PLANTATION FORESTRY IN THAILAND (TEAK, RUBBERWOOD, EUCALYPT) CASE STUDY IN CHIANG RAI PROVINCE ppt

PLANTATION FORESTRY IN THAILAND
(TEAK, RUBBERWOOD, EUCALYPT)
CASE STUDY IN CHIANG RAI PROVINCE


Abdulbasit Elmagboul
Wathinee Kritsanaphan
Suvi Niemi
Priyanto
Marko Tynkkynen
Maria Ulfah
Jinsun Zhu
Eveliina Varis

Moderators:
Dr. Damrong Pipatwattanakul
Syed Ashraful Alam






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List of Contents

1. Introduction and background…………………………………………………………… 3
2. Land use management ………………………………………………………………… 6
3. Species requirements…………………………………………………………………… 8
3.1 Tectona grandis…………………………………………………………………………… 8

3.2 Hevea brasiliensis………………………………………………………………………… 9
3.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis………………………… …………………………………… 9
4. Silvicultural practices…………………………………………………………………… 10
4.1 Species selection………………………………………………………………… 10
4.2 Nursery techniques……………………………………………………………… 10
5. Environmental impacts of plantation forestry………………………………………… 12
5.1 Soil………………………………………………………………….…………… 12
5.2 Water……………………………………………………………….…………… 12
5.3 Biodiversity………………………………………………………….…………… 13
5.4 Global Warming and Carbon Sequestration………………………….………… 13
6. Management of tree plantations…………………………………………………………. 15
6.1 Management in general…………………………………………….…………… 15
6.2 Biotechnology and genetic modification………………………….…………… 15
6.3 Pests and diseases…………………………………………….………………… 15
6.4 Fertilizers………………………………………………………….…………… 15
6.5 Fire management………………………………………………….…………… 16
6.6 Management practices by species………………………………….…………… 16
7. Utilization of the tree species…………………………………………………………… 20
7.1 Tecona grandis…………………………………………………….…………… 20
7.2 Hevea brasiliensis………………………………………………….…………… 20
7.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis………………………………………….…………… 21
8. Case Study on Plantation Forestry in Chiang Rai Province………………………… 22
8.1 Result of Interview: Forest Resource Management Office………….…………… 22
8.2 Result of interview: Forest Industry Organization, FIO………….………………. 23
8.2.1 Mae Yao-Mae Sai plantation…………………………….…………… 23
8.2.2 Management of teak (Tectona grandis) ………………….…………… 24
8.2.3 Management of Eucalyptus camaldulensis………………….………… 24
8.3 Result of interview: Office of Rubber Replanting Aid Fund………….………… 24
9. Discussion………………………………………………………………………………… 26
10. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 27

11. Recommendations…………………………………………………………………… 28
12. Implications for forest restoration…………………………………………………… 29
13. References………………………………………………………………………………… 31


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1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

The Kingdom of Thailand is located in the southeastern part of continental Asia, bordered by
Myanmar, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Malaysia. It has a land area of
51.3 million hectares and a population of 63 million people. In the 1980s and 1990s, Thailand’s
economy was one of the fastest growing in the world, but this coincided with the rapid depletion
of its natural resources. Estimates of forest cover range from 13.0 million hectares to 14.8 million
hectares (for 2000; FAO 2005).

The Thailand’s forest can be classified as: (i) evergreen forests with three sub-types – tropical
rainforests, semi-evergreen forests and hill evergreen forests (43% of the forest area), dominated
by species of the genera Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Shorea, Lagerstroemia, Diospyros, Terminalia,
and Artocarpus; (ii) pine forests, mainly of Pinus merkusii (2%); (iii) mangrove and coastal
forests (2%), the main mangrove genera being Rhizophora, Avicennia and Bruguiera and the
main beach genera Diospyros, Lagerstroemia and Casuarina; (iv) mixed deciduous forest (22%),
the dominant species being Tectona grandis (teak), Xylia kerrii, Pterocarpus macrocarpus,
Dalbergia spp. and Afzelia xylocarpa; and (v) dry dipterocarp forest (31%) (FAO 2005).

In 2000, the area of planted forest in Thailand was estimated altogether 2,81 million hectares.
The species planted were: teak – 836,000 hectares; Eucalyptus spp – 443,000 hectares; Acacia
mangium and other Acacia spp – 148,000 hectares; other broadleaved species – 541,000 hectares;
Pinus merkusii and other Pinus spp – 689,000 hectares; and other conifers – 148,000 (FAO
2001).

