as 2177 1 1994 non destructive testing radiography of weld

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AS 2177.1-1994 Non-destructive testing - Radiography of welded butt joints in metal Methods of test

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AS 2177.1—1994

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Australian Standard®
Non-destructive testing—
Radiography of welded butt joints
in metal
Part 1: Methods of test


This Australian Standard was prepared by Committee MT/7, Non-destructive Testing
of Metals and Materials. It was approved on behalf of the Council of Standards
Australia on 14 June 1994 and published on 22 August 1994.

The following interests are represented on Committee MT/7:
Australian Institute for Non-Destructive Testing
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization
Australian Pipeline Industry Association
AUSTROADS
Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
Department of Defence

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Electricity Supply Association of Australia
Metal Trades Industry Association of Australia
National Association of Testing Authorities, Australia
Railways of Australia Committee
Society of Automotive Engineers—Australasia
Welding Technology Institute of Australia
WorkCover Authority of N.S.W.
Additional interests participating in preparation of Standard:
Non-destructive testing service organizations
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology

Review of Australian Standards. To keep abreast of progress in industry, Australi an Standards are subject
to periodic review and are kept up to date by the issue of amendments or new editi ons as necessary. It is
important therefore that Standards users ensure that they are in possession of the latest editi on, and any
amendments thereto.
Full detail s of all Australi an Standards and related publications will be found in the Standards Australi a
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Standard’, which subscribing members receive, and which gives details of new publications, new editi ons
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Suggesti ons for improvements to Australian Standards, addressed to the head offi ce of Standards Australi a,
are welcomed. Noti fi cati on of any inaccuracy or ambiguity found in an Australian Standard should be made
without delay in order that the matter may be investigated and appropriate action taken.

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 91258.


AS 2177.1—1994

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Australian Standard®
Non-destructive testing—
Radiography of welded butt joints
in metal
Part 1: Methods of test

First publi shed in part as AS B164 — 1965.
AS B230 fi rst publi shed 1967.
AS B237 fi rst publi shed 1967.
AS B164 — 1965, AS B230— 1967 and AS B237 — 1967
revised, amalgamated and redesignated
AS 2177.1 — 1978.
Second editi on 1981.
Thir d editi on 1994.

PUBLISHED BY STANDARDS AUSTRALIA
(STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA)
1 THE CRESCENT, HOMEBUSH, NSW 2140
ISBN 0 7262 9105 6

AS 2177.1 — 1994

2

PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee on Non-destructive
Testing of Metals and Materials to supersede AS 2177.1 — 1981, Radiography of welded
butt joints in metal, Part 1: Methods of test.
The second Standard in the series is AS 2177.2—1982, Radiography of welded butt joints
in metal, Part 2: Image quality indicators (IQI) and recommendations for their use.
In this edition, cognizance was taken of the following International Standard during the
revision of the clauses on gamma-ray sources, radiographic density and film coverage:
ISO 1106/3 Recommended practice for radiographic examination of fusion welded
joints —Part 3: Fusion welded circumferential joints in steel pipes of up
to 50 mm wall thickness.
This edition also contains a new Appendix which gives guidance on the use of the
Standard.

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This Standard does not cover methods which employ non-film imaging techniques. These
techniques will be considered at the next revision of the Standard. The use of non-film
imaging techniques for the radiographic examination of welded joints is now permitted by
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
The term ‘informative’ has been used in this Standard to define the application of the
appendices. An ‘informative’ appendix is not an integral part of a Standard and is
included for information and guidance only.

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3

AS 2177.1 — 1994

CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

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SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS . . . . . . .
1.3 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 TEST METHOD DESIGNATION . . . . .
1.5 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 QUALIFICATION OF PERSONNEL . . .

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SECTION 2 EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES
2.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.2 X-RAY EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 GAMMA-RAY SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 INTENSIFYING SCREENS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 CASSETTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 FILTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.7 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.8 FILMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.9 FILM PROCESSING FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.10 VIEWING FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
SECTION 3 TEST METHOD REQUIREMENTS
3.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 SURFACE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 PLACEMENT OF IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS . . . . .
3.4 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 FILM COVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 BACK-SCATTER PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 RADIOGRAPHIC IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 RECOMMENDED TUBE VOLTAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 FILM LOCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11 MASKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 RADIOGRAPHIC PROCEDURAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . .
3.13 PROCESSING OF RADIOGRAPHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.14 VIEWING OF RADIOGRAPHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.15 STORAGE OF RADIOGRAPHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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SECTION 4 PRESENTATION OF TEST DATA
4.1 SCOPE OF SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2 RECORD OF TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 TEST REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

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Page

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APPENDICES
A PURCHASING GUIDELINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B GUIDANCE FOR THE USE OF THIS STANDARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIVALENCE FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24
26
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5

AS 2177.1 — 1994

FOREWORD
In the methods described in this Standard, the photographic film is generally placed
parallel to and in contact with one surface of the weld. The source of ionizing radiation is
located on the remote side of the weld and at a calculated distance from it. For hollow
products the radiation may be required to penetrate both walls of the product.
Radiographic sensitivity is affected by parameters which include radiation energy (kilovolt
or isotope spectrum), the film/screen combination, scattered radiation control, and
exposure geometry (source-to-film distance and effective source size). Although the
highest radiographic sensitivity is usually achieved using X-rays, their use is limited by
the thickness of the workpiece.

