The Grandeur of Gandhara the Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. by Rafi U Samad Rafi-us Samad

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data —
Samad, Rafi U.
The grandeur of Gandhara : The ancient buddhist civilization of the Swat, Peshawar,
Kabul and Indus Valleys/ Rafi-us Samad.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-87586-858-5 (soft cover, alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-87586-859-2
(hard cover: alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-87586-860-8 (ebook) 1. Gandhara (Pakistan
and Afghanistan)— Civilization. 2. Gandhara (Pakistan and Afghanistan)— History.
3. Gandhara (Pakistan and Afghanistan)— Intellectual life. 4. Gandhara (Pakistan and
Afghanistan)— Religious life and customs. I. Title.
DS392.G36S26 2011
954.9132— dc22
2011014303

Printed in the United States

For Kashfa



T

able o f

C

on ten ts

P refa ce

1

C h a p t e r 1: I n t r o d u c t i o n

5

Evolution of Gandhari & Kharoshthi as Universal Language and Script
in Greater Gandhara

7

Evolution of Mahayana Buddhism as Universal Religion in Greater Gandhara

10

Compilation of Buddhist Scriptures in W ritten Form

12

Urbanization

13

Mahayana Buddhism: Main Propelling Force in Gandhara Civilization

15

Dynamic Buddhist Institutions

15

Cosmopolitan Nature of Population

16

Spread

17

Topography & Physical Environment

17

Sphere of Influence Beyond the Borders of Greater Gandhara

21

Bodhisattvas in the Garb of M issionaries

21

Literature Produced in Greater G andhara

22

Greek and Persian Influences in A rt and Architecture

22

Economic Environment

23

Legacy

24

Nomenclature

24

C h a p t e r 2 : R is e a n d G r o w t h

27

C h a p t e r 3 : E m b r y o n ic P h a s e

31

The Achaemenid Period
Achaemenid Satrapy o f Gandhara
Achaemenid Satrapy o f Sindh (Taxi la)
Achaemenid Administrative Shills
Tolerance o f Local Religions
Exploration o f Maritime Routes

r— ____________:

i _ j . _____ i

31
32

33
34
35
35

m

. i

:_ i

The Grandeur of Gandhara

M ilitary Engagements
Cultural Union o f Gandhara & T axila
Collapse o f Achaemenid Administration before Alexander's Invasion
Progress during Achaemenid Rule Towards Emergence o f Gandhara Civilization

36
36
36
37

Alexander’s Invasion
Conquests
Administrative Organization
Grcck-Maccdonian Cities

37
39
41
41

Physical Environment & Economy
Progress Towards Emergence o f the Gandhara Civilization

43
44

C h a p t e r 4 : T r a n s ie n t P h a se

45

The Mauryan Period
Stupa Culture takes Root in Gandhara
A soka’s Edicts
Trade and Cult ural Exchanges
Mauryan City in Taxila
Progress Towards Emergence o f Gandhara Civilization

46
49
49
50
50
51

Hellenistic Gandhara
The Indus Greeks
Indus Greek Cities & Monuments in Greater Gandhara
Indus Greek Coinage
Contribution Towards Gandhara Civilization
Indo'Scythian Rule
Indo'Parthian Rule
Religious Environment in Indo-Scythian-Parthian Period
Linkages with Silk Route
Saka-Parthian City at Takshasila-Sirkap
Artifacts from a S akaP arthian City
Progress during Saka Parthian Rule

51
54
61
62
63
64
67
70
71
71
74
75

C h a p t e r 5 : K u sh a n E m p ir e

77

Origins

77

Kushan Dynasty
Kujula Kadphises: 6 0 -8 0 CE.
Vima Taktu: 81-100 CE.
Vima Kadphises: 101-127 CE.
Kanishka-1:128-150 CE.
Vasishka: 151-155 CE.
Huvishka: 155-190 CE.
Vasudeva: 190-220 CE.
Kanishka-U: 221-230 CE.

Minor Kushan Rulers 230-350 CE.