In the history of Thailand deforestation has been rapid, particularly in the 70´s and 80´s. In the
mid 70´s deforestation rate was about 500 000 hectares annually. After that deforestation rate
started to decline but in the late 80´s 200 000 hectares was still deforested annually. Main reason
for declining was logging ban on commercial operations in natural forests, declared after a
devastating flood in 1988. Other reasons are change in the international agricultural markets,
which discouraged the planting of cassava and rising price of forest land which effected mainly
on the migrating farmers will to convert forest land into agricultural land (Tongpan et al. 1990).


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Deforestation led to reduced timber production and protection of remaining forests. Situation led
to shortages in domestic timber supply and timber importing. Importing timber from
neighbouring countries can lead to similar restrictions in these countries. In the long run Thailand
will be forced to secure wood and timber demand with forest plantations. Final aim could be to
fulfil the demand by a combination of the sustainable management of natural forests and efficient
wood production from forest plantations (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O. 1996).

In 1980´s tree planting started to spread on individual owned farmland mainly due the
Northeaster pulp and paper industries in Khon Kaen (Niskanen et al. 1993). Until 1993 totally
800 000 hectares of land has been planted in Thailand in which approximately 600 000 hectares
at government cost, 146 000 hectares by consessionaires, and 32 000 hectares by Forest Industry
Organization, FIO (RDF 1993). In North and Northeast planting has been done by the
government, private concession owners, and industries. In South and East farmers planting
efforts have been the highest mainly due very profitable para rubber plantations (Niskanen, A.,
Saastamoinen, O. 1996).

In the North most important tree species include teak (Tectona grandis) and Pinus spp., in the
Northeast teak and Eucalyptus spp, and in the South and East the para rubbertree (Hevea
brasilensis). Teak and pine goes for sawn timber and eucalyptus mainly for poles and pulp
industry. Para rubbertree can be used for to produce latex, sawn timber and veneer. Para

rubbertree plantations have been expanding rapidly due subsidies for plantation establishment
costs (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O. 1996).

Despite long history of tree planting reforestation programmes have not reached the targets. To
achieve targets greater involvement by private farmers is needed. The problem lies on insecurity
of land tenure, insufficient capital and weaknesses in the wood and timber markets. (Niskanen, A.,
Saastamoinen, O. 1996).

Given that there have been almost 20 years of policy shift; this paper aims to provide data on
plantation forests in Thailand and in Chiang Rai Province with special focus on the issues

5
affecting the successfulness of both the policy and practice of forest plantations of teak, rubber
wood, and eucalypt on the region.


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2. LAND USE MANAGEMENT

In management process is important to take into account that land selected for planting may been
used by local communities to support their livelihoods and be considered as their land. To
achieve socio-economic sustainability indigenous and local community rights and privileges
should be considered and respected in management of these areas. Best way is to provide the
right to participate in the use, management and conservation of these areas. For conflict
management mechanisms for the settling of disputed rights should be established and
compensation systems if the rights have to be temporary or permanently extinguished (FAO,
2006).

Security of land tenure is essential for sustainable plantation management. Ownership
mechanisms have been developing into direction of corporate/smallholder contracts or

partnerships. Development towards secure land tenure for plantation forests requires consultation
with other land users, conflict resolution and shared decision-making. Also recognition of
customary rights can be necessary together with new land-use policies to harmonize land-use
legislation that can impact tenure (FAO, 2006).

In Thailand the aim of National Forest Policy is to increase forest cover up to 40 % of the land
area. Currently the forest area is 32, 66 % of the land area 513 115 km
2
(RFD, 2007). The ratio of
conservation and commercial forest used to be 15:25, but has now been changed to be 25:15
respectively. In 1992, in compliance with the National Forest Policy and the challenge of
expansion of human resettlement and cultivation, the government re-categorized all national
reserved forest estates into three zones, which are based on satellite images (RFD, 2005).

The Conservation Forest Zone (Zone C) is the area covered by natural forest that are
undisturbed and/or are minimally affected by human activities. Areas under Zone C are identified
as ecologically sensitive including habitats of endangered species and watershed areas. This zone
is normally declared as protected forest area. Nevertheless, some of these areas, especially in
highland of Northern Thailand, are occupied by isolated human settlements that carry on their
rotate or permanent cultivation activities.

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The Economic Forest Zone (Zone E) was set aside from arable land suitable for commercial
tree plantations for distribution to landless farmers. Before the establishment of economic forest
zone the area has been under cultivation or on degraded forest land.

