin-
ion of it. The Internet is a very useful source from which a person
can get various information about various topics. The Internet
provides amusement as well as education, it is really great.
Question 2: Do you think that the Internet is more helpful in the advantages it
presents or it is more harmful in the negative sides it shows?
Answer 2: No doubt that everything has advantages and disadvantages,
even the Internet. However, the advantages of the Internet exceed
by far its disadvantages. A person can benefit from the Internet
through its database,communication (e-mail and other communi-
cation software), entertainment, etc …
On the other hand, we see the disadvantages are that it mainly
hurts the eyes (staring at the monitor), and some people consider it
a waste of time and money. I disagree. Well, it is never a waste of
time because you always benefit one way or the other, either by
getting data, or by meeting new friends.
174 Language and Education
Table 2 Percentage of male and female students working on the Internet
Total% Male Female
50
n
= 16
53.33%
32%
n
= 9

45%
18%
Yes
50
n
= 14
46.67%
28%
n
= 11
55%
22%
No
So we can clearly say that the Internet is more helpful in the
advantages it provides.
Question 3: How much do you think a person should use the Internet in an
average way? (Per week/month)
Answer 3: The average way is 5 to 10 hours per week.
Question 4: How do you rate an Internet addict?
Answer 4: An Internet addict is a person who does everything on the Net and
spends more that 30 hours a week on it.
Question 5: Do you have any statisticsabout the addictive use of the Internet?
Answer 5: Not at the moment.
Appendix D: Summary of an Internet Article
According to the American Psychological Association in the article on
‘
Internet Addiction
’ from Infoteck-library, excessive Internet use is described as a
legitimate disorder one may encounter if cyberspace interferes with his life.
Professor Kimberly Young, a psychologist at the University of Pittsburgh,

revealed that the craving to go online is similar to the craving that smokers have
for cigarettes. Middle-aged women, the unemployed, and Internet ‘newbies’ are
most prone to Internet addiction, says Young. Some experts warn that Net addic-
tion can worsen depression and cause withdrawal from reality. Others see the
Net as the latest scapegoat for the human urge to overdo.
Appendix E: Model Outline
Introduction
– Arouse interest
– Place your topic in context and give background information
– Define any key terms
– Thesis statement
Although there are differences between males and females in owning a computer at
home, there are a few similarities in the use of the Internet.
I. Difference in owning a personal computer
A. Results from survey
B. Support from interview
C. Support from article
D. Your Interpretation
II. Similarity in use
A. Results from survey
B. Support from interview
C. Support from article
D. Your Interpretation
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 175
Conclusion
– Restate thesis statement
– Refer to background mentioned in the introduction
– Conclude with a closing remark
Appendix F: Final Practical Research Essay
Title: Internet Addiction

Introduction
What is the Internet? How is the Internet used? Is the Internet helpful or harm-
ful? Does the extended use of the Internet causes addiction to it? These are some
of the questions asked about the Internet which has been developing more and
more in our days. Most of all, the Internet is known as new, fast and wide source
of information, but some people have misused the Internet for destructive
purposes.
Although there are differences between males and females in owning a
computer at home, there are a few similarities in the use of the Internet.
Body paragraph 1: Difference(s)
There is a difference between males and females on owning a personal computer at
home
. From the survey made (Khneisser), more males own a personal computer
than females: (83%) of the males have a personal computer but only 16.7% do not
have one. As for the females, 70% have a personal computer and 30% do not have
one (0–9% constitutes a similarity). So, it seems that more males have a personal
computer than females. Why? Well, as I am not an expert in this field, my infor-
mation may not be 100% true but I think that this is due to the interest of the
females in different things like taking of their looks, helping their parents at
home, and many other things. I think that males have more time to use comput-
ers than females especially if we consider the majors of the students, because we
have a few number of female students following a computer major than male
students. Also, females may not have the motivation needed to use the computer
as the males do. There is no supportive material about these results in the article
and in the interview. I believe that more research should be done about this
subject, because both article and interview discuss the use of the Internet and its
addiction, but not specifically on its use. The article mentions how psychologists
rate Internet addiction.
Body paragraph 2: Similarity(ies)
Even though more males own a personal computer than females, there is a similarity

between males and females on the use of the Internet
. From the survey made
(Khneisser), 53% of the males use the Internet and 46.7% do not use it. As for the
females, 45% use the Internet and 55% do not use it (0–9% constitutes a similar-
ity). It seems that even though more males own a personal computer than
females, the females seem to have the same urge to use the Internet as the males
do. Why do we have such results? Seeing how wide the Internet is growing these
days, and how much it is needed, it is expected thatboth males and females use it.
They need the Internet for research, as it is filled with all kind of information
about millions of topics for university projects. It also gives us all the news
around the world, such as ‘LBCI news on Internet’, all kind of new updates to
176 Language and Education
keep track of everything that is happening all over the globe, like updates in
sports, technology, news, political issues and other information. So, there is noth-
ing strange about the similarity between males and females on the use of the
Internet because all this information is in the interest of both sexes, not to forget
the fact of meeting and making new friends. A look at the article only shows us
the negative side of the Internet because of the addicted users that make it look
bad. If we take a look at the interview, however, the advantages of the Internet
exceed by far its disadvantages.
Body paragraph 3: Additional comments
A brief look at the other questions shows that 33% of the males and 30% of the
females use the Internet around 4 hours a week and about 36.7% of the males and
40% of the females are average uses (4–8 hours a week are rated average users),
but no one seems to use the Internet more than 30 hours per week which means
we have no addicted users.
Conclusion
To conclude, although there are differences between males and females on the
owning a personal computer at home, there are few similarities on the use of the
Internet . Even though some females do not own a personal computer, they are

managing to use the Internet at the university or any other place taking advan-
tage of all the facilities it gives us, because the Internet was created for everybody,
and not only one sex.
Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education 177