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For the radiography of hollow components, either single-wall or double-wall methods are
used. Although the radiographic sensitivity obtained when using single-wall methods is
generally superior to that obtained when using double-wall methods, other factors such as
diameter, thickness and accessibility may influence the choice of method.


AS 2177.1 — 1994

6

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA
Australian Standard
Non-destructive testing—Radiography of welded butt joints in metal
Part 1: Methods of test
S E C T I O N

1

S CO P E

A N D

G E NE R A L

1.1 SCOPE This Standard sets out methods and requirements for X-ray and
gamma-ray radiographic testing of welded butt joints in metal products. It does not cover
neutron radiography and does not specify the permissible defect levels used for the
acceptance/rejection criteria of welds. The individual methods of test and the permissible
defect levels should be specified in the relevant product or application Standard.
NOTES:

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1

Advice and recommendations on information to be supplied by the purchaser at the time of
enquiry or order are contained in Appendix A.

2

Guidance and general information which should assist the users of this Standard is
contained in Appendix B.

1.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS The following documents are referred to in this
Standard:
AS
1929

Non-destructive testing—Glossary of terms

2177
Radiography of welded butt joints in metal
2177.2 Part 2: Image quality indicators (IQI) and recommendations for their use
2243
Safety in laboratories
2243.4 Part 4: Ionizing radiations
3669

Non-destructive testing —Qualification and registration of personnel — Aerospace

3998

Non-destructive testing —Qualification and certification of personnel — General
engineering

Z5
Z5.2

Glossary of metal welding terms and definitions
Part 2: Terminology of and abbreviations for fusion weld imperfections as
revealed by radiography.

BS
1384

Photographic density measurements

ASTM
E 1165 Test Method for Measurement of Focal Spots of Industrial X-Ray Tubes by
Pinhole Imaging
1.3 DEFINITIONS For the purpose of this Standard, the terms and definitions given
in AS 1929 apply.
1.4 TEST METHOD DESIGNATION Radiographic methods are designated in the
following manner:
(a)

By prefix letters ‘XR’ or ‘GR’ to identify the radiation source, i.e. X-ray or
gamma-ray.
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(b)

AS 2177.1 — 1994

By a number 1, 2 or 3 to indicate the film type, as follows:
(i)

Type 1: Very fine grain, very high contrast, low speed.

(ii) Type 2: Fine grain, high contrast, medium speed.
(iii) Type 3: Medium grain, medium contrast, high speed.
(c)

By a solidus (/) followed by one or two letters to indicate whether testing is

required through a single plate or wall (S), or through a double wall (DW), and in
the latter case, by the addition of another letter to indicate whether a single image
of the weld (S) or a double image of the weld (D) is required.
Examples of designation : XR1/S, XR2/DWS, GR3/DWD.

1.5 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Prolonged exposure of any part of the human body to
ionizing radiation can be injurious. Adequate precautions shall be taken to protect testing
personnel and any other persons in the vicinity, when X-ray equipment or radioactive
sources are being used.

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NOTE: The use of radioactive substances and irradiating apparatus is controlled by various
statutory regulations. Reference should be made to the ‘Code of Practice for the Safe Use of
Industrial Radiography Equipment (1989)—Radiation Health Series No 31’, issued by the
National Health and Medical Research Council.
Reference should also be made to AS 2243.4 for ionizing radiation safety precautions.

1.6 QUALIFICATION OF PERSONNEL Personnel who perform radiographic testing
to this Standard should have recognized qualifications in the specific area of test.
NOTE: The Australian Standards for personnel qualification are AS 3669 and AS 3998.

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

8

S E C T I O N

2

E Q UI P M E N T

A N D

A C C E S S O R I E S

2.1 GENERAL The radiographic testing system shall be capable of detecting and
delineating the boundaries and contours of discontinuities likely to be present in welds,
and of producing radiographs with satisfactory image quality.
2.2 X-RAY EQUIPMENT The X-ray equipment shall be capable of testing the
particular metal or alloy concerned. For the testing of steel of thickness up to 75 mm,
X-ray equipment capable of operating at voltages up to 400 kV is required. For steel
thicknesses above 75 mm, high voltage equipment capable of operating up to the
mega-electronvolt (MeV) range is required. The focal spot (source) size should be known
for the calculation of geometric unsharpness (see Appendix B).
2.3 GAMMA-RAY SOURCES Gamma-ray sources should not be used for the
radiography of steel welds having thicknesses below the limits given in Table 2.1.

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NOTE: As a general guide, methods using gamma-rays are usually less sensitive than methods
using X-rays and should be limited to applications where the shape, thickness or accessibility of
the welds makes X-ray examination impracticable.