The Agricultural Zone (Zone A) was set aside from degraded or deforested areas that were
suitable for agriculture.

In 1993, RFD transferred 70,848 km
2
of land from Zone A to Agricultural Land Reform Office
(ALRO). After the transfer of land management, ALRO became responsible agency of the Zone
A. In 2002, small portion of Zone A which is unsuitable for agriculture was legally return to RFD
for forest rehabilitation.


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3. SPECIES REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Tectona grandis

Teak is native in South East Asia. T. grandis tolerates a wide range of climates, but it grows best
in a warm, moist, tropical climate. It prefers a dry season of 3 - 6 months which is typical for
monsoon climate. The optimal annual rainfall is 1500 - 2000 mm, but it endures rainfall as low as
510 mm/year and as high as 5080 mm/year. According to studies of water consumption by
Kallarackal and Somen (1992) a 12-year-old teak consumes 83 litres of water per day in leafy
season. During the dry season the water consumption is negligible because of the deciduous state.
Under very dry conditions teak is usually stunted and shrubby. Under very moist conditions, the
tree is large and fluted and usually behaves like a semi-evergreen species; the wood quality is
poor in terms of colour, texture and density. For the production of high quality wood with
optimum growth, moisture conditions (as expressed by annual rainfall) should be between 1,200
and 2,500 mm with a marked dry season of 3-5 months (Kaosa-ard, 1981). The optimal
temperature for teak is between 27 – 36 °C degrees; it poorly tolerates cold and frost conditions
during the winter period. (Kanchanaburangura, 1976 et al.) Teak is a pronounced light-demander
requiring full overhead light (Kadambi, 1972).

T. grandis grows well on variety of geological formations and soils, but best on deep, porous,
fertile, well-drained sandstones with neutral or acid pH (Kadambi, 1972). Teak soil is relatively

fertile with high calcium, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen and organic matter contents (Kaosa-
ard, 1981 et al.). According to several studies teak requires relatively large amounts of calcium
for its growth and development (Kaosa-ard, 1981). Teak may grow from sea level up to 1200
meters, but growth is slower on high elevations and on steep slopes (Kadambi, 1972).

T. grandis is a moderately wind-firm tree species as it owns a well-developed root system. Fire
resistance is remarkable. Young teaks recover from fire as the root system survives and finally
produces a permanent fire-resistant shoot (Kadambi, 1972). Teak seedlings are sensitive to severe
drought. Teak is also very sensitive to mutual root competition, therefore weed management is
essential (Kadambi, 1972). Teak is also tolerant to termites, but heavy grazing by pigs, rats, deer

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and bison may cause damage to teak shoots. The most serious animal threat for teak plantation is
the elephant (Kadambi, 1972).

3.2 Hevea brasiliensis

The common rubber tree grows natively in Amazon, Brazil. H. brasiliensis is a tropical tree and
grows best at temperatures of 20 - 28 °C and an annual rainfall of 1800 - 2000 mm. Prime
growing area of rubber tree is 10 degrees in latitudes from the equator, but it is cultivated much
further north. It is a light-demanding species. H. brasiliensis requires moist soil, but provided
drainage is adequate. Severe tree damage may result from flooding. It is relatively insensitive to
soil type, but higher yields and disease resistance can be expected on highly fertile soils. High
salinity is a problem for rubertree. H. brasiliensis grows satisfactorily up to 600 meters above sea
level, but it tends to be damaged by high winds. On plantations it may grow up to 20 - 30 meters
(IRRDB, 2005)

3.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis

The common name of E. camaldulensis is river red gum and it is native in Murray-Darling base,

Australia. E. camaldulensis may grow in various climatic conditions, from warm to hot and from
sub-humid to semi-arid and both permanent and seasonal climates. The optimal mean annual
temperature is 13 - 28 °C degrees and optimal rainfall is 400-2500 mm per year. E. camaldulensis
grows in elevations of 20 - 700 metres. E. camaldulensis is a light-demanding species, but very
fire sensitive. Even low intensity fires may cause cambial injury lowering the value of the timber.
E. camaldulensis prefers deep moist subsoils with clay content. Wildly it grows in creek valleys
and requires a certain length of flooding duration. With a good water supply it may reach a height
of 12 - 15 meters in few years. It is not physiologically adapted to either drought or salinity,
although these stresses can be tolerated for short periods or at low levels. Compared to many
other species, E. camaldulensis performs high productivity on infertile soil and hot temperatures
(CSIRO, 2004).