79
79
82
82
83
84
84
85
85
85

Extent of Kushan Empire

86

Religious Beliefs and Cultural O ricntation of Kushan Emperors

87

Administrative Affairs of the Kushan Empire

90

Place of Greater Gandhara in Kushan Empire

93

Core Area and Administrative Base

93
x ii


Table of Contents

Cultural Center
Commercial Hub
C h a pter 6 : T he G o ld en A g e

Mahayana Buddhism Comes of Age
Early Development
Establishment o f Basic Mahayana Doct rines

96

97
99

101
101
102

Sangharamas Galore

105

Superactive Scriptoriums

107

New Styles in Religious Architecture

110

Gandhara Sculptures Inspired by Religious Zeal

113

Opulence — Overflowing coffers

115

Magnificent Metropolises
Purushapura
PushkalavatiThc Lotus City
Sahri Bahlol
ShahbazC arhi
Butkara
Udegram
Chakdara
Takshasila Sirsukh

118
119
122
123
123
124

125
125
126

G litterati in Kanishka’s Court

127

Social Transformation

128

C h a p t e r 7 : D e c l in e

Invasion o f Sassanians under Shahpur-I

131
133

Greater Gandhara under the Rule of Minor Kushan Leaders

134

Sassanid Rule in Gandhara

134

Kidara Kushan Rule (380 463 C E )

136

Steady Decline (4 6 3 -8 4 5 C E)

138

Destruction Wrought by the Epht halites
Second Period o f Sassanid Rule 570-655 CE.
Minor Buddhist Revival during Turk Shahi Rule
Repression during Hindu Shahi Rule
C h a pter 8 : S an gharam as

Prominent Sangharamas in G reater Gandhara

138
140
141
142
143

145

Shahjiki'D hcri
Sahri Bahlol
Takht'i'Bahi
Jamalgarhi Sangharama

146
147
148
151

Taxila Environs
Dharmarajika Sangharama
Mohra Muradu Sangharama
Jaulian Sangharama
Kunala
Bhallar Sangharama

152
152
155
157
160
161


The Grandeur of Gandhara

Uddhyana Region (Sw at-D ir-Buner)
Butkara
Nimogratn Monastery
Andan Dheri
Amlukdara
Shingardar Stupa

162
163
164
165
165

166

Upper Kabul River Valley
Hadda Sangharama

167
167

C h apter

9:

169

G andhara S c u lptu r es

Early Sculptures from Gandhara

169

Introduction of Buddha Images in Gandhara

172

Buddha Icon
Development o f Symbols Used in the Buddha Icon
Use o f Hand Gestures (Mudras)

173
176

177

Buddha Statues

179

Images of Bodhisattvas

183

Lotus in Gandhara Sculptures

184

Gandhara Sculptures Based on Jatak as

186

Sculptures Depicting Events from the Life of Buddha

187

Mayas Dream
Interpretat ion o f Maya’s Dream
Birth o f Siddhartha Buddha
First Seven Steps o f Infant Buddha
Life in the Palace & Renunciation
The Great Departure
The First Sermon
Mara and His Warriors

Miracle o f Sravasti
Mahaparinir\'ana

187
188
189
189
190
190
192
192
194
194

Gandhara Rock Carvings
Rock Carvings in Swat Region
Rock Engravings along Karakoram Highway
C h a pter 10: G a ndh ari & K h a r o sh th i

196
196
197
201

Early Development of Gandhari Language

202

Emergence of Gandhari Language as a Lingua Eranca

202

E v o lu tio n o f the Kharoshthi Script
Gandhari Kharoshthi Legends on Coins and Medals
Gandhari Kharoshthi Inscriptions from Greater Gandhara
Kharoshthi Manuscripts from Khotan'Niya Region o f Xinjiang
Buddhist Religious Texts in Gandhari Kharoshthi
C h a p t e r 11: T h e L i t e r a r y E n v i r o n m e n t

204
206
207
208
209
215

Asoka’s Edicts

215

Milandapanha

216

Asvaghosha

217

xiv

Table of Contents

Buddhacarita
Saundarananda, Religious Dramas & Mahayana Texts

218
219

Charaka
Samhita

219
220

Vasubandhu’s Abhidharma

220

Vasumitra
The Eighteen Schools o f Buddhism

220
220

Mahayana Sutras & Allied T exts

221

C h apter

12:

223

I n f l u e n c e in C e n t r a l A s ia

Gandharan Influence in Central Afghanistan

225

Bactria: Amu Darya Valley

229

Gandharan Sites in South U zbekistan

229

Gandharan Sites in Turkm enistan

231

Gandharan Sites in Kyrgyzstan

232

Gandharan Sites in Tajikistan

232

C h apter

13:

G a n d h a r a a n d C h in e s e B u d d h i s m

233

Kashgar-Tumshuq Region

236

Northern Silk Route
AhsU'Kucha Region
Karashahr Turfan Region

238
239
240

Kashgar- Khotan-Niya Region

241

Dunhuang- Loulan Region
Y ungang Caves: Shanxi Provi nee
Longmen Caves: Henan Province

243

244
245

Gandharan Missionaries in C hina

245

Visits of Chinese Scholars to Gandhara

246

Dhyana School in China

249

Pure Land School in China

249

C h apter

14:

G a n d h a r a & J a p a n e s e B u d d h is m

251

C h apter

15:

G a n d h a r a & K o r e a n B u d d h is m

257

C h apter

16:

T rade and C o m m er c e

261

Trade Routes

262

Western Trade Routes
Eastern Trade Routes

263
264

Silk Route Trade

266

Maritime Route
C h apter

17:

269
273

A fterw o rd

S h o r t B ib l io g r a p h y

277

A c k n o w led g em en ts Index

279

In dex

281
xv



P refa ce

This book aims to introduce readers to the history7and achievements of
a “lost” civilization in what are now part of northern Pakistan and south
eastern Afghanistan. This civilization and its culture flourished during the
first four centuries of the Common Era in the valleys of the Swat, Kabul and
Indus Rivers. This region, south of Hindu Kush and Karakoram mountains,
was known in ancient times as Gandhara.

Gandhara was suddenly exposed to the outside world between the 6th
century BCE and 6lh century C.E. through a series of high profile invasions
from mighty7 conquerors and empire builders. In the 6th and 5th centuries
BCE, the Persians under Cyrus and Darius crossed the Khyber Pass to es­
tablish two Persian satrapies, one in the Peshawar Valley and the other in
the Taxila region. Between 327 and 323 BCE, Alexander the Great battled
with the Aspasian, Gourian and Assakan tribes of Bajaur, Dir and Swat,
opening this region to subsequent Greek cultural influences through the
Bactrian Greeks and the Hellenized Scythians, Parthians and Kushans, who
ruled Gandhara from the 2ndcentury BCE till the 5th century CE.
The Persian, Greek and Central Asian invasions of Gandhara, rather
than causing wide scale destruction in the region, promoted the develop­
ment of a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic society. After a gestation period of
about half a millennium, this region blossomed into a unique civilization in
the opening years of the Common Era. This is the focus of the current book.

1


The Grandeur of Gandhara

W hat is known as the Gandhara Civilization reached its pinnacle during
the first five centuries CE, when Gandhara became the base of the mighty
Kushan Empire. After its golden age under the Central Asian Kushans, the
civilization went through a prolonged period of decline, set in motion by
the invasion of the Ephthalites in the late 5th century CE.
The Gandhara Civilization ushered in the historic era in the South Asian
sub-continent. Original information on the Persian satrapies of Gandhara
and Taxila appears in the rock inscriptions of the Persian emperors at
the Persian sites of Behishtun, Persepolis and Susa, and in the Histories of