TABLE

2.1

RECOMMENDED GAMMA-RAY SOURCES AND
STEEL THICKNESS RANGES
Gamma-ray source
Radioisotope

Symbol

Cobalt-60

60

Iridium-192

19 2

Ytterbium-169

Co
Ir

16 9

Yb

Minimum thickness of steel, mm
For high sensitivity
(Method GR1—
see Table 3.1)

For normal sensitivity
(Methods GR2 and
GR3 — see Table 3.1)

60 (40)

40 (30)

40 (10)

20 (5)

8

6

NO TE: In certain cases, it may be permitted to use gamma-ray sources for lesser
thicknesses than those given, when X-ray equipment cannot be used on account of
unfavourable geometry, e.g. single-wall exposures of tubes of small diameter
using the source inside and the film placed outside of the tube, or if the use of
gamma-rays makes a more suitable radiation beam direction possible. The lesser
thicknesses applicable for these special cases are shown in brackets (see also
Paragraph B2 of Appendix B).

2.4

INTENSIFYING SCREENS

2.4.1 General Metal intensifying screens reduce scattered radiation, improve definition
and reduce exposure time. Screens shall not contain defects such as dents, creases,

scratches and contamination by dirt and grease which may produce spurious images on the
radiographic film.
Fluorometallic screen/film combinations may be used where it can be demonstrated that
the required image quality indicator (IQI) sensitivity can be achieved.
NOTES:
1

When cleaning screens, foreign material such as grease and lint should be removed with
care from the surface, to prevent damage.

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

2

The use of fluorescent screens is not recommended because of their inherent unsharpness
factor, which may prevent achievement of the required sensitivity.

3

Rolls of paper-backed film supplied in commercial packs with integrated metal intensifying
screens may be used provided the lead screen thickness complies with Table 2.2.

2.4.2 Thickness of intensifying screens The thickness of metal intensifying screens
shall be in accordance with the requirements of Table 2.2. The use of screens of
minimum thickness may result in loss of image quality.

TABLE

2.2

REQUIREMENTS FOR USE OF METALLIC
INTENSIFYING SCREENS
Radiation
source
X-ray

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Gammaray

X-radiation
potential (kV),
or isotope type
≤120
>120 ≤400
16 9

Yb
Ir
60
Co
60
Co

19 2

Screen
material

Minimum front
screen thickness
mm

Minimum back
screen thickness
mm

Lead
Lead

Not required
0.02

Not required
0.02

Lead
Lead
Lead
Steel or copper

0.02
0.02
0.2
0.2

0.02
0.02
0.2
0.2

2.5 CASSETTES Cassettes shall be light-tight and constructed of a material which
will not interfere with the quality or sensitivity of the radiographs. Adequate precautions
are required to ensure good film-to-screen contact within the cassette.
2.6 FILTERS Filters are uniform layers of material, usually of higher atomic number
than the test piece (test object), used to absorb softer radiation preferentially. Their use is
recommended when it can be shown that they produce improvements in radiographic
quality. They are used in the following two ways:
(a)

At the source of radiation to absorb the softer components of primary radiation and
thus improve image quality.

(b)

Between the test piece and the radiographic film to absorb scattered radiation from
the test piece.

2.7 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS Image quality indicators (IQI) shall be used as
a means of assessing the image quality of the radiograph. The IQI shall have the same or
lower attenuation characteristics as the metal under test (see AS 2177.2), and shall be one
of the following types:
(a)

Wire-type (W) Wire IQIs comprise wires of steel, aluminium, copper or magnesium
of different diameters set in a flexible mount.

(b)

Step-hole type (SH) Step-hole IQIs are manufactured from various metals and
contain steps perforated with holes, the diameters of which are related to step
thickness.

(c)

Plaque-hole type (PH) Plaque-hole IQIs are manufactured from various metal alloys
and consist of a single thickness plaque perforated with holes, the diameters of
which are related to the plaque thickness.

The IQI and sensitivity requirements shall be those which are specified in the relevant
product or application Standard.

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

10

Where a separate indication of contrast is required when using a wire IQI, it is
recommended that a step wedge or similar contrast indicator be used. For high-sensitivity
radiography using gamma-rays, the contrast should be assessed with a plaque-hole IQI, a
step-hole IQI or a contrast meter.
Requirements for IQI are specified in AS 2177.2.
NOTE: The IQI sensitivity is a means of assessing radiographic quality but not a measure of
detectable discontinuity size.