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4. SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES

4.1 Species selection

Selection of the species come in many shapes and guides are for variety of reasons, some to
provide shelter, shade, fodder for livestock, fuel wood for households, timber for furniture and
construction industry or recreational resources as a valuable service to urban population. The
essential ecological characteristics of tree species selected are high survival when planted, rapid
growth, density and spreading of crowns that shade out weeds, flowering and fruiting, ability to
attract wildlife at young stage of development, resilience of fire and the ability to coppice (Silikul,
2000). The essential characteristics of nursery techniques include reliable seed availability, rapid
seed germination, ensuring the health of seedlings in containers, high quality of seedlings and
good horticultural practices (Silikul, 2000).

Tree improvement strategies involve planning and execution general objectives especially in long

term breading, propagation and conservation in the improvement program. Improvement strategy
requires biological and technological knowledge including genetic variation and gain, flowering
biology, mating system, seed production, clonal propagation and planting techniques (Kaosa-ard,
2003). Improvement objectives are divided into short and long-term objectives. Short-term
objectives are to increase the volume of production per unit per area through improvement of
growth rate, to improve stem quality of trees, to improve wood quality and production of
genetically improved seed. Long-term objectives are to establish long-term breeding population,
to manipulate and maintain the genetic variability of the breeding population through many as
generations as possible and to secure the supply of improved seed and/or planting materials of
greater cumulative gain for planting programmes (Kaosa-ard, 2003).

4.2 Nursery techniques

Tectona grandis
For teak (Tectona grandis) the most critical problem under nursery conditions is the poor
germination which is only 25 – 35% (Keiding, 1985). Low germination is due to the strong

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dormancy behaviors of teak seeds, which causes low plant percentage in the nursery production.
Germination behavior causes a large variation in both quantity and quality of the seedling
(Tewari, 1992). Vegetative propagation of teak can be done by budding, rooted cutting
techniques or by tissue culture (Teak Improvement Centre, 2008). Teak seed production
generally commences after fifth year of development (Kaosa-ard, 2003) but earlier flowering,
already at the age of 1 year, has been recorded (Teak Improvement Centre, 2008). Teak fruit
produces usually between 1500 to 2500 of seeds per kilogram.

Hevea brasiliensis
In nursery management of rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), seedlings are raised in nurseries for
almost a year before transplanting to the field. This technique is more economical and convenient
than direct planting. Generally, survival rate from seeds to seedlings ranges from 80% to 90%

(Dept. Of Agriculture, 2003). Different categories for rubber tree saplings are developed to meet
the differing requirements on whether the owner wants to concentrate on latex or timber
production.

Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus camalduensis is usually propagated from seed. There are about 700,000 viable
seed/kg of seed and 1 kg of eucalyptus seed is sufficient to provide plant for 100 ha of plantation
at spacing of 3 x 2 meters. Seedling survival rate is 25% (Doran et al, 1987). E. Camalduensis is
one of the several eucalypt species suited also to mass vegetative propagation through stem
cutting (Eldridge et al, 1993). Under nursery conditions seed germination should be completed
after seven days at optimum temperature of 32
o
C (Ponynton, 1979 and Doran, 1990).



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5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PLANTATION FORESTRY

5.1 Soil

Soil degradation has been identified as one of the negative effects brought by plantations, but it is
actually those poorly managed agricultural practices, deforestation and overgrazing that should
be more emphasized. Nevertheless, the truth that some types of fast-wood plantations may lead to
the loss of nutrients and erosion cannot be denied. Site slope, soil type, local rainfall and tree
species affect the soil changing its charachteristics (Cossalter et al, 2006). It is important to stress
that fast-wood plantations are generally much less degrading the soil than many commercial
agricultural crops. FAO cites a study that found that the mount of nitrogen removed by cereal
crops was two and half times more than amount removed by eucalyptus plantation (Cossalter et
al, 2003).

In general soil protection is done by reducing soil erosion and increasing the organic matter
accumulation. The soil will be disturbed during development of plantation by several activities.
The continuous harvest of litter and wood or accidental fire will reduce the nutrient and carbon
stocks in both biomass and soil. Thinnings will contribute to a small reduction of transpiration,
which turns out to be a net increase in nutrients and carbon to soil, etc. (Malmer, 2006).

