PROPERTY RIGHTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES docx

PROPERTY RIGHTS AND NATURAL
RESOURCES
The use of private property rights to regulate natural resources is a con-
troversial topic because it touches upon two critical issues: the allocation
of wealth in society and the conservation and management of limited
resources. This book explores the extension of private property rights
and market mechanisms to natural resources in international areas from
a legal perspective. It uses marine fisheries to illustrate the issues that can
arise in the design of regulatory regimes for natural resources.
If property rights are used to regulate natural resources then it is essen-
tial that we understand how the law and values embedded within legal
systems shape the development and operation of property rights in prac-
tice. The author constructs a version of property that articulates both the
private and public function of property. This restores some much needed
balance to property discourse. He also assesses the impact of international
law on the use of property rights—a much neglected topic—and shows
how different legal and socio-political values that inhere in different legal
regimes fundamentally shape the construction of property rights. Despite
the many claimed benefits to be had from the use of private property
rights-based management systems, the author warns against an uncritical
acceptance of this approach and, in particular, questions whether private
property rights are the most suitable and effective arrangement of regulat-
ing of natural resources. He suggests that much more complex forms of
holding, such as stewardship, may be required to meet physical, legal and
moral imperatives associated with natural resources.
Studies in International Law: Volume 22
Studies in International Law
Volume 1: Between Light and Shadow: The World Bank, the International
Monetary Fund and International Human Rights Law
Mac Darrow

Volume 2: Toxics and Transnational Law: International and European Regulation
of Toxic Substances as Legal Symbolism
Marc Pallemaerts
Volume 3: The Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council
Erika de Wet
Volume 4: Enforcing International Law Norms Against Terrorism
Edited by Andrea Bianchi
Volume 5: The Permanent International Criminal Court
Edited by Dominic McGoldrick, Peter Rowe and Eric Donnelly.
Volume 6: Regional Organisations and the Development of Collective Security
Ademola Abass
Volume 7: Islamic State Practices, International Law and the Threat from
Terrorism: A Critique of the ‘Clash of Civilizations’ in the New World Order
Javaid Rehman
Volume 8: Predictablity and Flexibility in the Law of Maritime Delimitation
Yoshifumi Tanaka
Volume 9: Biotechnology and International Law
Edited by Francesco Francioni and Tullio Scovazzi
Volume 10: The Development of Human Rights Law by the Judges of the
International Court of Justice
Shiv Bedi
Volume 11: The Environmental Accountability of the World Bank to Third Party
Non-State Actors
Alix Gowlland-Gualtieri
Volume 12: Transnational Corporations and Human Rights
Edited by Olivier De Schutter
Volume 13: Biotechnologies and International Human Rights
Edited by Francesco Francioni
Volume 14: Human Security and International Law: Prospects and Problems
Barbara Von Tigerstrom

Volume 15: The Arms Trade and International Law
Zeray Yihdego
Volume 16: Africa: Mapping New Boundaries in International Law
Edited by Jeremy Levitt
Volume 17: Forced Migration, Human Rights and Security
Edited by Jane McAdam
Volume 18: The Use of Nuclear Weapons and the Protection of the Environment
during International Armed Conflict
Erik Koppe
Volume 19: The Shifting Allocation of Authority in International Law:
Considering Sovereignty, Supremacy and Subsidiarity
Edited by Tomer Broude and Yuval Shany
Volume 20: Counterterrorism: Democracy’s Challenge
Edited by Andrea Bianchi and Alexis Keller
Volume 21: Amnesty, Human Rights and Political Transitions
Louise Mallinder
Volume 22: Property Rights and Natural Resources
Richard Barnes

Property Rights and
Natural Resources
Richard Barnes
OXFORD AND PORTLAND, OREGON
2009
Published in North America (US and Canada) by
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© Richard Barnes 2009
Richard Barnes has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
to be identified as the author of this work.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of Hart
Publishing, or as expressly permitted by law or under the terms agreed with the appropriate
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Acknowledgements
In writing this book I have been lucky enough to benefit from the accumu-
lated wisdom of a number of teachers, mentors, colleagues and friends.
Acknowledgement by way of these few words is a small measure of repay-
ment for what is a considerable debt of gratitude. Iain Scobbie started me
off down this path, although I am quite sure that even he did not realise
where it was leading. My colleagues at the Law School of the University
of Hull have provided the research environment which makes projects

