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EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT AND SKILLS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Edited by Andre Kraak & Karen Press
HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW
2008
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Published by HSRC Press
Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa
www.hsrcpress.ac.za
First published 2008
ISBN 978-0-7969-2203-8
© 2008 Human Sciences Research Council
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of the Human Sciences Research Council (‘the Council’)
or indicate that the Council endorses the views of the authors.
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Contents
Preface v
Acknowledgements xi
Glossary xiii
Tables and figures xvii
Acronyms and abbreviations xxxiii
INTRODUCTION
1The education–economy relationship in South Africa, 2001–2005 1
Andre Kraak
SECTION ONE: CONTEXT
2Overview of the economy and economic policy 29
Sandy Lowitt and Miriam Altman
3 Employment shifts and the ‘jobless growth’ debate 50
Haroon Bhorat and Morné Oosthuizen
4The social and human development context 69
Ingrid Woolard and Chris Woolard
5The impact of HIV/AIDS 90
Jocelyn Vass
6The informal economy 111
Richard Devey, Likani Lebani, Caroline Skinner and Imraan Valodia
7 Science and technology policy 134
Michael Kahn
SECTION TWO: SUPPLY
8Public expenditure on education 161
Russell Wildeman
9 Early childhood development 185
Linda Biersteker and Andrew Dawes
10 Adult basic education and training 206
Ivor G Baatjes

11 Public schooling 228
Jennifer Shindler
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12 Further education and training colleges 254
Salim Akoojee, Simon McGrath and Mariette Visser
13 Higher education 278
Mignonne Breier and Mahlubi Mabizela
14 Enterprise training 300
Simon McGrath and Andrew Paterson
15 Training in the South African public sector 322
Andrew Paterson
SECTION THREE: HIGH SKILLS AND THE PROFESSIONS
16 High-skill requirements in advanced manufacturing 345
Jo Lorentzen and Angelique Wildschut
17 Financial services professions 365
Elize van Zyl
18 Veterinary skills 388
Andrew Paterson
19 Pharmacists 410
Elsje Hall
20 Social workers 432
Nicci Earle
21 Engineers, technologists and technicians 452
Rènette du Toit and Joan Roodt
SECTION FOUR: INTERMEDIATE SKILLS AND THE MIDDLE OCCUPATIONS
22 Three pathways to intermediate skilling 479
Andre Kraak
23 Intermediate-level workers in the services sector 503
Rènette du Toit
24 The growing skills crisis in the tourism sector 528

Didi Moyle
SECTION FIVE: ENTRY-LEVEL SKILLS
25 Training within the South African national public works programme 555
Anna McCord
Contributors 577
Index 579
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Preface
The Human Resources Development Review 2008 is the second edition in a series of
overviews of human resources development (HRD) published by the Human Sciences
Research Council (HSRC).
The main purpose of the Review is to put in place a significant information infrastructure
for use by the state and HRD researchers across the education, training, science and
technology, industry, employment and labour market policy domains. Information is a
critical prerequisite for effective decision-making in government, but unfortunately it is
extremely difficult for government officials to collect and collate the cross-sectoral data
required for HRD policy-making. Researchers and journalists experience a similar problem
with regard to the scarcity of data on HRD. The HRD Review 2008 aims to fill this gap.
The HSRC’s HRD information infrastructure has two components. The first is the series
of Reviews of HRD in print format. The second is a multifaceted, Internet-based Data
Warehouse providing multi-year data tables extracted from the HRD Reviews, as well as an
easy-to-use search tool. These tables and all the chapters in the HRD Review 2008 can be
downloaded easily and at no cost from this website (see ).
The HRD Review 2008 is produced by the Research Programme on Education, Science and
Skills Development (ESSD) at the HSRC.
1
The Programme focuses on three major research
areas: the ‘education system’, the ‘national system of innovation’ and the ‘world of work’.
The distinctiveness of the work done in this Programme resides in its ability to harness
research work at the interface of these three key social domains, to produce comprehensive,

integrated and holistic analyses of the pathways of learners through schooling, further and
higher education into the labour market and national system of innovation. The HRD
Review series is the flagship project of this Programme.
Conception of HRD
An important conceptual distinction shaping the content of the HRD Review 2003 was its
definition of skills, in particular, its categorisation of skills into three distinct bands: high
skills, intermediate skills and entry-level skills. These skill bands can be represented in terms
of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) as shown in the table on page vi.
The distinctions between these levels are crucial for three reasons. Firstly, as was pointed
out in the HRD Review 2003,much of the literature on globalisation and the ‘knowledge
economy’ exaggerates the extent of the transition to a new social order in which high skills
are the prerequisites for participation in the new economy. The diffusion of the new high-
skill production techniques associated with the knowledge economy has in fact been far
more uneven than acknowledged in the international literature. It does not totally displace
old forms of social and economic organisation, with their associated skill needs. Rather, the
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new high-skill sectors coexist alongside older sectors. High skills are not the only skills in
demand in the new economy. Workers with intermediate and entry-level skills continue to
form the largest percentile of employed populations world-wide.
Secondly, there has been a serious neglect of the ongoing importance of intermediate skills
in contemporary economies. Even though structural changes have occurred in the South
African economy over the past three decades towards greater capital- and skills-intensity,
these changes have not dramatically reduced the demand for sufficient numbers of
technically competent operatives, artisans and technicians in the manufacturing sectors of
the economy. Additionally, the biggest structural change, the rapid growth of the services
sector, has also brought with it dramatic increases in the demand for white-collar
intermediate-skilled labour – the clerks, sales and administrative personnel who work the
services economy.
And finally, in an economy characterised by great poverty, unemployment and low levels of