Herodotus; detailed accounts about Alexander’s invasion and the geogra­
phy and the sociology of Gandhara appear in the records compiled by Alex­
ander’s companions; the brief account by Pompeius Trogus on the exploits
of the Indus Greek rulers, Menander and Apollodotus, is supplemented by
the inscriptions on a large number of coins left by the Indus Greeks, Indo
Scythians, Indo-Parthians and the I Iellenized Kushans and by the dona­
tive inscriptions on stone and metal found at various sites belonging to the
Gandhara Civilization; finally, about half a dozen famous Chinese Buddhist
pilgrim-scholars, such as Fa-Hsien and Hsuien Tsang, recorded detailed ac­
counts of their visits to the Gandhara region.
Detailed archaeological excavations were started at sites in northern
Pakistan and Afghanistan in the late-19th century. Through these excava­
tions, eminent archaeologists such as Aurel Stein, Alexander Cunningham,
John Marshall, J. Barthoux and Professor A.II. Dani recovered hundreds
of thousands of beautiful stone sculptures belonging to the Gandhara
Civilization.
In the last century or so, much has been w ritten about the artistic qual­
ity of these beautiful stone sculptures. But hardly anything has been written
about the Civilization itself that gave birth to these extraordinary pieces of
art. In this book an effort has been made to present Gandhara in its wider
perspective, highlighting the different features of a unique civilization in
which many different races contributed and many cultures merged to bring
about a major sociological change and establish a distinct cultural identity
in this region of the South Asian sub-continent.
This book is based on my analysis of the reports of renowned archaeolo­
gists who carried out excavations at various sites and information 1 gath­
ered during the past decade through extended visits to numerous archaeo­
logical sites associated with the lost Gandhara Civilization, including those

2

C opyrighted Material


Preface

in th e T ax ila, Peshaw ar, C harsad d a, M ard an and S w a t regions in P ak istan .
M y study o f th e large nu m ber of a rtifacts from th ese site s, w h ich are on d is­
play in m useum s a t T a x ila , P esh aw ar and K arachi, also provides su b sta n ce
to my w ork.
M y research reveals a great deal o f co n tin u ity in th e field of s o c io -c u b
tu ral developm ent o f th e region, w h ich is referred to in th is b o o k as G re a te r
G andhara, from th e tim e it b ecam e a p art of th e A chaem enid Em pire in th e
6th cen tu ry B C E till th e end o f K idara K ushan’s rule in th e 5 th cen tu ry C E.
Fu rther, it reveals th a t after th e A chaem enids had estab lish ed th e p h y si­
cal and ad m inistrative in frastru ctu re in G re a te r G andhara, th e co n tin u ity
in so cio -cu ltu ra l developm ent in th e region w as m aintained m ainly b y th e
grow in g Buddhist population.
T h is b o o k illu strate s th e s p irit o f in d epend ence and features in th e c h a r­
a c te r o f th e an cien t people o f th e G andhara region w h ich facilitated th e su s­
tained progress tow ard s th e em ergen ce of th e G andhara C iv ilizatio n . F o l­
low in g th e invasion of A lexan d er th e G reat, his su ccesso rs had n o d ifficu lty
in co lo n izin g B actria (N o rth ern A fg h an istan ) and Sogdia (U z b e k is ta n ), b u t
th ey co u ld n o t do th e sam e in G andhara. Sim ilarly th e Scy th ian s, P arth ian s
and th e Kushans ruled over th e C e n tra l A sian region as colon izers, b u t not
so in G andhara. H ere th ey ruled n o t over th e people, b u t w ith th e people.
T h e ir ad m in istration w a s h ighly d e-cen tralized , w ith th e locals playing a
m ajor role in th e regional ad m in istratio n and having a m ajor say in th e social
and cu ltu ral affairs o f th e en tire population.
Finally, th e book highlights th e in teractive environm en t w'hich prevailed
in G andh ara th rou g h ou t th e tra n sie n t and m ature phases o f th e G an d h ara

C iv ilization : A lexand er’s com p an io n s h o b n o b b in g w ith th e naked fakirs
of T ax ila; M enander, th e great In d u s-G reek ruler, finding tim e to engage
in prolonged q u estio n -a n d -a n sw e r session s w ith Bu ddhist sch olars a t th e
m on astery near Sagala (S ia lk o t); and th e g re a te st o f th e K ushan con q u erors,
K an ishka, finding pleasure in th e com pany o f lo cal in tellectu als and a rtis ts
su ch as A svaghosha and V asu m itra, and presid in g over th e official la u n ch of
M ahayana Buddhism .