like this both possible and worthwhile. Particular thanks go to Scott
Davidson, Surya Subedi and Lindsay Moir. They provided me with great
encouragement and supervision during the doctoral thesis from which
this book has grown. Robin Churchill’s scholarship has long inspired my
interest in the law of the sea. His knowledge, his balanced perspective
and his attention to detail are qualities to which I aspire. David Ong pro-
vided me with some much needed advice and clarity about the direction
of my research. Lisa Whitehouse helped me to straighten out some of my
views on the concept of property. Particular thanks go to Mike Feintuck
for his warnings and advice upon the ‘public interest’. David Freestone
has been a constant source of inspiration and guidance. He merits par-
ticular thanks, not least because he ventured to read the draft manuscript.
Daniel Metcalf provided some much appreciated and necessary research
assistance. A special word of thanks is due to Richard Hart, who is per-
haps the most patient and sympathetic of editors.
Above all, there has been the long and unwavering support of my wife,
Jo. Without your support and belief in me this book would not have hap-
pened. It is to you, and to Cam and Dan, that this book is dedicated.
RAB
Hull, Nov 2008

Contents
Acknowledgements vii
Abbreviations xiii
Table of Domestic Cases xv
Table of International Cases xxiii
Table of Domestic and Regional Instruments xxvii
Table of Treaties and Other Instruments xxxi
Chapter 1: Natural Resources, International Law and Property 1
1. Some Problems Concerning the Regulation of Natural Resources 1

2. Property and Sovereignty: Some Modes of Analysis 10
3. Scope and Orientation of this Study 17
Chapter 2: The Private Function of Property 21
1. Introduction 21
2. Property and Excludability 22
3. Justifications of Property 29
(a) Property as a Natural Right 30
(b) Property as Liberty 37
(c) Property as Utility 39
(d) Economic Approaches to Property Rights 41
(e) Property as Propriety 49
(f) Property and Pluralism 55
4. Concluding Remarks 61
Chapter 3: The Public Function of Property Rights 63
1. Introduction 63
2. A Template for the Public Function of Property:
The Public Interest 68
(a) The Nature and Identity of the Community 70
(i) Plenary Legal Communities 71
(ii) Types of Plenary Legal Community 72
(iii) State and International Legal Community Contrasted 73
(iv) Conclusions on Plenary Legal Communities
and their Public Interests 83
(b) The Categories of Public Interests 84
(i) Operative Public Interests 84
(ii) Normative Public Interests 87
x Contents
(iii) First Order Public Interests 90
(iv) Second Order Public Interests 93
(v) Third Order Public Interests 104

(vi) The Relationship Between Orders of Public Interest 109
3. Public Interests and the Public Function of Property 112
Chapter 4: Reconciling the Private and Public
Functions of Property 119
1. Introduction 119
2. The Interface Between Private and Public Functions of Property 120
(a) The Coincidence of Private Rights and Public Interests 121
(b) Rights as Trumps 122
(c) Public Interests as Trumps 126
(d) A Determinable Relationship between Rights and Interests 128
3. Delimiting Justifications 132
(a) Physical Factors that Shape the Relationship between
the Private and Public Functions of Property 133
(b) Legal Factors that Shape the Relationship between
the Private and Public Functions of Property 137
(c) Moral Factors that Shape the Relationship between
the Private and Public Functions of Property 150
4. Forms of Property 152
5. Stewardship 155
6. Conclusions 162
Chapter 5: The Influence of Property Concepts in the Development
of Sovereign Rights over Ocean Space and Resources 165
1. Introduction 165
2. The Grotian Period: The Mare Clausum–Mare Liberum Debate 166
(a) Background 166
(b) Doctrinal and Theoretical Considerations 168
3. Freedom of the Seas 177
(a) Background 177
(b) Doctrinal and Theoretical Considerations 179
4. Consolidating Coastal State Control: Territorial Seas 183

(a) Background 184
(b) Doctrinal and Theoretical Considerations 190
5. The Emergence of Resource Regimes 198
(a) Continental Shelf 198
(b) Exclusive Economic Zone 202
6. Concluding Remarks 216
Chapter 6: Sovereignty and Property: General Considerations 221
1. Introduction 221
2. Territorial Sovereignty as Property 222
Contents xi
3. The Scope of Sovereignty (or Its Private Incidents) 228
4. Restrictions on the Exercise of Sovereignty 231
(a) General Limits on the Use of Natural Resources 232
(b) Limits on the Use of Natural Resources Under
International Environmental Law 234
5. Sovereignty Bounded 248
Chapter 7: Sovereignty, Property and Maritime Zones 251
1. Introduction 251
2. Maritime Zones and the Scope for Property Rights 255
(a) Territorial Sea 259
(b) Archipelagic Waters 265
(c) Continental Shelf 270
(d) Exclusive Economic Zone 282
(e) Maritime Delimitation 306
3. Concluding Remarks 311
Chapter 8: Property Rights and Fisheries 313
1. Introduction 313
2. Forms of Property in Rights-Based Fisheries Management Systems 317
(a) Input Controls 317
(b) Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries 319