labour absorption, the expansion of entry-level jobs in labour-absorbing sectors is of crucial
importance to South Africa’s future prosperity.
Promotion of HRD across these three skill bands requires a multifaceted strategy. It requires
a range of initiatives aimed at expanding export-oriented, high value-adding manufacturing
production and services provision, particularly via the implementation
of targeted industrial policies in new, globally competitive ‘niche’ areas. Other necessary
measures include: a dramatic improvement in the country’s science base; a reversal in the
high levels of skilled emigration; and an expansion of appropriately trained high-skill
graduates.
Secondly, it requires the promotion of ongoing training activities to support intermediate
skills, for example, apprenticeship training at further education and training (FET) colleges
and technician training at universities of technology. And finally, large-scale job creation
schemes triggered by public sector initiatives are urgently needed to assist with high levels
of unemployment and despondency, especially amongst the youth. Supply-side institutions
HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2008
vi
Three skill bands on the National Qualifications Framework
NQF level Skill band
8 High skill
(higher education degrees and
7 postgraduate qualifications)
6
5 Intermediate skill
(post-matriculation, pre-degree
4 certificates and diplomas)
3 Entry-level skills
(pre-matriculation levels)
2
1
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such as colleges, sector education and training authorities (SETAs) and private sector
training centres have a massive task to accomplish in providing entry-level skills and other
developmental measures in support of such a low-skill, labour-intensive, employment-
creating strategy.
Many chapters in this volume contribute to the development of such a multifaceted skills
strategy. The need for skills development strategies at the high, intermediate and entry levels
is a common refrain throughout the text.
The structure of the Review
The structure of the present volume is shaped by the HRD Review 2003 in two ways.
It continues the comprehensive coverage provided by the HRD Review 2003 as far as is
possible. Many chapters, therefore, are updates of work published in the 2003 edition. More
importantly, many of the chapters in the HRD Review 2008 are strongly influenced by the
three-level conception of skills developed in the 2003 edition.
The Introduction and Section One of the HRD Review 2008 examine the context in which
HRD takes place. Chapters 1–7 provide an overview of the education–economy relationship
in South Africa; the South African economy and economic policy; employment shifts and
the ‘jobless growth’ debate; the social and human development context in which education,
training and employment takes place; the impact of HIV/AIDS on this context; the informal
economy; and science and technology policy.
Chapters 8–15 in Section Two focus on the supply-side provision of education and training.
The focus, ordering and structure of these chapters mirror very closely the format adopted
in the 2003 edition of the Review.Topics included are: public expenditure on education;
early childhood development; adult basic education and training; public schooling; FET
colleges; higher education; enterprise training; and public sector training.
The last 10 chapters, in Sections Three, Four and Five, aim to illuminate the three-way
conception of skills discussed earlier. Chapters are distributed across the following sub-
divisions:
•High skills and the professions (Chapters 16–21)
•Intermediate skills and the middle occupations (Chapters 22–24)
• Entry-level skills (Chapter 25)

These 10 chapters provide comprehensive overviews of several professions (financial
services, veterinarians, pharmacists, social workers and engineers) as well as advanced
manufacturing skills, and para-professions (artisans and technicians) as well as intermediate
workers in the services and tourism sectors. The concluding chapter looks at public sector
initiatives aimed at providing entry-level skills for unemployed workers through the
Expanded Public Works Programme.
Data problems
Even though the HRD Review 2008 has assembled a comprehensive collection of data from
a wide array of reliable sources, certain cautionary comments must be made. Data problems
PREFACE
vii
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are endemic to social science research and to government departments, which are largely
responsible for the production and dissemination of socio-economic data. In the South
African case, Statistics South Africa is the central statistical agency responsible for the
10-yearly Census data and six-monthly Labour Force Survey (LFS) data used widely by
researchers in this edition. These are the most reliable data sets available, but even they
suffer certain limitations, for example, small sample populations which disallow rigorous
‘drilling down’ and disaggregation.
Even more serious problems occur in line-function government departments such as the
Department of Education (DoE), which does not collect administrative data on a systematic
and regular basis in crucial areas such as FET colleges, adult basic education and training
(ABET), and early childhood development (ECD). Chapters on these topics have had to
make do with very old data – 2000 in the case of ECD, 2002 in the case of FET colleges, and
1999 in the case of ABET, with incomplete data sets ever since. Data production in each of
these three cases was outsourced by the DoE to contract research providers; the DoE has no
internal capacity to undertake data collection itself. These data deficiencies do not enable
accurate and confident measurement to be produced by researchers using these data sources.
Similar problems are evident in the Department of Labour (DoL), which appears to have
replaced routine administrative data collection on items such as the number of apprentices