2.8 FILMS This Standard categorizes X-ray films into 3 types (see Clause 1.4). All
X-ray films shall be free from mechanical, chemical or other blemishes which may mask
or be confused with the image of any discontinuities in the test area.
2.9

FILM PROCESSING FACILITIES

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2.9.1 General Film processing facilities shall be capable of producing radiographs
which meet the quality requirements specified in Clause 3.13.
2.9.2 Automatic processing Where an automatic film processor is used to process
exposed X-ray film, it is essential that the processor is installed, maintained and
controlled in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions to ensure consistency and
quality of processing. It is important that film characteristics be compatible with
processing solutions and conditions.
2.9.3 Manual processing Manual film processing requires the use of a properly
designed, maintained, controlled and monitored processing facility.
2.10 VIEWING FACILITIES Provision shall be made for the examination of
radiographs by diffused light in a darkened room. The illuminated area of the viewing
screen shall be equipped with masks to exclude any extraneous light from the eyes of the
viewer when viewing radiographs smaller than the screen, or to cover low density areas
within a radiograph.
The brightness of an illuminated radiograph shall be not less than 30 cd/m 2 and shall be
preferably greater than 100 cd/m 2. To achieve the minimum value of 30 cd/m 2, the
minimum brightness of the illuminator for the acceptable viewing of a range of
radiographic densities shall be in accordance with Table 2.3.
TABLE 2.3
FILM DENSITY/ILLUMINATOR

BRIGHTNESS RELATIONSHIP

Density of radiograph

Minimum illuminator
brightness
cd/m 2

1.5
2.0
2.5

1 000
3 000
10 000

3.0
3.5

30 000
100 000

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S E C T I O N

3

T E S T

AS 2177.1 — 1994

M E T H O D R E Q U IR E M E N T S

3.1 GENERAL Details of the radiographic methods specified in this Standard for
welded steel butt joints in metal products and advice on their application are given in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.2 lists the wire IQI sensitivities which should be achievable for various weld
metal thicknesses in steel, when using the test methods specified in Table 3.1.
The method to be used, the required sensitivity and other parameters to be achieved
should be specified in the relevant product or application Standard.
3.2 SURFACE PREPARATION The presence of surface features such as weld ripples
can mask the radiographic images of discontinuities and thus interfere with the
interpretation of radiographs.

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If uncertainties in the interpretation of a radiograph arise, the weld reinforcement should
be dressed to remove any surface irregularities. If after dressing, visual inspection and
testing by other appropriate non-destructive testing methods, the weld is considered to be
satisfactory, no additional radiograph need be taken. If any uncertainties remain, another
radiograph shall be taken. In either case, the actions taken shall be recorded.
NOTE: For method XR1 (see Table 3.1), where the highest level of discontinuity detection is
required, it may be necessary to dress the weld reinforcement to such a degree that resulting
radiographic images due to surface irregularities cannot mask or be confused with the image of
any discontinuity.

Backing strips used during the welding process and not forming part of the finished
product shall be removed prior to radiographic testing.
3.3 PLACEMENT OF IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS The following requirements apply for the location of image quality indicators:
(a)

Plaque-hole or step-hole IQIs shall be placed adjacent to the weld at one or both
ends of each section to be radiographed.

(b)

Wire IQIs shall be placed transversely across all welds at one or both ends of each
section to be radiographed. In certain circumstances it may be necessary to offset
the IQI.

(c)

The entire IQI shall be placed in intimate contact with the surface facing the source
of radiation, with the thinnest element more remote from the central beam.

(d)

Where the surface facing the source of radiation is inaccessible, the IQI may be
placed on the film side of the workpiece in a position specified by the product or
application Standard. If not so specified, one of the following methods may be used
to determine the required film-side IQI sensitivity:
(i)

(ii)

(e)

Method A Make an exposure on a representative sample with the required
source-side IQI in place, and a thinner IQI element in place on the film
side. Provided that the required sensitivity is achieved by the IQI on the
source side, the first discernible IQI element on the film side shall be used as
the sensitivity requirement.
Method B For double-wall, double-image exposures of pipe with an outside
diameter equal to or less than 90 mm, choose the IQI for single-wall
thickness and place it on the source side.

If the IQI is placed on the film side (see Item (d)), a lead marker in the form of the
letter ‘F’ shall be positioned beside the film side IQI; this shall be stated in the
report.
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AS 2177.1 — 1994

(f)

(g)

12

When radiographing a circumferential joint by means of a central source, using
complete encirclement film, a minimum of three IQIs placed at equal intervals
around the circumference shall be used, unless otherwise specified in the relevant
product or application Standard.
If the weld reinforcement or backing strip has not been removed prior to
radiography, a shim of material with absorbance equal to or greater than that of the

material under test shall be placed under the IQI so that the total thickness under the
IQI is approximately the same as the total thickness through the weld, including
reinforcement or backing strip. To ensure that its image is readily identifiable in the
radiograph, the shim shall be of larger area than the IQI.

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3.4 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS Two levels of geometric unsharpness (Ug ) applying
to the radiography of welds are specified, as follows:
(a) For method designations XR1 and XR2:
Ug = 0.2 mm max.
(b) For method designations XR3, GR1, GR2 and GR3: Ug = 0.4 mm max.
Where accessibility or limitations of equipment prevent the achievement of the U g
requirement for methods XR1 and XR2, the geometric unsharpness may exceed 0.2 mm
if permitted by the relevant product or application Standard. However, in no case shall a
value of 0.4 mm be exceeded.
NOTE: The actual geometric unsharpness values may be calculated using Equation B(1) or
B(2) in Paragraph B10.3, or using the nomogram given in Figure B6, in Appendix B.