(c) Individual Quotas 323
(d) Community Development Quotas 328
(e) Stock Use Rights in Fisheries 330
(f) Summary 332
3. Domestic Implementation of Property Rights-Based
Management Systems 332
(a) Australia 333
(b) Canada 345
(c) Iceland 351
(d) New Zealand 357
(e) United States 365
4. An Appraisal of Rights-Based Measures 378
(a) Economic Consequences of Rights-based Measures 378
(b) Conservation and Management Consequences of
Rights-based Measures 381
(c) Allocational Consequences of Rights-based Measures 385
5. Legal Aspects of Rights-Based Fisheries 387
Chapter 9: Conclusion 395
Select Bibliography 403
Index 415

Abbreviations
ACE annual catch entitlement
AFMA Australian Fisheries Management Authority
AJIL American Journal of International Law
ASIL Proc American Society of International Law Proceedings
BFSP British and Foreign State Papers
BYIL British Yearbook of International Law
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CDQ community development quota

DFO Department of Fisheries and Oceans (Canada)
ECHR European Court of Human Rights
ECJ European Court of Justice
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EFZ Exclusive Fishing Zone
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EJIL European Journal of International Law
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
FMP Fishery Management Plan
FSA United Nations Agreement relating to the Conservation
and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly
Migratory Fish Stocks 1995
GYIL German Yearbook of International Law
HR Recueil des cours de l'académie de droit international de
l'Haye
IACHR Inter-American Court of Human Rights
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICLQ International and Comparative Law Quarterly
IDI Institut de Droit International
IJIL Indian Journal of International Law
ILC International Law Commission
ILM International Legal Materials
ILR International Law Reports
ISA International Seabed Authority
IFQ individual fishing quota
IQ individual quota
ITLOS International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
ITQ individual transferable quota
ITSQ individual transferable share quota
JLS Journal of Legal Studies

xiv Abbreviations
JP Econ Journal of Public Economics
LAP limited access privilege
LQR Law Quarterly Review
LNTS League of Nations Treaty Series
MSY maximum sustainable yield
NRC National Research Council
ODIL Ocean Development and International Law
OECD Organisation for Economic Development and Cooperation
PCA Permanent Court of Arbitration
PCIJ Permanent Court of International Justice
QAA Quota Appeals Authority (New Zealand)
QMS Quota Management System (New Zealand)
RIAA Reports of International Arbitral Awards
SFR statutory fishing right
SURF stock use right in fisheries
TAC total allowable catch
TACC total allowable commercial catch
TDSR transferable dynamic stock right
TURF territorial use rights in fisheries
UKTS United Kingdom Treaty Series
UN United Nations
UNCLOS United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
UNTS United Nations Treaty Series
Ybk ILC Yearbook of the International Law Commission
Table of Domestic Cases
Australia
Airlines of New South Wales v New South Wales (No 2) (1965) 113 CLR 54 333
Ajka Pty Ltd v Australian Fisheries Management Authority [2003] FCA 248 334

Attorney-General (Cth) v Schmidt (1961) 105 CLR 361 343
Austell v Commissioner of State Taxation (1989) 20 ATR 1139 341
Australian Tape Manufacturers Association Ltd v The Commonwealth
(1993) 176 CLR 480 343
Bank of NSW v The Commonwealth (1948) 76 CLR 1 340, 343
Bannister Quest Pty Ltd v Australian Fisheries Management Authority
(1997) 77 FCR 503 334
Bienke v Minister for Primary Industries [1996] FCA 1220 339, 342
Clunies-Ross v The Commonwealth (1984) 155 CLR 193 343
Commonwealth v WMC Resources Ltd [1998] HCA 8 342–43
Commonwealth v Yarmirr [2001] HCA 56 339
Davis v The Commonwealth of Australia (1988) 166 CLR 79 16, 28
Dixon and Australian Fisheries Management Authority and Executive Director
of Fisheries WA and Northern Territory of Australia [2000] AATA 442 334
Edwards and Deep Sea Ark (Aust) PTY Ltd v AM Olsen and the State of
South Australia (1996) 67 SASR 266 341
Gasparinatos v State of Tasmania (1995) 5 Tas R 301 341
Georgiadis v Australian & Overseas Telecommunications Commission
(1994) 179 CLR 297 340
Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70 26, 28, 152
Giles v Tumminelo [1963] SASR 96 103
Harper v Minister for Sea Fisheries (1989) 168 CLR 314 339–40, 392
Health Insurance Commission v Peverill (1994) 179 CLR 226 340, 342
Kelly v Kelly (1990) 92 ALR 74 341
Mabo v Queensland, (1992) 175 CLR 1 141–42, 152, 160, 233
Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd (1971) 17 FLR 141 141, 233
Minister of Primary Industry and Energy v Albert Bruce Davey [1993] FCA 574 340
Minister of State for the Army v Dalziel (1944) 68 CLR 261 340, 343
Munro v Lombardo [1964] WAR 63 103
Mutual Pools & Staff Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth (1994) 179 CLR 155 343