trained per year, with the Performance Indicator results of the National Skills Development
Strategy (NSDS) launched in 2001. The DoL is also heavily reliant on the 23 SETAs for data
collection on the NSDS, and has little power to ensure data integrity and quality in the
production of such SETA data.
Another data issue for readers to note is that there are a few instances in which different
chapter authors have extracted and customised their own tables from large databases
such as the Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS) or LFS database,
with divergent results. These divergences arise from differing computations during the
customisation process, and not from errors made in the construction of the data tables.
The task of researching off the HEMIS database is complicated further by the fact that it is
retrospectively amended from time to time, as DoE officials audit the enrolment numbers
provided by institutions. Once exact enrolment and graduation numbers are audited, slight
changes in the HEMIS data will inevitably arise. One research account of higher education,
using data extracted on a specific date, may throw up different results to another seemingly
identical effort, because of the time difference in data extraction.
All of these data limitations and restrictions are unfortunate because they make working
with data difficult, and data gaps compromise the value of the research results. Reliable
administrative data are crucial to good, evidence-led research and policy formulation.
It is hoped that one of the effects of the HRD Review series will be to highlight the
importance of reliable data for good government policy-making and, in doing so, to put
the improvement of data production and collection under the spotlight.
The HRD Review 2008 provides the best possible collection of reliable data available in the
cross-sectoral field of HRD. This collection of chapters and its massive assemblage of data
tables will prove invaluable to government officials who are responsible for decision-making
in HRD. It will assist training practitioners in the SETAs and in the private sector with their
HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2008
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responsibilities for delivering relevant and high-quality training. And lastly, the analysis
presented in each of the 25 chapters will be of use to all those academics and postgraduate

students who are studying and researching in the field of South African education and
training.
Andre Kraak and Karen Press
General Editors
Note
1 The HRD Review 2003 was produced by the Research Programme on Human Resources Development
at the HSRC which has subsequently been incorporated within the new research entity, ESSD.
PREFACE
ix
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Acknowledgements
The authorship of this Review is institutional and collective, and requires the
acknowledgement of several people who spent many weeks and months working on this
project.
The project team
We would like to acknowledge and thank our highly capable project team who made the
HRD Review 2008 and the Data Warehouse website a reality: They are:
•Project Managers: Angelique Wildschut and Sharon Flemmit
•Project Manager of the Data Warehouse website project: Arjen van Zwieten
Authors
We thank each of the authors who contributed their research and analysis from their
positions outside the HSRC, and those within: Salim Akoojee, Miriam Altman, Ivor Baatjes,
Haroon Bhorat, Linda Biersteker, Mignonne Breier, Andrew Dawes, Richard Devey,
Rènette du Toit, Nicci Earle, Elsje Hall, Michael Khan, Likani Lebani, Jo Lorentzen,
Sandy Lowitt, Mahlubi Mabizela, Anna McCord, Simon McGrath, Didi Moyle,
Morné Oosthuizen, Andrew Paterson, Joan Roodt, Jennifer Shindler, Caroline Skinner,
Imraan Valodia, Elize van Zyl, Jocelyn Vass, Mariette Visser, Russell Wildeman,
Angelique Wildschut, Chris Woolard and Ingrid Woolard.
Reviewers

The following academics are thanked for undertaking the demanding peer review of
25 chapters in a very short space of time:
External reviewers
Haroon Bhorat,Director of the Development Policy Research Unit based at the School of
Economics, University of Cape Town
Enver Motala,formerly Deputy Director-General, Department of Education, Gauteng
province, and currently an education consultant
Pundy Pillay,Senior Research Economist for the Research Triangle Institute (SA)
Charles Simkins,Professor of Economics, University of the Witwatersrand
Eddie Webster,Professor of Industrial Sociology, University of the Witwatersrand
Heather Jacklin,Senior Lecturer, School of Education, University of Cape Town
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Sean Archer,Associate Professor of Economics, University of Cape Town
Chris Rogerson,Professor, School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies,
University of the Witwatersrand
Peter Barron,Specialist Technical Advisor, Health Systems Trust
Internal reviewers
Andrew Paterson,Research Director, Research Programme on Education, Science and Skills
Development, HSRC
Glenda Kruss,Chief Research Specialist, Research Programme on Education, Science and
Skills Development, HSRC
Jo Lorentzen,Chief Research Specialist, Research Programme on Education, Science and
Skills Development, HSRC
Mignonne Breier,Chief Research Specialist, Research Programme on Education, Science
and Skills Development, HSRC
Michael Cosser,Chief Research Specialist, Research Programme on Education, Science and
Skills Development, HSRC
HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2008
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xiii
Glossary
Black This term includes all South Africans classified as African, coloured and Indian.
Educators This refers to any person who teaches, educates or trains other people at an
education institution. The term is used in preference to the more traditional ‘teacher’ to
broaden the scope of activities involving people engaged in some form of education of
others.
Establishment posts These are posts in FET colleges that are paid for by the provincial
education authorities.
Full-time equivalent (FTE) This is a measure used to calculate the subsidy paid by the
government to higher education institutions. The measure is based on one student enrolled
full-time for a degree programme in contact mode for a whole academic year. A student
studying full-time for a six-month semester programme would be the equivalent of a 0.5
FTE.
Further education and training This refers to vocationally oriented post-school education
and training at National Qualifications Framework Levels 2–4.
Further education and training (FET) college A further education and training college is a
college which provides further education and training on the basis of full-time, part-time or
distance provision and is (a) established or regarded as having been established as a public
further education and training institution under the Further Education and Training Act
No. 98 of 1998; (b) declared a public further education and training institution under this
Act; or (c) registered or conditionally registered as a private further education and training
institution under this Act.
General education and training (GET) This refers to school-level education, up to National
Qualifications Framework Level 1.
General Education and Training Certificate (GETC) This is the qualification obtained after
completing Grades 1–9 of formal schooling. Learners with a GETC may move on to further
education and training, without proceeding through Grades 10–12 in the school system.
Gini coefficient The Gini coefficient is a figure between 0 and 1, which can be multiplied by