3.5 RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY The radiographic density of the exposed X-ray film
corresponding to all the areas under examination shall be not less than 1.7 for X-ray
testing or 2.0 for gamma-ray testing, except when permitted by the relevant product or
application Standard or required for special configurations.
The fog density of a processed film shall not exceed 0.3.
NOTES:
1 The density of films may be checked with a calibrated densitometer or assessed using a
calibrated film strip (see also BS 1384).
2 For the effects of radiographic density on film contrast and radiographic sensitivity see
Paragraph B5 of Appendix B.

3.6 FILM COVERAGE
3.6.1 Maximum diagnostic film length The maximum length of weld to be taken into
consideration at each exposure shall be determined by the difference between the
thickness of the material penetrated in the centre of the radiation beam and that at the
extremities of the film measured in the direction of the beam at those points. The values
of film density resulting from this variation of thickness shall be not lower than those
specified in Clause 3.5, and not higher than those allowed by the available illuminator,
provided that suitable masking is possible.
NOTE: The
becomes less
methods such
be considered

detection of planar-type defects such as cracks and lack of side-wall fusion
certain as the beam spread increases. The use of other non-destructive testing
as ultrasonic, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant and eddy current testing should
for the detection of this type of defect (see Paragraph B1 of Appendix B).

Figure 3.1 gives schematic arrangements for source and film placement for the various
methods of radiographing welded pipe.
3.6.2 Width of film The film shall be wide enough to ensure that the weld and the
heat-affected zone adjacent to the weld are fully covered.
NOTE: For the purpose of this Standard, the heat-affected zone is considered to extend for
6 mm either side of a weld.

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

TABLE

3.1

SUMMARY OF RADIOGRAPHIC METHODS FOR TYPICAL WELDED
STEEL BUTT JOINT APPLICATIONS
1

2

3

4

5

Radiographic
method
designation

Radiation
source

Nature of
exposure

Film type
designation

Sensitivity level and typical application

X-ray

Single plate or
wall

1 (very fine
grain)

Where a very high level of sensitivity is
required

XR 1/DWS

X-ray

Double-wall,
single-image

1 (very fine
grain)

As for XR 1/S where internal access is
not practicable

XR 1/DWD

X-ray

Double-wall,
double-image

1 (very fine
grain)

As for XR 1/DWS where the pipe
diameter is ≤90 mm

XR 2/S

X-ray

Single plate or
wall

2 (fine grain)

High sensitivity, general use

XR 2/DWS

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XR 1/S

X-ray

Double-wall,

single-image

2 (fine grain)

As for XR 2/S where internal access is
not practicable

XR 2/DWD

X-ray

Double-wall,
double-image

2 (fine grain)

As for XR 2/DWS where the pipe
diameter is ≤90 mm

XR 3/S

X-ray

Single plate or
wall

3 (medium grain)

Sensitivity slightly less than for XR 2/S.
For use when the detection of fine

discontinuities is not required

XR 3/DWS

X-ray

Double-wall,
single-image

3 (medium grain)

As for XR 3/S where internal access is
not practicable

XR 3/DWD

X-ray

Double-wall,
double-image

3 (medium grain)

As for XR 3/DWS where the pipe
diameter is ≤90 mm

GR 1/S

Gamma-ray

Single plate or
wall

1 (very fine
grain)

For optimum sensitivity which is
generally below that achievable by X-ray
methods

GR 1/DWS

Gamma-ray

Double-wall,
single-image

1 (very fine
grain)

As for GR 1/S where internal access is
not practicable

GR 1/DWD

Gamma-ray

Double-wall,
double-image

1 (very fine
grain)

As for GR 1/DWS where the pipe
diameter is ≤90 mm

GR 2/S

Gamma-ray

Single plate or
wall

2 (fine grain)

General use where the sensitivity
achievable by GR1/S is not required

Gamma-ray

Double-wall,
single-image

2 (fine grain)

As for GR 2/S where internal access is
not practicable

GR 2/DWD

Gamma-ray

Double-wall,
double-image

2 (fine grain)

As for GR 2/DWS where the pipe
diameter is ≤90 mm

GR 3/S

Gamma-ray

Single plate or
wall

3 (medium grain)

High-speed method when the detection of
fine discontinuities is not required

GR 3/DWS

Gamma-ray

Double-wall,
single-image

3 (medium grain)

As for GR 3/S where internal access is
not practicable

GR 3/DWD

Gamma-ray

Double-wall,
double-image

3 (medium grain)

As for GR /3 DWS where the pipe
diameter is ≤90 mm

GR 2/DWS

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AS 2177.1—1994

14

TABLE

3.2

READILY ACHIEVABLE WIRE IQI SENSITIVITIES FOR STEEL—
EXPRESSED AS SMALLEST WIRE VISIBLE ON RADIOGRAPH WITH
CORRESPONDING SENSITIVITY VALUE
Wire number (smallest wire visable)
Sensitivity, %