New South Wales v The Commonwealth (1976) 135 CLR 337 333
Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd v Commonwealth of Australia (1997) 147 ALR 42 132
Pennington v McGovern (1987) 45 SASR 27 341
Port MacDonnell Professional Fishermen’s Assn Inc v South Australia
(1989) 168 CLR 340 103
PW Adams Pty Ltd v Australian Fisheries Management Authority
(1998) 49 ALD 68 334
xvi Table of Domestic Cases
Pyke v Duncan (1989) VR 149 341
R v Toohey; ex p Meneling Station Pty Ltd (1982) 158 CLR 327 340
Re Berardino Fitti; Albert Bruce Davey and Ian Bruce Davey v
the Minister of Primary Industries and Energy and Australian
Fisheries Management Authority [1993] FCA 57 340–43
Re Vincenzo, Lucia and Rocco Musumeci and others [1989] AATA 252 339
Sullivan v Moody; Thompson v Connon [2001] HCA 59 148
Tasmanian Seafoods Pty Ltd v MacQueen [2005] TASSC 36 341–42
Tasmanian Seafoods P/L v Peters [1999] QSC 144 341
The Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983) 158 CLR 1 340
Victoria Park Racing and Recreation Grounds Co. Ltd v Taylor
(1937) 58 CLR 479 26, 132–33
Yanner v Eaton [1999] HCA 53 339–40, 343
Canada
Alford v Canada (1997) 31 BCLR (3d) 228 348
Area Twenty Three Snow Crab Fisher’s Association v Canada
(2005) 279 FTR 137 349
British Columbia Packers Ltd v Sparrow (1989) 35 BCLR 334 349
Cabot v Hicks (1999) 176 Nfld & PEIR 48 346
Canada (Procureure générale) c Hydro-Québec [1997] 3 SCR 213 (SCC) 247
Carpenter Fishing Corp. v Canada [1998] 2 FC 548 (CA) 350
Chiasson v Canada (A-G) 2008 FC 616 348

Colet v The Queen (1981) 119 DLR (3d) 521 26
Comeau’s Sea Foods Ltd v Canada (Minister of Fisheries and Oceans)
[1997] 1 SCR 12 348, 350, 391
Everett v Canada (Minister of Fisheries and Oceans) (1994) 169 NR 100 346
Green v Harnum (2007) 27 BLR (4th) 322 346
Jada Fishing Co. v Canada (Minister of Fisheries and Oceans)
[2002] FCA 103 350
Johnson v Ramsay Fishing Co Ltd et al (1987) 47 DLR 544 349
Joliffe v The Queen [1986] 1 FC 511 348
Joys v Minister of National Revenue (1995) 128 DLR (4th) 385 349
Lapointe v Min of Fisheries & Oceans (1984) 9 Admin LR 1 348
Loder v Citifinancial Canada Inc. (2007) 38 CBR (5th) 234 346–47
National Trust Co v Bouckhuyt et al (1987) 61 OR (2d) 640 348
Paul Loder v Citifinancial Canada Inc et al
[2006] 256 Nfld & PEI R 262 347
Philpott and Hopkins v Sullivan [2007] 267 Nfld & PEI R 183 347
R v Canadian Pacific Ltd [1995] 2 SCR 1031 (SCC) 247
R v Gladstone [1996] 2 SCR 723 348
Radil Bros Fishing Co v Canada (2000) 197 FTR 169 345, 348, 350
Re Bennett and Bennett (1988) 24 BCLR (2d) 346 (SC) 349
Sanders v British Columbia (Milk Board) (2005) 14 RFL (6th) 175 348
The Queen in Right of Canada v The Committee for the Commonwealth
of Canada (1991) 77 DLR (4th) 385 160
Table of Domestic Cases xvii
European Union
Wadenzee case (C-127/02) 239
Germany
Aix-la-Chapelle-Maastricht Railroad Co. v Thewis (1914) 8 AJIL 858-60 226
India
Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board v Nayudu (No 2) [2002] 3 LRC 275 90