R afi-u s Sam ad

3



C

h a pter

1: I n t r o d u c t io n

The region along the northern boundaries of the huge, culturally and
ethnically diverse, South Asian sub-continent was known in ancient times
as Gandhara. It remained isolated until the beginning of 6lh century BCE,
not only from the other regions in the South Asia but also from the region
beyond its northern boundaries.
Around 535 BCE the massive wall formed by the Hindu Kush and Kara­
koram mountain ranges, which had since times immemorial protected the
fertile plains of Gandhara and other regions in the South Asian sub-conti
nent against major incursions from the north, was ultimately breached by
the Persian armies under the command of Cyrus the Great. In 438 BCE, Dar­

ius the Great extended the Persian possessions in South Asia by conquering
the Taxila region east of the Indus. As a result of these conquests a cultural
union of Gandhara, w est of the Indus, and Taxila, east of the Indus, came
into existence, which we refer to in this book as Greater Gandhara.
The invasions of Gandhara by Cyrus and Darius the Great had far reach­
ing consequences for the people of this region. Gandhara was drawn out of
its drear)' isolated existence, into the highly proactive international orbit,
where powerful forces were at work. Alexander invaded the extended
Gandhara region in South Asia in 327 BCE. Alexander’s rule in Gandhara
did not last long but the most important outcome of his invasion of Asia was
that a number of Greek colonies were established in the regions to the north
and west of Gandhara, which maintained close contacts w ith Gandhara.

5


The Grandeur of Gandhara

B etw een 323 BC E and th e firs t cen tu ry C E , G rea ter G andh ara cam e
su ccessively under th e rule o f th e M au ryans o f P atalip u tra, th e B a ctria n
(In d u s) G reek s, and th e H e llen istic Scy th ian s and th e P arthians. U n d e r
th ese regim es tw o im p o rtan t developm ents to o k place. F irstly , th e b o r ­
ders o f G rea ter G andhara w ere fu rth er e xten d ed to include S o u th eastern
A fgh anistan in to th is so cio -p o litica l and cu ltu ral union o f G an d h ara and
T ax ila. Second ly Buddhism , w h ic h had virtu ally been elim inated in th e rest
of S o u th A sia, em erged as a pow erfu l force in G rea ter G andhara due t o th e
relatively liberal environm en t provided by th ese regim es.
W h ile th ese changes w ere ta k in g place in G rea ter G andhara, im p ortan t
d evelopm ents w ere also ta k in g p lace in th e in tern atio n al arena and along
th e northern b ord ers o f G rea ter G andhara. T h e R om ans conquered G reece

in 146 B C E and alm ost im m ed iately afterw ard s th e Silk R oad o p eratio n s
com m enced. T h ese op eration s involved lon g d istan ce trade in lu xu ry good s
b etw e e n R om an and P arth ian E m p ires and C hin a, as w ell as sh o rt d ista n ce
trad e am ong th e co u n tries lo ca te d on th e S ilk R oad or c o n n e cted t o th e
Silk R oad. G rea ter G andhara gain ed access to th e S ilk R oad th rough T a x ila K ashgar and P u sh kalavati (C .h arsad d a)-B actra lin k s and began to reap rich
p rofits th rough th e S ilk R o u te T rade.
In 6 0 C E th e K ushans co n qu ered G re a te r G andhara. Kushan c o n q u e sts
in C e n tral A sia and b en efits o f trade w ith co u n trie s along th e S ilk R o u te
provided a trem en dou s b o o st t o th e econom y o f G re a te r G andhara. T h ere
w as a m ajor surge in so cio -eco n o m ic and cu ltu ral a ctiv ities all over G re a te r
G andhara. U rban ization began to tak e place on a large scale an d th e re w as
m arked im provem ent in th e q u a lity of life o f th e com m on man.
T h e d is tin c t p o litical, ad m in istrativ e and cu ltu ral id en tity o f G re a te r
G andhara in S o u th A sia w as rein forced by th e close coop eration b etw e e n
th e B u d d h ist estab lish m en t and th e alien, m ostly H ellen istic regim es. T he
Bu ddhist religious esta b lish m en t rem ained neu tral on p o litical issu es and
cooperated w ith all th e alien regim es in th e ad m in istration o f th e region.
In retu rn for th is coop eration , th e alien regim es e xten d ed patronage t o th e
Bu d d h ist religious in stitu tio n s.
T h e p artn ersh ip b etw e e n th e B u d d h ist clerical estab lish m en t an d th e
alien ruling regim es achieved a p e rfect b alan ce in th e K ushan period, w hen
each p arty to o k upon itse lf w h a t it cou ld do b est. T h e K ushans w ere great
con qu erors and em pire b u ild ers. T hey carved ou t a v ast em p ire an d used
th e w e a lth o f th e conqu ered n atio n s to brin g p ro sp erity to th eir adopted