Radiographic
test method
designation

Weld metal thickness, mm
6

9

12

18

24

30

40

50

70

90

120

150

200

250

300

XR1

16
1.7

15
1.4

14
1.3

13
1.1

12
1.0

11

1.1

10
1.0

9
0.9

8
0.9

—

—

—

—

—

—

XR2

15
2.1

14
1.8

13
1.7

12
1.4

11
1.3

10
1.3

9
1.3

8
1.3

7
1.1

6
1.1

—

—

—

—

—

XR3

14
2.7

13
2.2

12
2.1

11
1.8

10
1.7

9
1.7

8
1.6

7
1.6

6
1.4

5
1.4

4
1.3

—

—

—

—

GR1

13
3.3

12
2.8

11
2.7

10

2.2

10
1.7

9
1.7

8
1.6

7
1.6

6
1.4

5
1.4

4
1.3

3
1.3

2
1.3

1

1.3

1
1.1

GR2

11
5.3

11
3.6

10
3.3

9
2.8

9
2.1

8
2.1

7
2.0

6
2.0

5
1.8

4
1.8

3
1.7

2
1.7

1
1.6

1
1.3

1
1.1

GR3

—

10
4.5

9

4.2

8
3.5

7
3.3

6
3.3

5
3.1

4
3.2

3
2.9

2
2.8

1
2.7

1
2.1

1

1.6

1
1.3

1
1.1

NOTES:
1

The values of sensitivity given are not necessarily the optimum values which can be achieved, but are included for information and
comparative purposes and should not be taken as mandatory requirements for any particular method. Sensitivity values quoted for
gamma-ray methods are for Iridium-192 (1 92Ir) for the thickness range of 10 mm to 90 mm, and for Cobalt-60 (6 0Co) for thicker sections
up to 200 mm (see Table 2.1). Sensitivities quoted for gamma-ray methods for thicknesses of less than 10 mm and more than 200 mm
1
are included for information only. Attention is drawn to the improved sensitivity which can be obtained with Ytterbium-169 ( 69Yb) in
the range 6 mm to 20 mm.

2

The sensitivity values have been rounded to nearest 0.1%.

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15

AS 2177.1 — 1994

FIGURE 3.1 SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENTS OF DIFFERENT TEST METHODS FOR
THE RADIOGRAPHY OF WELDS IN PIPE SHOWING SOURCE AND
FILM PLACEMENT POSITIONS
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AS 2177.1 — 1994

16

3.6.3 Film overlap When 100% radiography is specified, the film shall be placed so
that all sections of a weld are examined. Where strip film is used, sufficient lead markers
in the form of arrows, shot and other symbols shall be present for location purposes and
to identify the beginning and the end of films (see Figure 3.2). Extra film lengths should
be provided to overlap each end of film to ensure full coverage and to ensure that the
location marks are recorded.
3.7 BACK-SCATTER PROTECTION The effects of back-scatter radiation can be
reduced by confining the radiation beam to the smallest practical cross-section and by
placing lead behind the film. In many cases, a back lead screen or a lead sheet in the
back of a cassette or film holder will provide adequate protection against back-scattered
radiation. Where back-scatter is likely to affect adversely the quality of a radiograph, a
sheet of lead not less than 1.5 mm thick should be placed behind the film/screen
combination.

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NOTE: If there is any doubt about the adequacy of protection against back-scattered radiation,
a characteristic lead symbol (frequently a 3 mm thick letter B) should be attached to the back of

the cassette or film holder and a radiograph made in the normal manner. The appearance of an
image of this symbol on the radiograph indicates that the protection against back-scattered
radiation is insufficient and additional precautions are needed.

3.8

RADIOGRAPHIC IDENTIFICATION

3.8.1 General Each piece of radiographic film shall be identifiable with the
corresponding section of weld under test. Markers in the form of lead arrows, lead shot,
or other symbolic shapes may be used to supplement the marking system.
Identification markers shall be placed alongside the weld at a distance not closer than
6 mm from the edge of the weld (see Figure 3.2), and be comprised of suitable symbols to
identify the following:
(a)

The job or workpiece correlation number.

(b)

The joint designation.

(c)

The section of the weld joint.

The identification marks shall not mask the heat-affected zone or be detrimental to the
product.

FIGURE 3.2

TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF IQI AND LEAD MARKERS
ON A WELDED WORKPIECE
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AS 2177.1 — 1994

3.9 RECOMMENDED TUBE VOLTAGES For method XR1, the recommended
maximum tube voltages for the radiography of various weld thicknesses of aluminium,
copper, lead, steel, iron and nickel are given in Figure 3.3.
For methods XR2 and XR3, higher tube voltages may be used, however it is
recommended that the values determined from Figure 3.3 should not be exceeded by more
than 25%, unless otherwise specified in the relevant product or application Standard.
NOTES:
The tube voltages for various weld thicknesses of metals and alloys other than steel may be
determined by calculating the radiographic equivalent thickness of steel using the
radiographic equivalence factors listed in Table C1 of Appendix C. The graph for steel
shown in Figure 3.3 may then be used to determine the maximum X-ray tube voltage.