Looking at the good sides, plantation does prevent the land from desertification and formation of
sand dunes. Most deliberate efforts to overcome degradation involve tree plantings. However,
even traditional forms of timber plantations can be risky operations, and if species selection or
early stand management practices are inappropriate plantations may fail (Corlett et al., 1999;
McNabb et al., 1999).

5.2 Water

Based on the water framework a good water management will decrease the chance of surface
runoff, unnecessary leaching, flood and evitable drought to a large extent (Douglas, 1977 /
Bruijnzeel, 1990/ Anders Malmer, 2006). Also more nutrients can be taken up by vegetation if

13
the quality and content of water can be maintained at a adequate level. In return, ground stream
water will help in seeds dispersal, especially in gentle slope and watershed. (Figure 1)

In plantation, a high production of timber material or pulpwood usually requires a large amounts
of water and sometimes the availabilty of water becomes a big problem in certain areas. The
claim that fast-growing tree species like eucalypts consume relatively more water than the other
species has not been proved eloquently. Not enough knowledge has been gained on whether
plantations can prevent floods or not; however there are some cases indicating that such a
function of plantations exists. But it could be arbitrary to draw any conclusion before finding
enough evidence (Cossalter, 2003).

5.3 Biodiversity

Industrial plantations have been criticized for their impact on diminishing the biological diversity
of the site, especially with monocultures (Spears 1984; Hunter 1990). When a large industrial
monoculture plantations are established they bring in high environmental risks as they are often
more vulnerable to environmental hazards than mixed stands (Poore et al., 1985).

Being native species, plantations of teak can actually maintain or gain biodiversity, though the
effect is modest. Teak plantations are more likely to create environmental conditions that are
suitable for native fauna than plantations of exotic species. Some trials involving monoculture
plantations of native species producing high-value timber are now under way in many countries
(David & Peter, 2005).

5.4 Global Warming and Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration is a good alternative for tackling global warming. The idea is mainly to use
plantation to lock up carbon in living trees and then after timber is harvested, the carbon will be
transferred into durable constructions and furniture. The science is simple enough: trees convert
carbon dioxide into solid carbon, in the form of wood, and they do so especially effectively when
they grow rapidly. Huge amounts of carbon are stored in natural forests, but as they grow at a

14
slower rate than plantations, they do not actively sequester as much carbon per unit area
(Cossalter et al., 2003).


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6. MANAGEMENT OF TREE PLANTATIONS

6.1 Management in general

Focus of plantation management is either on productive or protective functions or combination of
both. Successful plantation management includes interpreting market signals, studies on social
and cultural aspects and impacts, finding out best practices for involving and interacting with
communities, selecting the best practices for growing trees including; infrastructure development,
selecting species, rotation times, tending, silvicultural operations, protection and selecting
suitable harvesting technologies (FAO, 2006).

6.2 Biotechnology and genetic modification

Using biotechnology and genetic modification are still relatively new practices in plantation
forestry and can have both benefits and drawbacks. Benefits come from increased productivity,
forests health and vitality, better insect resistance and wood quality. Drawbacks are increased
risks of narrowing genetic diversity and gene transfer to wild relative species (FAO 2006). Gene
transfer can be avoided by using exotic species or selection of plantation location.

6.3 Pests and diseases

Weed, insect, diseases and other pests control is essential in maintaining plantation forest health
and productivity. Chemicals are widely used but genetic modification, mechanical and manual
tending, silvicultural operations and monitoring can also reduce substantially risks of pest
outbreaks (FAO 2006).

6.4 Fertilizers

Usage of fertilizers should be carefully planned and based on soil, foliar and mycoflora analysis
to meet the actual need only. Over-application of fertilizers leads to nutrient leaching into streams
and watercourses. In management point of view slow-release fertilizers should be applied and

16
synchronized with periods of the fastest nutrient uptake. Economic benefits should always exceed
costs. In private companies certification systems effects and even discourage the usage of
fertilizers in plantation management (FAO 2006).

6.5 Fire management

Fire plays a major threat to plantation forests and it can lead to loss of nutrients and increase the
risk of erosion. Fire is also often used tool of management in plantations. Planned burning can
prevent catastrophic fire outbreaks and so protect plantations from fire and also stimulate fire-
depended species. Fire is also often used to clear the land before planting although it must be
carefully used especially on steep slopes to prevent erosion. Successful fire management is based
on prediction, prevention together with public awareness, monitoring, rapid response and
community-based fire management (FAO, 2006).