100 to give a figure between 0 and 100. The same idea is being represented in both cases,
with 0 representing perfect equality and 1 (or 100) representing perfect inequality.
Gross enrolment ratio (GER) The gross enrolment ratio is a measure of education access
and coverage. It is calculated by dividing the number of learners enrolled at a given level of
education, regardless of age, by the population of the age group which officially corresponds
to the given level of education.
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HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2008
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Headcount This refers to the number of individual students in an education institution.
Headcounts include all enrolments regardless of the length of the course or programme.
Consequently, each short-term or part-time student is counted in the same way as full-time
enrolments. Headcounts thus present a potentially inflated picture of the size of the system.
To address this, full-time equivalent enrolments are calculated by converting headcounts to
the full-time one-year equivalent of each enrolment.
Higher education This refers to all education programmes at the post-school, pre-degree
level leading to qualifications at National Qualifications Framework Levels 5–8, including
certificates, diplomas, higher diplomas, as well as undergraduate, postgraduate, master’s and
doctoral degrees.
Higher education institution This refers to universities and universities of technology
(formerly technikons) that offer programmes at National Qualifications Framework Levels
5–8.
Internal labour markets These are labour markets located within specific enterprises, in
which jobs are usually filled by internal promotion, and skills are acquired internally rather
than through the acquisition and possession of externally recognised qualifications.
Learner/student Individuals enrolled at schools, in adult education and training courses,
in early childhood educare programmes and in learnerships are referred to as learners.
Individuals enrolled at further education and training colleges and higher education
institutions are referred to as students.
Learnership Learnerships are structured, systematic forms of workplace learning that consist

of formalised learning and structured work experience. Learnership contracts are signed in a
three-way agreement between the employer, the education and training provider and the
learner.
National Qualifications Framework (NQF) The NQF is the qualifications framework that
governs all levels of formal education in South Africa. It comprises eight qualification levels,
the first four of which are associated with formal schooling. Level 5 relates primarily to
university of technology pre-degree qualifications such as diplomas and certificates. Level 6
refers to tertiary-level undergraduate degree qualifications. Levels 7 and 8 are associated
with postgraduate qualifications.
Net enrolment ratio (NER) The NER is a measure of the internal efficiency of the schooling
system. It is calculated by dividing the number of learners of the appropriate age at a given
level of education by the total population of the corresponding age group.
Non-establishment posts These are posts in FET colleges that are paid for from the college
council funds.
Pass rate This refers to the number of learners/students who pass an examination expressed
as a percentage of the total number of learners/students who register for the examination
and who actually write the examination.
Race groups (also population groups) These are terms used to designate the racial
categories (e.g. African, white, coloured and Indian) that were created for purposes of
population classification under apartheid. They no longer have legal status in South Africa.
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They are social categories that scientists would prefer not to employ, but because they still
have salience in shaping social life in South Africa most social analyses still rely on them to
describe sections of the population.
Senior Certificate examination This is the examination written by learners who have
completed Grades 1–12 of schooling and have reached matriculation level. It is the final, and
highest-level, school-leaving qualification.
Throughput rates as defined at further education and training colleges Throughput rates
at further education and training colleges refer to the number of students who enrol at the
beginning of an education programme and who pass the examination at the end of the