2

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1

Exposures should be carried out at the lowest tube voltage consistent with a reasonable
exposure time, because low tube voltages usually give improved image contrast and

therefore better IQI and discontinuity sensitivity (see Appendix B).

FIGURE 3.3 RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM TUBE VOLTAGES FOR THE GENERATION
OF X-RAYS FOR VARIOUS WELD THICKNESSES OF COMMON METALS
AND ALLOYS WHEN USING METHOD XR1

3.10 FILM LOCATION
3.10.1 Object-to-film distance The distance between the workpiece and the film should
be as small as possible. Where a gap between the surface of the object and the film
cassette is unavoidable, the total object-to-film distance is calculated as object thickness
plus gap.

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

18

3.10.2 Source-to-film distance The minimum value of source-to-film distance (F) is a
function of—
(a)

the effective source size (S);

(b)

the total object thickness (t); and

(c)

the geometric unsharpness (Ug ) required.

The minimum source-to-film distance (F) for an effective source size (S) of 2 mm may be
obtained from Figure 3.4 which is derived from Equation B(1) of Paragraph B10.3.
From Figure 3.4, the following relationships between F and t are evident:
(i)

For methods XR1 and XR2:

F = 11 t.

(ii)

For methods XR3, GR1 and GR2: F = 6 t.

To avoid excessively small values of F, a minimum value of 50 mm shall be used.
NOTE: As an alternative, the source-to-film distance may be calculated by the use of either the
Equation B(1) or the nomogram (see Figure B6).

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3.11 MASKING Adequate masking should be provided, where appropriate, to restrict
the areas irradiated to those under test.
3.12

RADIOGRAPHIC PROCEDURAL REQUIREMENTS

3.12.1 Testing of welds in flat surfaces and longitudinal welds in curved
surfaces For the testing of welds in flat surfaces and longitudual welds in curved

surfaces, the beam of radiation should be directed to the centre of the section under test
and be normal to the plate surface at that point. As an exception, tests for discontinuities
occurring at the fusion face, e.g. lack of side-wall fusion, are best carried out by directing
the beam along the fusion face.
NOTE: Where directional X-ray machines are used, the axis of the X-ray tube should be
transverse to the centreline of the weld.

3.12.2
(a)

Testing of circumferential welds in curved surfaces

For single-wall, single-image (S) exposures Where a 360° emitting source is used
for S exposures, the beam of radiation should be directed to the centre of the section
under test. The beam should be within 90 ±5° to the pipe surface at that point, or
within ±5° of the bisector of the angle between abutting surfaces.
Other beam directions should be used when these are known to be necessary to
determine the position and extent of a particular defect, e.g. defects at a fusion face,
for which the beam may be directed along that face.
Figure 3.1 shows schematic arrangements of the beam alignments for various source
positions.
Where internal source X-radiography is used in piping, the beam of radiation should
emanate from a conical anode capable of orthogonal emission relative to the axis of
the pipe.

(b)

For double-wall, single-image (DWS) exposures For DWS exposures, the source of
radiation should be positioned to ensure that the centre of the projected beam passes
through the centre of the test area. If necessary, the source of radiation may be

offset to avoid superimposing the images of the welds (see Figure 3.1(b)).

(c)

For double-wall, double-image (DWD) exposures For DWD exposures, the source
of radiation should be positioned so that the centre of the projected beam passes
through the centre of the pipe, in the plane of the weld. To avoid superimposition of
the images of the welds, the source of radiation should be offset from the plane
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19

AS 2177.1 — 1994

through the weld. The film should be correspondingly offset in the opposite
direction to ensure that the axis of the beam passes through its centre (see
Figure 3.1(c)).

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As this method is recommended for the testing of pipes of 90 mm diameter or less,
it is necessary to take at least two radiographs at 90° to each other to obtain full
coverage.

FIGURE 3.4 GRAPHS RELATING OBJECT-TO-FILM DISTANCE (t)
TO MINIMUM SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE (F ) FOR
A 2 mm EFFECTIVE SOURCE SIZE

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

20

NOTES TO FIGURE 3.4:
1

The source-to-film distance, F 2, for a focal spot or gamma-ray source with a maximum
effective dimension (S), other than 2 mm, can be calculated from the geometric unsharpness
equation or the nomogram in Appendix B, or from the equation F 2 = SF1 /2, where F 1 is the
source-to-film distance for a 2 mm effective focal spot or gamma-ray source size.

2

Where double-wall, double-image exposures are used, the outside diameter of the pipe
should be used for the value of t to calculate F.

3

Where double-wall, single-image exposures are used, the thickness of a single wall should
be used for the value of t to calculate F.

4

For panoramic X-ray sources, the effective source size for the axis of a circumferential weld
may be five times greater than that which is required for testing across the weld.

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The geometric unsharpness (U g ) of images of discontinuities oriented transverse to the axis
of the circumferential weld is therefore greater than that for discontinuities oriented parallel
to the weld axis; the reverse is true for images of discontinuities in longitudinal welds.