6.6 Management practices by species

Tectona grandis
Teak is one of the most valuable timbers in the world. This is due to the good characteristics of
the wood material. Teak is considered as an attractive, light but strong wood material with great
resistance against fungi, humidity and insect damages. Without remarkable splitting, cracking,
warping or materially altering shape of wood material, teak timber is found to be a user-friendly
material for processing (CAB, 2000).

Teak stand can be established by natural generation or by artificial regeneration methods, such as;
stump planting, bag planting or direct sowing. Stump planting is the most popular one of the
artificial regeneration methods as it offers many benefits compared to other methods. Stumps can
be produced when needed, in transportation stumps maintain their viability over considerable
distances, planting is easier and quicker and also the growth of seedlings is more rapid and
vigorous than when using other methods (CAB, 2000). Planting spacing of teak should be

relatively wide in order to promote rapid development of the saplings; on average spacing should
be 3m x 3m, which is used in Thailand (Tewari, 1992).

17

As teak is a light-requiring species and not very tolerant for competition, it is best to establish a
stand on site that has been prepared by removing the competing vegetation. Also further weeding
is recommended during the first 1 - 3 years after establishment. In order to create high volumes of
quality teakwood, plantations should be established on well-prepared and drained soils on best
site classes (Centeno, 1999).

Early thinning of teak stand should be performed 5 and 10 years after planting (Koegh, 1987) in
order to prevent stunting. Often the age at which the thinning is practiced is determined by the
dominant height. According to Centeno (1999) the first thinning should take place when the
dominant height of stand is 9 to 9,5 meters and the second thinning when dominant height
reaches 17 to 18 meters. Thinnings during the rotation period can create income making the long-
term investment in teak plantations more attractive (Centeno, 1999).

Pruning of teak is a costly operation but can improve the quality of the final product as also
reduce the chances of ground fire reaching the tree crowns and facilitate the access to the stand.
The pruning of branches up to 2 to 3 meters should take place near the time of canopy closure
and after the production period of most new leaves in order to prevent epidormic shoots. A
rotation of 25 to 40 years can be considered as the optimum cycle for teak plantations. In Asia
also longer rotations, up to 60 years and more, have been used (Centeno, 1999).

Hevea brasiliensis
Para rubber tree or simply rubber tree is an economically important primary source of natural
rubber. Rubber trees were introduced to South-East Asia in the 1870’s. At present over 80% of
the 9 million hectares of rubber plantations globally are on the region of South-East Asia. The
most important production areas of rubber wood are Sumatra and Kalimantan in Indonesia,

Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand (CAB, 2000).

In Thailand there are three categories of rubber tree planting material available for plantation
establishment depending on the needs of the plantation owner. First category rubber tree clones
are developed to produce high quality latex, under second category the clones are for both latex

18
and timber production and the third category clones only for good quality timber production. All
these clones can be managed under somewhat same practices. Planting should be done at rainy
season with spacing of 2,5 x 7; 3 x 7 or 3 x 6 meters. Because of the wide spacing other species
can be planted in between of the rubber tree rows. Nitrogen fixing species or agroforestry crops
can be utilized during the first three years of stand development before the canopy closure. Also
fertilization is recommended 3 times a year and on differing rates of NPK–fertilizers. In order to
decrease the damages caused by ground fire it is recommended to build firewalls and also
preventative use of pesticides and fungicides is mentioned in rubber tree plantation management
guidelines (Rubber Research Institute of Thailand, 2007).

Tapping of rubber tree can be started when trees reach the age of 5 to 6 years. The sap-like
extract, latex, can be collected by tapping the bark by making orthogonal incisions to the latex
vessels. These incisions are made just deep enough in order to tap the vessels but not to harm the
growth of the tree. The sap from latex vessels is collected to buckets and processed into
commercial natural rubber.

Recently the demand of rubber wood has increased as the wood material of rubber tree is found
to be an attractive source of raw material in furniture, plywood and composite boards
manufacturing (CAB, 2000). The clear cut of the rubber tree stand takes place when trees reach
the age of 25 to 30 years. The time of harvesting depends on the site fertility and whether the
owner is concentrating on latex or timber production (Rubber Research Institute of Thailand,
2007).

Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus camaldulensis has the widest geographical range of all eucalypts and due to the many
positive charachteristics it has become a very succesful fast-growing species. According to the
Private Plantation Unit of Royal Forestry Department, the planting can take place at any time of
the year as a mixed or monoculture stand with spacing of 1 x 1 or 2 x 2 meters. Eucalypt does not
demand thinnings as it is a self pruning species. After first three years the use of fertilizers at
form of mixed green tenure and NPK-fertilizer at propotion of 15-15-15 once a year is
recommended in order to increase production. As with rubber tree also in case of eucalypt the fire

19
breaks are highly recommended. Eucalypt is harvested by clearcutting after 5 to 7 years and the
strong coppicing provides 4 to 5 new generations of productive eucalypt (Private plantation unit,
RFD, 1996).











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7. UTILIZATION OF THE TREE SPECIES

7.1 Tecona grandis

Utilization of teak: (a) sawn timber for construction, decoration, boat building, outdoor

application such as decking, (b) decorative plywood, (c). roundwood for furniture (Pandey and
Brown, 2000) and (d). immature teak plantations for posts and poles and small flooring boards
(Pandey and Brown 2000; Zamora 1998).

Teak is mainly imported as sawn timber from Myanmar and Indonesia, with Thailand and Côte
d'Ivoire also exporting significant volumes. The largest manufacturers of teak products are
Indonesia, Thailand, India and China. India produces sawn timber for construction and decorative
uses and also decorative plywood almost exclusively for use in domestic market. China and
Thailand have relatively large teak processing industries based on imported roundwood, while
Indonesia processes its own plantation-grown teak. Much of this production is exported to
Europe and North America. In general, the data of volumes of national import and export of teak
products are poorly documented or inaccessible (Pandey and Brown 2000).

7.2 Hevea brasiliensis

Rubberwood is utilized for timber after being utilized for latex production, fuelwood for
consuming industry (e.g. drying and smoking of sheet-rubber, tobacco curing, brick making etc.),
for the charcoal industry and the blockboard industry, fibreboards and wood pulp (Hong, 2008).
The following products are favoured both in Thailand and abroad: rubberwood furniture, toys,
particle board, MDF board, parquet board, cooking utensils, photo frames. Other products being
construction poles, scaffoldings, poles for electricity lines and food containers (Albarracin et al.
2006)





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7.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Used for charcoal and fuelwood, woodchip as raw material for pulp and paper. At present there
are five eucalypt wood chip factories: one in the northeast (Surin Province), two at the central
(Chacheongchoa Province) and two in the southeast (Cholburi Province). The major markets for
these five wood chip factories are Japan and Taiwan. There are two pulp and paper mills, mainly
using eucalypt as the raw material, one at Khon Kaen Province (Phoenix Pulp Co.) and the other
at Kanjanaburi Province (Siam Kraft).

Piling and pole demand is another big market for eucalypt in Thailand. The price of piling and
poles is high compared to wood chip logs (1,500:850 baht/ton). As concrete piling poles are
expensive and Casuarina piling and poles have become scarce, the demand for eucalypt is
steadily increasing. Farmers may now earn a high income from their eucalypt wood production.
The income of a private company at Chacheongchoa Province for wholesale marketing of various
sizes of eucalypt piling and poles is approximately 300,000 baht/day.
Wood of E. camaldulensis commonly breaks, twists or bends - especially small sized wood. At a
certain log size with special techniques, eucalypt wood may be used for various types of furniture,
log cabin and house construction.

Eucalypt leaves have a high potential for oil extraction for pharmaceutical purposes and in dying
silk and cotton yarns. E. camaldulensis is also fpund to be suitable in supporting bees for honey
production. Eucalypt plantations with correct mycorrhiza, will also produce edible mushrooms.

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8. Case Study on Plantation Forestry in Chiang Rai Province

8.1 Result of Interview: Forest Resource Management Office

Our case study is based on interviews at Forest Resource Management Office in Chiang Rai,
Thailand. Our aim was to find out about the state of plantation forestry in Chiang Rai province.
Especially we were interested in what are the main species used, what is the demand and the
supply of plantations, what kind of silvicultural practices are used, and how are the
environmental impacts taken care of.

We found out that the Forest Resource Management Office has promoted tree planting from 1992
to 2002 in the area by a campaign named “Promoting Economic Tree Planting Project”. The
project provided farmers an benefit of 3000 baht per rai for five years. Out of the 38 tree species
teak was the most popular one, because it is native in the area, the quality of available sites for
planting were suitable and because the price of teak was relatively high due to the increasing
demand. Total planting registration area by the campaign is 23 956.25 rai (3 833 hectares).