year. The ‘throughput rate’ is distinct from the ‘pass rate’, which is defined as the number
of students who pass an examination, expressed as a percentage of the total number who
qualify to write the examination, and who actually write the examination. For example, a
programme has 100 students who enrol at the start of the academic year. Ten students drop
out during the year. At the time of the final examination for the year 90 students qualify to
write, and do write the examination, and 45 students pass. The pass rate is therefore 50 per
cent, but the throughput rate is 45 per cent – a lower number reflecting the dropout factor.
Throughput rates as defined at higher education institutions Throughput rates in higher
education are defined institutionally as the total number of students who graduate from a
higher education institution each year, as a percentage of the total number of students
enrolled in that institution.
GLOSSARY
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Tables and figures
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
Table 1.1: Cellphone usage, by socio-economic category, 2006 6
Table 1.2: Enrolment in public and independent schools (Grades 1–12), 1998–2004 12
Table 1.3: Gross enrolment ratio (percentage) in public and independent schools, by
province, 2003 13
Table 1.4: Net enrolment ratio (percentage) in secondary schools, by province, 1997 and
2001 14
Table 1.5: National Senior Certificate examination results, 1997–2005 14
Table 1.6: Enrolment numbers in public FET colleges, 2004 16
Table 1.7: Higher education headcount enrolments, 1999–2005 16
Table 1.8: Science, engineering and technology graduates as a percentage of total
graduates, 2002–2004 17

Table 1.9: Attrition rates in higher education institutions, 2000–2004 18
Table 1.10: Engineering student throughput rates; averages derived from a six-year
longitudinal study of six cohorts at one South African university,
1995–2000 19
Table 1.11: Graduation levels in key professions, 2000–2004 20
Table 1.12: Permanent academic staff in higher education institutions, by highest formal
qualification (percentage), 1995–2004 20
Table 1.13: Scarce skills, by occupational category, National Scarce Skills List 2006 22
Figure 1.1: ‘Expansion saturation’ in education and training versus growth in the
economy, 1990s–2005 21
SECTION ONE: CONTEXT
Chapter 2
Table 2.1: Real GDP (percentage change, constant 2000 prices), 2000–2003 30
Table 2.2: Consumer price index, 2000–2003 32
Table 2.3: Producer price index, 2000–2003 32
Table 2.4: Non-interest government expenditure in main government Budget,
2000/01–2003/04 33
Table 2.5: Government spending: Consumption and gross fixed capital formation
(percentage change in GDP), 2000–2003 33
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HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2008
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Ta ble 2.6: Fiscal multipliers, 2003 34
Table 2.7: Real growth in consolidated national and provincial spending (percentage
change), 2001–2003 35
Table 2.8: Components of GDP (percentages), 1998–2003 36
Table 2.9: Percentage change in household income, savings, debt ratio (2000 constant
prices), 2001–2003 37
Table 2.10: Real savings (2000 current prices, R million), 2000–2003 37
Table 2.11: Real GDP growth, by sector (percentage change at seasonally adjusted

annualised rates), 2001–2003 38
Table 2.12: Employment, by sector and percentage change, 2001–2004 39
Table 2.13: Exports to selected regions (percentage of total, average over period),
1998–2003 40
Figure 2.1: Real effective exchange rate of the rand (1995 = 100), 1990–2004 31
Figure 2.2: Percentage share of government functions in consolidated national and
provincial spending, 2001–2003 35
Figure 2.3: Percentage growth of broad economic sectors (constant 2000 prices),
2001–2003 38
Figure 2.4: Integrated Economic Action Plan 42
Chapter 3
Table 3.1: Simple GDP elasticity of non-agricultural formal employment, 1970–2002 52
Table 3.2: Output–employment elasticity estimates, non-agricultural formal
employment, 1980–1998 54
Table 3.3: Selected output–employment elasticities, 1970–2001 55
Table 3.4: Employment, unemployment and labour force trends, 1995–2005 57
Table 3.5: Simple GDP elasticity of total employment, 1990–2005 59
Table 3.6: Sectoral economic performance (GVA), 1995–2004 60
Table 3.7: Employment expansion, by sector, 1995–2005 62
Table 3.8: Employment growth, by skills level (percentage change), 1995–2005 63
Table 3.9: Skills breakdown of employment, by sector, 1995 and 2005 65
Figure 3.1: Non-agricultural formal employment and real GDP, 1967–2002 52
Chapter 4
Table 4.1: Provincial population, by gender, 2006 70
Table 4.2: Percentage distribution of projected provincial share of the total population,
2001–2006 71
Table 4.3: Breakdown of South African population, by race and gender, 2006 71
Table 4.4: Breakdown of South African population, by province and race, 2006 71
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xix