3.13 PROCESSING OF RADIOGRAPHS The film shall be processed in accordance
with the film and chemical manufacturer’s instructions by either manual or automatic
methods. The developer shall be maintained in good condition and, when not in use,
covered to protect it from oxidation. The activity of the developer shall be checked at
regular intervals by processing a strip of film on which a step wedge has been previously
exposed, and which will give known density values under standard processing conditions.
Reduced density values will indicate the need for replenishing or changing the solution.
It is not permitted to employ under-developing or over-developing of film to compensate
for errors in exposure, or to use chemical or other means to reduce or increase the density
of fully processed emulsions.
All radiographs shall be free from mechanical, chemical, or other blemishes which could
mask or be confused with the image of any discontinuities in the test area.
3.14

VIEWING OF RADIOGRAPHS

3.14.1 General All radiographs shall be viewed after drying, using the appropriate
equipment and conditions specified in Clause 2.10.
3.14.2 Eye adaptation As eye adaptation depends markedly on the lighting conditions
to which the interpreter of radiographs is subjected before viewing, mandatory
requirements cannot be specified. A film interpreter coming from full sunlight should
allow at least 10 min in subdued lighting before commencing viewing, and when coming
from ordinary artificial room lighting about 30 s adaptation time is necessary. The
adaptation time shall be one continuous period.
If the eyes are subject to the full brightness of the illuminator during the changing of

radiographs, a re-adaptation time of at least 30 s is necessary.
NOTES:
1

It is essential that interpreters of radiographs have satisfactory vision (see AS 2177.2).

2

Prolonged and continuous viewing of radiographs may lead to fatigue; the interpreter should
have regular rest breaks.

When viewing is performed on a screen, the areas of the screen not covered by the
radiograph shall be masked to prevent screen glare. Where the radiograph contains regions
which are considerably less dense than the areas of interest, these also shall be masked off
during viewing.

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

3.14.3 Viewing record Indications resulting from the test and the condition of the film
shall be recorded on a ‘viewing record’ which should include the following classification
system for the presence of processing or film defects and the description of
discontinuities:
(a)

Processing or film defects The lower-case letters ‘p.d.’ should be used to indicate

the presence of processing or film defects.

(b)

Absence of discontinuities The upper-case letter ‘A’ should be used where
discontinuities are not detected.

(c)

Terminology used for discontinuities Terminology used for describing and reporting
discontinuities should be in accordance with AS Z5.2, or other relevant Standards.
NOTE: Terms not covered by the above Standards should be fully described.

3.14.4 Assessment Following the identification of indications resulting from the test,
radiographs shall be assessed in accordance with the acceptance/rejection criteria specified
in the relevant product or application Standard.
The upper-case letter ‘C’ is used to indicate that a radiograph ‘complies’ with the
requirements for discontinuities.

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The upper-case letters ‘DNC’ are used to indicate that a radiograph ‘does not comply’
with the specified requirements for discontinuities.
3.15 STORAGE OF RADIOGRAPHS All films, whether unexposed or exposed, shall
be stored in such a manner that they are not adversely affected by light, pressure,
excessive heat or humidity, fumes or ionizing radiation, as appropriate.

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AS 2177.1 — 1994

S E C T I O N

22

4

P RE S E N T A T I O N

O F

T E S T

D A T A

4.1 SCOPE OF SECTION This Section specifies the information to be recorded and
reported as the result of testing to the requirements of this Standard.
4.2 RECORD OF TEST
information:

The record of test shall include at least the following

Name of the laboratory or testing authority.

(b)

Identification of the component.

(c)

Job reference number.

(d)

Number of the product Standard.

(e)

Details of the material under test.

(f)

The number of this Australian Standard, i.e. AS 2177.1, the method designation, or
any departures from that method.

(g)
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(a)

Details of weld location (sufficient to allow the film to be related to the workpiece
or the test specimen).

(h)

The surface condition of the workpiece, including the type of preparation.

(i)

Details of the X-ray tube voltage and current, or of the isotope used and its
radioactivity.

(j)

The effective source size, in millimetres.

(k)

The source-to-film distance used, in millimetres.

(l)

The nature and thickness, in millimetres, of any screens used.

(m)

Special notes on exposure geometry (if applicable).

(n)

IQI type, model, location and percent sensitivity achieved.

(o)

The trade designation of the film type used.

(p)

The film density range achieved.

(q)

Details of exposure, in milliampere-seconds.

(r)

Processing details, including variations from standard procedures.

(s)

The date and place of test.

(t)

The report number and the date of issue.

(u)

Identification of the testing personnel.

4.3

TEST REPORT

(a)

Name of the laboratory or testing authority.

(b)

Identification of the component, including sufficient details to permit subsequent
correlation between the report and radiographs of the welds.

(c)

Job reference number.

(d)

Number of the product Standard.

(e)

Details of the material under test.

(f)

Reference to this Australian Standard, i.e. AS 2177.1, the method designation, or
any departures from that method.

The test report shall include at least the following information:

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