Mehta v Kamal Nath et al (1997) 1 SSC 388 247
New Zealand
Allan Guard v Seafood Consortium Ltd [2001] NZCA 291 363
Antons Trawling Co v The Minister of Fisheries HC WN CIV
2007-485-2199 22 February 2008 364, 391, 401
Area 1 Maori Fishing Consortium and Ngapuhi Fisheries Limited v Minister of
Fisheries and Chief Executive of the Ministry of Fisheries CA 96/97 362
Baigents case [1994] 3 NZLR 667 358
Cooper v AG [1996] 3 NZLR 480 361, 363
Esperance Fishing Co v Quota Appeal Authority M 714/90 363
Gunn v AG [1993] NZLR 108 363
Jenssen v Director General of Agriculture and Fisheries
CP 1035/90 (High Court) 363
Jenssen v Director General of Agriculture and Fisheries CA 313/91 361, 363
Kareltrust v Wallace and Cooper Engineering (Lyttelton) Limited
(Unreported, CA 192/99, CA 211/99, 17 December 1999 362
Matiriki Ltd v Deadman & Lees (Unreported CA 15/99, 2 September 1999) 362
Montgomery v AG CP 1445/80 363
New Zealand Fishing Industry Association (Inc), New Zealand Federation of
Commercial Fishermen (Inc.) and Simunovich Fisheries Limited, North Harbour
Nominees Limited and Moana Pacific Fisheries v Minister of Fisheries and
The Chief Executive of the Ministry of Fisheries, CA 82/97 362
Sandford Limited v Minister of Fisheries CA 163/07 [2008] NZLR 160 364, 391
Te Weehi v Regional Fisheries Officer [1986] 1 NZLR 680 361
Treaty of Waitangi Fisheries Commission v Minister of Fisheries
and Chief Executive of the Ministry of Fisheries CA 83/97 362
Wylie v Director General Agriculture and Fisheries CP 892/90 363
Norway
Jacobsen v Norwegian Government 7 ILR 109 139–40
xviii Table of Domestic Cases

Philippines
Oposa et al v Fulgencio S Factoran Jr et al GR No 101083, July 30 1993;
reproduced in (1994) 33 ILM 173 91–92
United Kingdom
A Schroeder Music Publishing Co Ltd v Macaulay [1974] 3 All ER 616 85
Attorney-General v Chambers (1854) 4 De GM & G 206 186
Attorney-General for British Colombia v Attorney-General for Canada
[1914] AC 153 339
Attorney-General for the Dominion of Canada v Attorneys-General for
the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia [1898] AC 700 339
Attorney-General of Southern Nigeria v John Holt and Co (Liverpool) Ltd
[1915] AC 599 187
Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants v Osborne [1910] AC 87 85
Anisminic v Foreign Compensation Commission [1969] 2 AC 197 147
Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corporation
[1948] 1 KB 223 147
Attorney-General and Newton Abbot Rural District Council v Dyer
[1947] Ch 67 132
Attorney General for British Columbia v A-G for Canada [1914] AC 153 199
Benest v Pipon (1829) 1 Knapp 60 186, 198
Berkeley v Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and Regions
[2001] Env LR 16 147
Bernstein of Leigh (Baron) v Skyviews & General Ltd [1978] QB 479 134
Bettison v Langton [2001] UKHL 24 155
Blackpool Pier Co v Fylde Union (1877) 36 LT 251 187
Blundell v Catterall (1821) 5 Barn & Ald 268 186
Cammell v Sewell (1860) 5 H & N 728 116
Carr v Fracis Times & Co [1902] AC 176 187
DPP v Doot [1972] AC 807 101
Duchess of Sutherland v Watson (1868) VI M 99 201

Earl of Lonsdale v Attorney General [1982] 1 WLR 887 280
Entick v Carrington (1765) 95 ER 807 26
Foreman v Free Fishers and Dredgers of Whitstable (1869) LR 4 HL 266 186
Franconia (1876) LR 2 Ex. D 63 187, 199
Gammell v Commissioners of Woods and Forests (1859) 3 Macq 174 185–86
Gann v The Free Fishers of Whitstable (1864–5) 11 ER 1305 185–86, 199
Gifford v Lord Yarborough (1828) 5 Bing 163 186
Grape Bay Ltd v Attorney General of Bermuda [2000] 1 WLR 574 132
Harris v Owners of the Franconia [1877] 2 CPD 173 187
Heap v Hartley (1889) 42 Ch D 461 348
I Congresso Del Partido [1983] 1 AC 244 (HL) 79
Inglis v Usherwood (1801) 1 East 515 139
In re Hull & Selby Railway (1839) 5 M & W 327 186
Table of Domestic Cases xix
Ipswich Dock Commissioners v Overseers of St Peters, Ipswich
(1866) 7 B&S 310 186
Kuwait Airways Corp v Iraqi Airways Co [2002] UKHL 19 116
Le Louis [1817] 2 Dods 210 178
Lord Advocate v Clyde Navigation Trustees (1891) 19 R 174 187
Lord Advocate v Wemyss [1900] AC 48 187, 199
Luthor v Sagor [1921] 3 KB 532 (CA) 116
Molvan v Attorney General for Palestine [1948] AC 531 103
Monsanto v Tilley [2000] Env LR 313 131–32
Oppenheimer v Cattermole [1976] AC 249 116
Padfield v Minister of Agriculture [1968] AC 997 147
Pearce v Brooks (1866) LR 1 Ex 213 85
Petrofina (Great Britain) v Martin and Another [1966] 1 All ER 126 85
R (Beresford) v Sunderland City Council [2004] 1 AC 889 153
R v Blaue [1975] 2 All ER 446 109
R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate, ex p Pinochet Ugarte