Ta ble 4.5: Percentage of population which is urban, by province, 2004 72
Table 4.6: Percentage of urban and rural population, by race, 2004 72
Table 4.7: Selected demographic indicators, by race, 1996–2005 74
Table 4.8: Provincial age dependency ratios, 2005 75
Table 4.9: HIV prevalence (percentage) among antenatal clinic attendees, by province,
2001–2004 75
Table 4.10: HIV prevalence (percentage) among antenatal clinic attendees, by age group,
(2001–2004) 76
Table 4.11: Selected indicators of poverty, assuming a poverty line of R3 000 per capita
per year (in constant 2000 prices), 1993–2004 78
Table 4.12: Gini coefficients calculated by different methods using the 1995 and 2000
IESs 78
Table 4.13: Gini coefficients based on total household expenditure, by race and location,
2004 79
Table 4.14: Estimated household monthly expenditure, by race group (constant 2005
rands), 2001–2005 79
Table 4.15: Household income sources in urban areas (percentage), 2004 80
Table 4.16: Household income sources in rural areas (percentage), 2004 80
Table 4.17: Percentage of all South African households with access to services and
facilities, 2005 81
Table 4.18: Educational outcomes, 1990–2004 85
Table 4.19: Educational attainment of persons aged 24 and older, by race and gender
(percentage), 2005 85
Table 4.20: Infant mortality and child mortality rates, 2001–2004 86
Table 4.21: Access to healthcare, by race (percentage), 1998 and 2005 86
Figure 4.1a: Age pyramid: Africans, 2006 73
Figure 4.1b: Age pyramid: whites, 2006 73
Figure 4.2: Change in access to selected services, 2001–2005 82
Figure 4.3: Change in access to telecommunications, 2001–2005 82
Figure 4.4: Expenditure items as a percentage of GDP, 2000/01–2006/07 83

Figure 4.5: Number of children benefiting from the child support grant, by age group,
2001–2006 84
Figure 4.6: Educational attainment, by age cohort and gender, 2005 86
Chapter 5
Table 5.1: Projections of HIV prevalence in South African population, 1995–2010 93
Table 5.2: Comparison of AIDS orphans projected for South Africa (millions),
2003–2015 96
Table 5.3: HIV prevalence (percentage), by skill level, in selected South African
companies, 1999–2001 100
TABLES AND FIGURES
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HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2008
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Ta ble 5.4: Projected HIV-prevalence rates, by skill level, and survey results of actual
prevalence rates in public health and educator sector (percentage), 2005, 2002,
2004/05 101
Figure 5.1: HIV-prevalence rate among antenatal attendees aged 15–49 years in South
Africa, 1990–2004 92
Figure 5.2: Projected numbers of people newly infected, by sex and age, ASSA2002,
1990–2010 95
Figure 5.3: HIV-prevalence rate of persons 15 years and older, by educational level and
race (percentage), South Africa 2002 97
Figure 5.4: Percentage of girls and boys who have dropped out of school or never
enrolled, 2002 98
Chapter 6
Table 6.1: Formal and informal economy labour market trends (numbers employed),
2001–2003 115
Table 6.2: Percentage of formal and informal workers, by race, 2001 and 2003 115
Table 6.3: Percentage of workers in each race group, by sector, 2001 and 2003 116
Table 6.4: Percentage of workers, by gender, 2001 and 2003 116

Table 6.5: Number and percentage of informal workers, by economic sector, 2001 and
2003 116
Table 6.6: Number and percentage of formal and informal workers, by occupation, 2001
and 2003 117
Table 6.7: Percentage of occupations in the informal economy, by race, 2001 and 2003 118
Table 6.8: Percentage of occupations in the informal economy, by gender, 2001 and
2003 118
Table 6.9: Number and percentage of workers in the formal and informal economy, by
income category, 2001 and 2003 119
Table 6.10: Percentage of formal and informal workers, by education level, 2001 and
2003 119
Table 6.11: Percentage of informal workers, by income level and education level, 2001 and
2003 120
Table 6.12: Occupations in the informal economy, by education level, 2001 and 2003 120
Table 6.13: Ability to read and write in the formal and informal economy (percentage),
2001 and 2003 121
Table 6.14: Percentage of workers who received training in the formal and informal
economy, 2003 121
Table 6.15: Length of training received in the formal and informal economy (percentage),
2003 122
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xxi
Ta ble 6.16: Fields of training in the formal and informal economy (percentage), 2003 122
Table 6.17: Assistance received by type and service provider, N=88, 2005 123
Figure 6.1: Problems related to support services, 2005 124
Chapter 7
Table 7.1: Science councils’ R&D expenditure, 2003/04 140
Table 7.2: Higher education institutions: R&D indicators, 2003/04 141
Table 7.3: Researcher FTEs, 1992 and 2004 142
Table 7.4: HG mathematics Senior Certificate entries and passes, 1997–2004 144