In Chiang Rai the current area under productive teak plantations is 20 758 rai (3 321,28 hectares)
and total timber production is 22 287.62 m
3
. Areas planted are generally small, the largest
nonfragmented areas of plantations are approximately 200 rais. In Chiang Rai the income of the
productivity of teak plantations is 3,863 187 baths (2600 baht/m3) per year. Nevertheless, the
major source of timber supply is imported from Burma and Laos. In Chiang Rai the total
imported timber during December 2006 to September 2007 was 34 332 m
3
, mostly teak.

Most of the teak timber produced in Chiang Rai is consumed by furniture factory in Prae

Province. Trend of teak timber demand in Thailand will be declining due to the increasing use of
wood-substitute composites. However, the timber demand in Thailand is higher than domestic
timber supply. In the future, the market price of timber and the site suitability are the main
incentives to plant trees on the area. Normally, farmers will divide their land area for housing,
growing annual crop, fruit orchard and tree plantation following Self-Sufficient Theory. If there

23
is fertile soil available, they will rather plant agricultural crops than trees. However, if the market
price of timber is high enough, the tree plantation area will increase.
In Chiang Rai, some of the restoration plantations are established on watershed areas, which later
will help protect the watershed. And this has been identified together with erosion control as the
major positive environmental impact of plantation forestry in the tropics. In Chiang Rai,
plantations are mainly monocultures. Rubber tree under agricultural plantation, teak and eucalypt
are established in the province.

When it comes to investments in tree plantations, there are several obstacles. Within the
government the problem is that there is no large unfragmented areas available for plantation
establishment. From companies point of view the availability of land is the main problem. The
inadequate amount of stocking area and absence of nearby mills are also among the biggest
concerns. The problems of private owners are the financing for plantation establishment and
management, poor quality of the site and lack of information and knowledge on plantation
management practices.

8.2 Result of interview: Forest Industry Organization, FIO

8.2.1 Mae Yao-Mae Sai plantation

Mae Yao-Mae Sai plantation was established in 1995 by FIO on 5000 rai (800 hectares) of
degraded forest. Now planted area consists of teak (1900 rai/304 hectares) and rubber tree (270
rai/43,2 hectares). Silvicultural practices will be done during the first six years. That includes

improvement of planting material by seedling and bud grafting. Fertilizers are used. Weed control,
replanting and fire control are practiced. Thinning is done at the age of 15 and the rotation is 30
years. The costs of teak plantation are 5 000 baht/ m
3
and benefit 10 000 baht/ m
3
. Mae Yao-Mae
Sai Plantation has a FFS certification.





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8.2.2 Management of teak (Tectona grandis)

The objectives of teak plantation management are to produce round timber, sawn timber and
furniture. To fulfill the objectives in Chiang Rai Province teak management includes the
improvement of planting material by bud grafting, spacing of 4 x 4 metres and weed control. No
pruning is needed because of natural pruning. Need of thinnings depends on the market price and
demand, but on average it is done at the age of seven. Average rotation on teak is 15 years.
Harvesting method is clear cutting.

8.2.3 Management of Eucalyptus camaldulensis

The objectives of E. camaldulensis plantation management are to produce charcoal, firewood and
small poles. In order to improve planting material cutting and tissue culture is practiced in the
province. Spacing of E. camaldulensis is 1.5 x 1.5 meters. Weed control is needed, but pruning
not, because of natural pruning. Thinning is done systematically by harvesting every second row
when trees are large enough for charcoal and firewood utilization. In Chiang Rai the rotation of

eucalypt is only four years. The stand is harvested by clear cutting and the regeneration in next
rotation is done by coppicing.

8.3 Result of interview: Office of Rubber Replanting Aid Fund

First plantation of rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) was established in 1987. The Fund started to
work in 2002 to promote and support rubber tree planting in Chiang Rai due to government’s
policy to increase the rubber tree plantation area of Thailand to total of 1000000 rai (160 000
hectares). Area of rubber plantation was converted from agricultural land (rice, corn). Farmers
selected to plant rubber tree because of good marketing price of latex.

Fund gives farmers 9000 baht/rai/5.5 year. Nowadays, the rubber plantation area is 81 761 rai
(13081,76 hectares). Silvicultural practices they use are bud grafting of RRIM 600 and spacing
of 3x7m. Rubber tree can be tapped after seven years of planting. Yield of latex is 270-300

25
kg/rai/year. Within 20-25 years rubber tree can be cut for timber. The benefit is 500 baht/tree.
The wood is utilized for furniture (mainly for export) and sawn logs for many purposes.