(Amnesty International intervening) [1999] 2 All ER 97 103
R v Bow Street Magistrates, ex p Pinochet [2001] 1 AC 147 (HL) 79
R v Dudley and Stephens (1884) 14 QBD 273 145
R v Ketter [1940] 1 KB 787 227
R v Keyn [1876] 2 Exch D 63 177, 186
R v Minister of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, ex p Hamble
(Offshore Fisheries) Ltd [1995] 2 All ER 714 147
R v Oxfordshire CC, ex p Sunningwell Parish Council [2000] 1 AC 335 132
R (Tesco Stores Ltd) v Secretary of State for Environment Transport and
the Regions [2000] All ER 1473 132
Re Anziana [1930] 1 Ch 407 116, 139
Royal Bank of Scotland v Etridge (AP) [2001] UKHL 44 138
Sanders v McLean (1883) 11 QBD 327 325
Scaramanga v Stamp [1880] 5 CPD 295 152
Scratton v Brown (1825) 4 B & C 485 186
Shetland Salmon Farmers (1990) SCLR 484 191
Sir John Constable’s case 202
Southwark Borough Council v Williams [1971] 1 Ch 734 133
Sports and General Press Agency Ltd v ‘Our Dogs’ Publishing Co Ltd
[1916] 2 KB 880 134
Sub nom Smith v Earl of Stair (1849) 6 Bell’s App Cas 487 186
The Anna (1805) 7 C Rob 373; 165 ER 809 185
The Delphini [1990] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 252 325
The King v Lord Yarborough (1828) 2 Bligh (NS) 147 186
The King v Oldsworth (1637) Hale’s de Jure Maris (Hargrave’s Tracts) 30 198
The Porto Alexandre [1920] P 30 79
The Secretary of State for India in Council v Sri Rajah Chelikani Rama Rao
(1916) 32 TLR 65 187
The Twee Gebrodoeders (1800) 3 C Rob 162; 165 ER 422 185
The Vrow Anna Catharina (1803) 5 C Rob 15; 165 ER 681 185

Winkworth v Christie Manson & Woods [1980] Ch 496 116, 139
Wood v Leadbitter (1845) 13 M & W 838 133
xx Table of Domestic Cases
United States
Alliance against IFQs v Brown 84 F 3d 343 (9th Cir 1996) 375
Arnold v Munday 6 NJL 1 (1821) 373–74
Baldwin v Fish and Game Commission of Montana 436 US 371 (1978) 371
Bigelow v Michigan Department of Natural Resources 727
F 346 (WD Mich 1989) 372
Blake v US 181 F Supp 584 (ED Va 1960) 373
Burns Harbor Fish Co Inc v Ralston 800 F Supp 722 (SD 1992) 372
California Trout Inc v State Water Resources Control Board 207
Cal App 3d 585 (1989) 374
Carbone v Ursich 209 F 2d 178 (9th Cir 1953) 371
Continental Ore Co v Union Carbide & Carbon Corporation
370 US 690 (1962) 101
Corlfield v Coryl (1823) 6 Fed Cas 546, No. 3230 186
Dell v Department of Commerce 191 F 3d 460 372
Douglas v Seacoast Products 431 US 265 (1977) 371
Filitarga v Peña-Irala 630 F 2d 876 (2nd Cir 1980) 106
Foss v National Marine Fisheries Service 161 F 3d 584 (9th Cir 1988) 372
Geer v Connecticut 161 US 519 (1896) 374
Hartford Fire Insurance Co v California 509 US 764 (1993) 101
Hill v TVA 549 F 2d 1064 46
Illinois Central Railroad v Illinois 146 US 387 (1892) 51, 132, 160, 247, 374
International News Service v Associated Press 248 US 215 (1918) 134
Jackson v US 103 F Supp 1019 (Ct Cl 1952) 372
Johnston v McIntosh 8 Wheat 543 (1823) 198
Kaiser Aetna v US 444 US 164 26
Kellogg Co v National Biscuit Co 305 US 111 (1938) 27