6


Chapter I: Introduction

land. The Kushans were also adept in external relations and managed to
maintain healthy diplomatic and trade relations w ith the Roman Empire,
the Chinese, and the Persians. Meanwhile, the predominant local Buddhist
population took charge of moral, cultural and socio-economic issues.
The cooperation between the Kushan conquerors and the Buddhist pac­
ifists and intellectuals worked to the good of both. The Kushans came to
Gandhara with a reputation of being uncouth, uncivilized nomads who had
no appreciation for the finer things in life. In Gandhara they became great
patrons of art, and proved to be liberal, tolerant, and benevolent adminis­
trators. They adapted much belter to the local conditions than any o f the
previous conquerors who had ruled in Gandhara. Gandhara overwhelmed
the conquerors with its natural beauty; it conquered their hearts and minds
with the purity of its thought, its pursuit of peace and harmony and its
craving for understanding the mysteries of nature. As a result the boorish
conquerors, clad only in a thin mantle of I Iellenistic culture, began to grow
in intellectual stature within the civilizing environment of thousands of dy­
namic socio-religious Buddhist institutions, the sangharamas. They took a
genuine interest in the works of Buddhist intellectuals and in the evolving
art and culture of the region.
Gradually the politically, socially and culturally integrated region of
Greater Gandhara evolved into a unique civilization. The civilization w as at
its peak in the first four centuries of the Common Era. In this period Greater
Gandhara had developed into a highly interactive region and the impact of
its culture was felt in distant regions of Central Asia and China. Around
Jalalabad, the modern Afghan capital of Nangarhar Province, at C hari­
kar, Bagram (ancient Kapisa) and Bamiyan, and on either side of the Oxus
River, huge Gandhara style monasteries and statues emerged; Khotan at the
southern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in the Xinjiang Region of W estern
China, developed into a major center of Gandhara culture.

E v o l u t io n o f G a n d h a r i &

K h a r o s h t h i a s U n i v e r s a l L a n g u a g e a n d S c r i p t in

G r ea ter G andhara

In the Dark Period which prevailed in South Asia before the rise of the
Gandhara Civilization, a large number of dialects were spoken and there
was no single language which could serve as an effective means of commu­
nication between various small groups living in semi-isolation. The situa­

7


The Grandeur of Gandhara

tion changed rapidly after the Achaemenids conquered Gandhara and the
territories around Taxila on the eastern side of the Indus River.
The Achaemenids had carved out a vast empire and had already devel­
oped effective tools for the governance of their territories. They employed
the same tools to effectively govern the satrapies of Gandhara and Taxila
(Sindh). Their first priority was to consolidate the various territories in­
cluded in the two satrapies and to employ and train local manpower, which
would help them in their task of governance and tax collection. For this
they required a single spoken language and a script which would be used
to communicate effectively w ith people living in all the regions included in
the satrapies.
The Achaemenid administrative organization promoted the use o f the
Gandhari dialect through frequent interactions w ith the local population.
The progressive increase in the use of Gandhari worked towards greater