Table 7.5: Age distribution of researchers (percentage), 2001/02 145
Table 7.6: South African-authored journals captured by Thomson Corporation,
1993–2003 146
Table 7.7: South African patents at the USPTO, 1993–2003 146
Table 7.8: Manufactured export revenues ranked by 2002 rands, 1992 and 2002 147
Table 7.9: GERD by socio-economic objective, 2003/04 148
Table 7.10: GERD by research field, 2003/04 149
Table 7.11: R&D expenditure (R million) for biotechnology and associated fields, 2002
and 2004 150
Table 7.12: Research collaboration: 2004/05 R&D Survey Business Sector questionnaire
150
Figure 7.1: Ratio of GERD to GDP (percentage), 1983–2005 138
Figure 7.2: Share of GERD (R billion), 2003/04 138
Figure 7.3: GDP per capita in relation to BERD 139
Figure 7.4: Government’s role in the South African system of innovation 152
SECTION TWO: SUPPLY
Chapter 8
Table 8.1: Summary of key inequality measures in provincial education departments,
1995/96, 2000/01 and 2003/04 165
Table 8.2: POS budgets by province (R’000), 2001/02–2004/05 167
Table 8.3: Per learner spending in POS as a factor of the national per learner average
(rands), 2001/02–2003/04 168
Table 8.4: Key inequality measures in provincial POS budgets, 2001/02, 2002/03 and
2003/04 169
Table 8.5: ECD budgets (R’000), by provincial education department, 2001/02–2004/05
169
Ta ble 8.6: The percentage of ECD sites that fall below three national infrastructure index
poverty lines, by province, 2001 170
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HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2008
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Ta ble 8.7: ABET budgets (R’000), by provincial education department, 2001/02–2004/05
172
Table 8.8: Per learner spending based on ABET budgets (rands), 2002/03 and 2003/04 174
Table 8.9: Actual spending (R’000) on the Ikhwelo (ABET) indirect grant for the period
2001/02–2003/04 174
Table 8.10: Public FET college budgets (R’000), by provincial education department,
2001/02–2004/05 175
Table 8.11: Real average annual growth rates of the HET budget, national student
financial aid scheme, and total national budget (R’000), 2001/02–2004/05 78
Figure 8.1: The present transversal expenditure framework: real spending trends (2004
rands), 2001/02–2007/08 164
Figure 8.2: Expenditure inequality in provincial education departments, 1995/96, 2000/01
and 2003/04 165
Figure 8.3: The present education programme framework: real spending trends (2004
rands), 2001/02–2007/08 166
Figure 8.4: Per capita spending on ECD by provincial education department in 2003/04,
using Census 2001 age-cohort data 171
Figure 8.5: Real year-on-year growth of ABET budgets, 2001/02–2004/05 173
Figure 8.6: Real year-on-year growth of public FET budgets by provincial education
department, 2001/02–2004/05 176
Figure 8.7: Real expenditure per FTE student for public FET colleges, by provincial
education department, 2001/02–2002/03 177
Figure 8.8: Real year-on-year change of HET, NSFAS and total national education budget,
2001/02–2004/05 178
Chapter 9
Table 9.1: EMIS indicators relevant to Grade R 189
Table 9.2: Headcount and percentage of learners in ECD sites in South Africa, by age,
gender and province, 2000 191

Table 9.3: Headcount and percentage of children enrolled in each province, by
population group, 2000 191
Table 9.4: Number and percentage of ECD sites, by geographical location in each
province, 2000 192
Table 9.5: Number of sites, by provincial attendance, 2000 193
Table 9.6: Publicly supported Grade R sites at primary schools and at community-based
sites, by province, 2004/05 194
Table 9.7: Type of site (number and percentage), by province, 2000 196
Table 9.8: ‘Quality’ ratings of school-, community- and home-based ECD sites (number
and percentage), 2000 196
Table 9.9: Learnerships funded by the ETDP SETA, 2003–2005 198
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xxiii
Figure 9.1: Geographic location of ECD sites, by population group, 2000 192
Figure 9.2: Trends in Grade R learner enrolment in public and independent primary
schools, by province, 2000–2003 194
Chapter 10
Table 10.1: Equivalence between ABET and formal schooling 209
Table 10.2: Literacy and basic education levels of South Africans aged 15 and over, 1995,
1996, 2001 210
Table 10.3: Adults aged 20 years and older with no schooling, Census 1991, 1996 and
2001 210
Table 10.4: Adults with no schooling, by gender, Census 1996 and 2001 210
Table 10.5: Population aged 20 years and older with no schooling or less than Grade 7, by
province, 1996 and 2001 211
Table 10.6: Number of Public Adult Learning Centres, by province, 1999–2001, 2003 214
Table 10.7: Number of educators, by province, 1999–2003 215
Table 10.8: Number of adult learners (national) per ABET level, 1999–2001, 2003 216
Table 10.9: ABET Level 4 examination results, by province, 2001–2003 217
Table 10.10: DoE expenditure on non-formal education (NFE), 1995/96–1998/99 219

Table 10.11: Donor support for ABET projects and campaigns, 1996–2003 220
Table 10.12: Private sector ABET providers registered with Umalusi, by province, 2004 221
Table 10.13: Number of workers at NQF Level 1 reached through the NSDS, 2001–2004 222
Table 10.14: ABET provision by SETAs, 2003/04 222
Table 10.15: Number of learners registered for IEB examinations, 1995–2003 223
Chapter 11
Table 11.1: Enrolment and growth rates in ordinary public and independent schools,
2000–2003 230
Table 11.2: Enrolment and growth rate in ordinary public and independent schools, by
gender, 2000–2003 231
Table 11.3: Enrolment and growth rates in ordinary public and independent schools, by
province, 2000 and 2003 232
Table 11.4: GER (percentage) in ordinary public and independent schools, by province,
1997, 2001 and 2003 233
Table 11.5: GER (percentage) in the public and independent school sectors, by gender
and school phase, 2001 and 2003 234
Table 11.6: NER (percentage) in the public and independent school sectors, by phase and
province, 1997 and 2001 235
Table 11.7: NER (percentage) in the public and independent school sectors, by phase and
gender, 2001 235
Table 11.8: Percentage of children in the population enrolled in school and not in school,
by age and province, 2001 236
TABLES AND FIGURES
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HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2008
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Ta ble 11.9: Percentage of children enrolled in the wrong phase for their age group, by
province, 2001 237
Table 11.10: Percentage of children enrolled in school and not in school, by age and
gender, 2001 237