Kelo v City of New London 545 US 469 (2005) 132
Le Bauve v Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission 444 F Supp 1376 372
Lewis Blue Point Oyster Cultivation Co v Briggs 229 US 82 (1913) 373
Loretto v Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corp 458 US 419 (1982) 26, 123, 133
Lucas v South Carolina Coastal Council 505 US 103 (1992) 123
Manry v Robinson, (1932) 122 Tex 213 186
Missouri v Holland 252 US 416 (1920) 371
Mugler v Kansas 123 US 623 (1927) 125
National Audubon Society v Superior Court of Alpine County
658 P 2d 709 (Cal 1983) 91, 160–61, 247, 374
Nollan v California Coastal Commission 483 US 825 (1987) 133
Oregon v Smith 494 US 872 (1990) 127
Organized Fishermen of Florida v Watt 590 F Supp 805 (SD Fla 1984) 372
Parm v Shumate (unreported) 366
Penn Central Transportation Company v New York City
438 US 104 (1978) 28, 132, 373
Pierson v Post 3 Cal TR 177 (NY Sup Ct 1805) 374
Re Steuart Transportation Co 495 F Supp 38 (ED Va 1980) 374
Re Uranium Antitrust Litigation; Westinghouse Electric Corporation v
Rio Algom Ltd 617 F 2d 1248 (7th Cir 1980) 101
Table of Domestic Cases xxi
Robins v Prune Yard Shopping Centre (1979) 592 P2d 34 160
Robins Dry Dock & Repair Co. v Flint 275 US 303 (1927) 371
Schooner Exchange v McFadden (1812) 7 Cranch 116 79, 228
Sea Watch International et al v Mosbacher 762 F Supp 370 (DDC 1991) 373–7
Secko Energy, Inc v M/V Margaret Chouset (1993) 18 Tulane MLJ 167 371
Shively v Bowlby 152 US 1 (1894) 186, 374
Sierra Club v Department of the Interior 376 F Supp 90 (ND Cal 1974) 374
State v Barras 615 So 2d 285 366
State v Shack 277 A 2d 369 (1971) 63

The Marianna Flora [1826] 1 Wheaton 1 178
The Pesaro 271 US 562 (1926) 79
The Schooner Exchange v McFadden 7 Cranch 116 (1812) 79
Toomer v Witsell 334 US 385 (1948) 371
Union Oil Co v Oppen 501 F 2d 558 (9th Cir 1974) 371
US v Aluminum Co of America 148 F 2d 416 (2nd Cir, 1945) 101
US v Bowman 260 US 94 102
US v General Electric Co 82 F Supp 753 (D NJ 1949) 101
US v Gonzalez 776 F.2d 931 (1985) 103
US Trust Company v New Jersey 431 US 1 (1977) 62
Weber v Board of Harbor Commissioners (1867) 18 Wall 57 186

Table of International Cases
Aaland Islands case, LNOJ, Special Supplement No 3, 1920, 3 225, 227
Aegean Sea Continental Shelf case [1978] ICJ Rep 3 223, 274, 292
Al Adsani v Government of Kuwait (1996) ILR 536 106
Anglo-French Continental Shelf arbitration (1979) 18 ILM 397 299, 307–8
Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries case [1951] ICJ Rep 116 214, 251, 260, 267
Apirana Mahuika et al v New Zealand Communication No 547/1993,
New Zealand, 15 November 2000, CCPR/C/70/D/547/1993 30
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide, Provisional Measures [1996] ICJ Rep 325 106
Aramco v Saudi Arabia 27 ILR 117 280
Arrest Warrant case [2002] ICJ Rep 3 111
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Co. (Belgium v Spain),
[1970] ICJ Rep 3 108, 107
Beagle Channel case (1977) 52 ILR 93 260
Behring Fur Seals Arbitration (1893), reproduced in JB Moore, History and
Digest of International Arbitrations to which the United States has been
a Party (1898) 755 4, 178, 188, 197, 199, 204–205