administrative, social and political integration, which in turn further pro­
moted the use of the Gandhari language. Thus gradually Gandhari emerged
as the dominant, and then universally-spoken, language in the satrapies of
Gandhara and Taxila. A single spoken language used by such a large popu­
lation was a new phenomenon in South Asia. The effective use of Gandhari
contributed immensely to the political and social integration of the Achae­
menid satrapies.
The Achaemenid administrative structure was very' much centralized.
The real power rested with the Achaemenid emperors based in their cap­
ital cities in Persia. The local satraps were initially Persians and most of
them came from royal families. The jo b of the satrap was to build up an
administrative organization at the satrapies manned almost exclusively by
the locals. The Achaemenids needed a strong administrative and physical
infrastructure to optimize agricultural production and collection of taxes.
In the Achaemenid system w ritten communication and w ritten records
played a very important part. The Imperial organization sent inspectors pe­
riodically to each satrapy to examine the accounts and other records and
provide feedback for improving their systems. Absence of any form o f local
script posed a major problem. The Achaemenids used the Aramaic script
in their correspondence w ith fellow Persians and the bordering regions of
Mesopotamia, and they would have considered promoting the use of Ara­
maic script by local officials to a limited extent in their correspondence in
Gandhari language. This was, however, found to be impractical because Ar­

8


Chapter I: Introduction

amaic was phonetically inadequate to express the sounds of the Gandhari

language. Thus, using Aramaic as the base, Kharoshthi emerged as the first
w ritten script in Gandhara, and infact the first written script in the entire
South Asian sub-continent.
The efficacy of the Achaemenid organization can be gauged by the fact
that around 260 BCE, ju st sixty-six years after the Achaemenid rule ended
in Gandhara, the Gandhari language and Kharoshthi script were being use­
fully applied by Mauryan emperor Asoka for addressing the Gandharan
public at large, through his edicts inscribed on stones in public places.
In 190 BCE the Indus (Bactrians) Greeks conquered Gandhara. Bactrian
Greeks, the Seleucids and the Achaemenids had also been ruling in Bactria
after 535 BCE, but no indigenous script or language emerged in Bactria dur­
ing all this period. The Bactrian Greeks issued coins w ith only Greek leg­
ends in Bactria (cursive Greek script was introduced in Bactria sometime
later). But immediately after Demetrius captured Gandhara, he issued bilin­
gual coins in which Gandhari-Kharoshthi legends appeared on one side of
the coins. This is yet another proof of how far Gandhari-Kharoshthi had ad­
vanced as the dominant, even universal, language and script in this region.
During the rule of the succeeding regimes, the scope of Gandhari broad­
ened considerably. It was used in inscriptions on coins and for donative
purposes, and was later extensively employed in the compilation o f Bud­
dhist religious texts.
Recent discoveries of Buddhist texts and inscriptions in the Gandhari
language, and the conclusions reached among linguists and other scholars
that the originals of all the early Buddhist Chinese texts were texts com
piled in Gandhari language, have led to the recognition of Gandhari as one
of the very important languages of the ancient world. Gandhari was exten ­
sively employed in the transmission of Buddhism to Central Asia and the
Far East and began to be commonly understood and employed by monks of
various nationalities as well as by businessmen, traders and administrators
in regions which came under the influence of the Gandhara Civilization. It

thus acquired an international significance.
Gandhari and Kharoshthi continued to be extensively employed through
all phases of the Gandhara Civilization. As mentioned above, in the 3rd cen­
tury BCE, when Asoka Maurya wished to address the people at large in the
Gandhara region through the messages inscribed on rocks (R ock Edicts) at
suitable locations in Gandhara, he used the Gandhari language; in 2nd cen-