Table 11.11: Grade progression in ordinary public and independent schools, 1992–2003
238
Table 11.12: Enrolment and estimated number of years of effort required to attain Grades
7, 11 and 12, 1999 and 2003 239
Table 11.13: Number of educators, growth rate and learner : educator ratios in ordinary
public and independent schools, by province, 2000 and 2003 239
Table 11.14: Percentage of educators, by age, 1997 and 2002 241
Table 11.15: Percentage of educators, by qualification level and province, 1994, 2000 and
2002 242
Table 11.16: LSM expenditure, 2000/01 and 2002/03 242
Table 11.17: Percentage of schools with access to media centres (libraries) and computers
for teaching and learning, 1996 and 2000 243
Table 11.18: Average score in the TIMSS 2003 Grade 8 mathematics and science
achievement test (ranked by mathematics results), 2003 244
Table 11.19: Results of the TIMSS-R and TIMSS 2003 Grade 8 mathematics and science
achievement, by province, 1999 and 2003 245
Table 11.20: Results of the TIMSS 2003 Grade 8 mathematics and science achievement, by
former racially based education departments, 2003 245
Table 11.21: Mean reading and mathematics scores and sampling errors on all test items
tested for all participating countries in the SACMEQ II project, 2000–2002 246
Table 11.22: Mean reading and mathematics scores and sampling errors on all test items
tested in the SACMEQ II project, by province, 2000–2002 246
Table 11.23: Full-time candidates enrolled for and passing the SCE, 2001–2004 247
Table 11.24: Number of SCE candidates in each province in 2004 and percentage change
over 2001 248
Table 11.25: SCE provincial aggregate marks, 2001 and 2004 248
Table 11.26: Number of SCE male and female candidates enrolled and passing, and as a
percentage of the total, 2001 and 2004 249
Table 11.27: Number of SCE candidates writing and passing selected subjects in total and
on the higher grade, and the pass rate in these subjects, 2001 and 2004 250

Figure 11.1: Percentage terminations, by cause, 1997 and 2003 241
Chapter 12
Table 12.1: Enrolment growth: FTEs and headcounts, 1998–2002 257
Table 12.2: Changes in student demographic profile, 2000–2002 259
Table 12.3: Enrolment, by vocational field, 2000–2002 261
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Ta ble 12.4: NATED and non-NATED programme enrolments, 2000–2002 264
Table 12.5: Proportion of NATED and non-NATED enrolments, by age, 2002 264
Table 12.6: Changes in the racial profile of FET college staff, 2000–2002 265
Table 12.7: Racial profile of staff, by occupational level, 2000–2002 266
Table 12.8: Teaching staff qualifications, 2000–2002 267
Table 12.9: Proportion of established (funded) departmental posts per province,
2000–2002 267
Table 12.10: Pass and throughput rates (percentages), 2000–2002 268
Table 12.11: Dimension, outcomes and characteristics of the SESD approach to college
development 274
Table 12.12: Changes in ratings across SESD Programme evaluation period (2002–2005)
for the seven dimensions of college development (scale of 0–10) 275
Figure 12.1: Changes in the proportion of provincial enrolments, 2000–2002 258
Figure 12.2: Percentage distribution of colleges, by size, 2000 and 2002 259
Figure 12.3: Age profile of FET college students, 1998–2002 260
Figure 12.4: Percentage change in enrolment, by vocational field, 2000–2002 262
Figure 12.5: FET enrolment composition as a percentage of total college enrolment, by
programme level, 2000 and 2002 262
Figure 12.6: Post-N3 composition as a percentage of total college enrolment, by
programme level, 2000 and 2002 263
Figure 12.7: Female staff composition as a percentage of total staff complement, by
occupational level, 2000–2002 266
Figure 12.8: Percentage increase in provincial FET budgets, 2001/02–2002/03 financial
years 269

Chapter 13
Table 13.1: Gross participation rates in public higher education, by population group,
2002 and 2004 283
Table 13.2: Headcount enrolments, by race, 2002–2004 284
Table 13.3: Headcount enrolments, by major field of study, against national targets,
2002–2004 285
Table 13.4: Enrolments, by field of study and gender,for all higher education institutions,
2002–2004 286
Table 13.5: Graduates/diplomates, by field of study, 2002–2004 287
Table 13.6: Major fields of study and national targets, enrolments and
graduates/diplomates (percentage), 2002–2004 287
Table 13.7: Graduations, by field of study, type of institution and gender, 2002–2004 288
Table 13.8: Benchmarks for graduation rates (percentage), 2001 and 2004 288
Table 13.9: Graduation rates (percentage), by type of qualification, 2002–2004 289
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