BP v Libya (1977) 53 ILR 297 222
Case Concerning Right of Passage Over Indian Territory [1960] ICJ Rep 6 226
Case Concerning Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
Middle Rocks and South Ledge, [2008] ICJ Rep 1 223
Clipperton Island case (France v Mexico), reprinted in (1932) 26 AJIL 390 251
Comunidad Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Case, Order of the Court
of 6 September 2002, Inter-Am Ct HR (Ser E) (2000) 12, 28, 82, 150
Cobb v US (1951) 18 ILR 173 231
Corfu Channel case [1949] ICJ Rep 4 234, 237
Customs Regime between Germany and Austria (1931) PCIJ, Ser A/B, No 41 231
Dispute Concerning Filleting Within the Gulf of St Lawrence (La Bretagne
arbitration), Award of 17 July 1986. Reproduced in (1986) 90
Revue Générale de Droit International Public 713 293–95
Dubai/Sharjah Border Arbitration (1981) 91 ILR 543 307
East Timor (Portugal v Australia) [1995] ICJ Rep 90 106
Eastern Greenland case (1938) PCIJ Ser A/B, no 53 229
Eritrea/Yemen Arbitration, Award of the Tribunal in the First Stage –
Territorial Sovereignty and Scope of Dispute, 9 October 1998.
Reproduced in (1998) RIAA, vol XXI, 209 223, 261, 263, 265, 268
Eritrea/Yemen Arbitration, Award of the Tribunal in the Second Stage –
Maritime Delimitation, 17 December 1999. Reproduced in (1998)
RIAA, vol XXII 261, 263, 265, 268, 279, 307, 309
Erkner and Hofauer v Austria, (App no 9616/81) (1987) 9 EHRR 464 148
European Commission v The Kingdom of the Netherlands, Case C-339/87
[1990] ECR-I 851 247
xxiv Table of International Cases
European Commission v UK Case 804/79 [1981] ECR 1045 247
Fisheries Jurisdiction cases [1974] ICJ Rep 3 210, 296
Fisheries Jurisdiction case (UK v Iceland) [1974] ICJ Rep 3 212–13
Fisheries Jurisdiction case (FRG v Iceland) [1974] ICJ Rep 175 212–13

Gab
cˇikovo-Nagymaros case [1997] ICJ Rep 7 237–38, 240, 247, 278
Greenland/Jan Mayen Maritime Delimitation case [1993] ICJ Rep 38 282, 307–309
Grisbadarna case (Norway v Sweden), reproduced in Scott,
Hague Court Reports (1909) 121 188–89, 260, 263
Gulf of Maine case [1984] ICJ Rep 246 214, 252, 307–310
Hentrich v France, (App no 13616/88) (1994) 18 EHRR 440 148
International Status of South West Africa [1950] ICJ Rep 128 227
Intertanko Case C-308/06, OJ C 261, 28.10.2006 257
Ireland v European Commission, Case 325/85 [1987] ECR 5041 247
Island of Palmas case, Netherlands v US (1928) Permanent Court
of Arbitration 2 RIAA 829 111, 229, 251
James v UK (1984) 6 EHRR CD 475; (App no 8793/79) (1986)
8 EHRR 123 132, 148
Kitok v Sweden Communication No 197/1985, 27 July 1988,
CCPR/C/33/D/197/1985 30
Lac Lanoux arbitration, (1957) 24 ILR 101 237
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v
Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening) [2002] ICJ Rep 303 308, 310
Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute [1992] ICJ Rep 351 225
Land Reclamation by in and around the Straits of Johor (Malaysia v
Singapore), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 October 2003
ITLOS Reports 2003, 10 234, 237–38
Länsmann et a. v Finland, Communication No 511/1992,
26 October 1992, CCPR/C/52/D/511/1992 30
Legal Status of Eastern Greenland 1933 PCIJ Ser A/B, No 53 189
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory
Opinion, [1996] ICJ Rep 226 80, 106–7, 235
Libya/Malta Continental Shelf case [1985] ICJ Rep 13 282, 307–310
Lighthouse Case (1937) PCIJ Ser A/B, no 71 226

Lopez Ostra v Spain (1995)] 20 EHRR 277 150
Lotus case 1927 PCIJ Ser A No 10 220, 265
Maya indigenous community of the Toledo District v Belize, Case 12.053,
Report No 40/04, Inter-Am CHR., OEA/Ser.L/V/II.122
Doc 5 rev 1 at 727 (2004) 150
Minquiers and Ecrehos case [1953] ICJ Rep 47 251, 299
Mortensen v Peters (1906) 14 SLT 227 205
MOX Plant (Ireland v UK), Provisional Measures, Order of
3 December 2001 ITLOS Reports 2001, 95 237–38, 304
M/V ‘Saiga’ Case (St Vincent and the Grenadines v Guinea)
(Judgment of 4 December 1997) ITLOS Reports 1997 297
Nationality Decrees Issued in Tunis and Morocco (1923) PCIJ Ser B No 4 104
Nicaragua case (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14 106
North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Arbitration (1910) RIAA vol XI 167 226