9


The Grandeur of Gandhara

tury BCE, during the rule of Menander, when an inscription on a casket (Ba
jaur Casket Inscription) was required to certify that the contents in the cas­
ket were ashes belonging to a Buddhist devotee, Gandhari was employed;
during the rule of Menander, when his court clerk recorded Menander’s
conversations (Milandapanha) with the Buddhist monk, Nagasena, Gandhari
was employed; when in 1st century BCE, during the rule of Scythian king
Maues, Kshema, a resident of Taxila, wished to honor the Scythian satrap
of Taxila, while dedicating a stupa in memory of his parents, Gandhari was
employed; when in early 1st century CE, a Scythian-Parthian monk com­
piled the Rhinoceros Sutra on birch bark, Gandhari was employed; when
in late 1st century CE, Agesilas, the Greek Superintendent of W orks, pre­
pared the dedication statement for Kanishka’s Casket at Shahji ki-Dheri,
Gandhari was employed; when during Kanishka’s reign, Vasumitra wrote a
Treatise on Eighteen Schools of Buddhism, Gandhari-Kharoshthi were em­
ployed1; when in the first century CE, Asvaghosha wrote “Buddhist Dramas
on Palm Leaves” (Prof. Luder’s Manuscripts from Turfan), Gandhari was
employed; and when in the second century C.E, a Buddhist monk wrote the
Dharmapada (Dutreuil de Rhins Manuscript from Khotan), Gandhari was

employed.
The development and emergence of Gandhari and Kharoshthi as uni­
versal language and script in the Greater Gandhara Region contributed
immensely towards the rise and sustenance of the Buddhist civilization in
Gandhara.

E v o l u t io n

of

M a hayana

B u d d h is m

as

U n iv e r s a l

R e l ig io n

in

G reater

G andhara

The evolution of Mahayana Buddhism also took place all through the
various phases of the Gandhara Civilization. In the embryonic phase of
Gandhara Civilization the Mahasanghika and Sarvastivadin views on Bud­
dhist theology continued to attract steady converts. The Mahasinghakas

de-emphasized monastic hegemony over religion and proclaimed that every
individual had the power and spiritual capability to pursue the goal of en­
lightenment. Attracted by promises of achieving Nirvana, growing number
lay-Buddhists thronged the stupa sites after third century' BCE. The accep­
tance of the principles advocated by the Mahasinghakas and the Sarvasti1 S. Beal. Eighteen Schools o f Buddhism, a translation of Vasumitra’s treatise, Indian
Antiquary, 1880.

10


Chapter I: Introduction

vadins by the people of Greater Gandhara ultimately opened the way for
Mahayana to emerge as major sect in Buddhism.
Gradually an all pervasive moral and spiritual environment began to
take shape in Gandhara, in which every individual sought to reorder his
daily life to pursue the supreme goal of enlightenment. The path of enlightenment was through service to humanity, which gave rise to heightened
concern for the well-being of all the members of the Sangha (community),
which in turn led to the development of the image of a compassionate Bodhisaltva and that of an Eternal Buddha. Basic Mahayana principles began to
gain universal recognition in Gandhara.
The intellectual pursuits among the Buddhist community in Gandhara
ultimately gave shape to the doctrine of Trikaya, which explained the three­
fold nature of Buddha. The unanimity of views among the Buddhist scholars
in Gandhara on the basic doctrine of Trikaya, established the foundations
of Mahayana faith.
Mahayana Buddhism received official recognition when Mahayana texts
(Sutras) were presented at the 4 lh Buddhist Council convened by Kanishka
around 128 CE.
Buddhism never developed into a major or dominant religion in any region
of South Asia except Greater Gandhara. There were two reasons for this.

Firstly, after the death of Buddha in 483 BCE, Buddhism faced a serious
threat from within its own establishment. Deep divisions crept in, which
led to the emergence of a large number of sects. Strong differences emerged
between the different sects, particularly between the traditional and liberal
factions, on the interpretation of Buddha’s teachings. These divisions posed
such a serious threat that a large number devotees belonging to the liberal
factions had to migrate to distant Gandhara.
Secondly, Hindu revivalist forces suddenly became more active. T o ­
wards the end of second century Hinduism became better organized and
reformed. This change in socio-religious environment created stiff com peti­
tion for competing ideologies, and Buddhism, already weakened through its
own internal dissensions, began to face a serious threat to its survival.
In Greater Gandhara, the situation was entirely different from that
in the rest of South Asia. The Persian and the Hellenistic regimes, which
ruled Gandhara in succession after 535 BCE, had no inclination or desire to
impose their religious views on the conquered people and the indigenous
people had no desire to meddle in politics or State administration. The har-

11