ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOILS IN THE ENVIRONMENT ppt

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOILS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
FOUR-VOLUME SET
by Daniel Hillel (Editor-in-Chief)
Hardcover: 2200 pages
Publisher: Academic Press; 1 edition (November 8, 2004)
Language: English
ISBN-10: 0123485304
ISBN-13: 978-0123485304
Book Description
More than ever before, a compelling need exists for an encyclopedic resource about soil
the rich mix of mineral particles, organic matter, gases, and soluble compounds that foster
both plant and animal growth. Civilization depends more on the soil as human populations
continue to grow and increasing demands are placed upon available resources.
The Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environmentis a comprehensive and integrated
consideration of a topic of vital importance to human societies in the past, present, and future.
This important work encompasses the present knowledge of the world's variegated soils,
their origins, properties, classification, and roles in the biosphere. A team of outstanding,
international contributors has written over 250 entries that cover a broad range of issues
facing today's soil scientists, ecologists, and environmental scientists.
This four-volume set features thorough articles that survey specific aspects of soil biology,
ecology, chemistry and physics. Rounding out the encyclopedia's excellent coverage,
contributions cover cross-disciplinary subjects, such as the history of soil utilization
for agricultural and engineering purposes and soils in relation to the remediation of pollution
and the mitigation of global climate change.
This comprehensive, yet accessible source is a valuable addition to the library of scientists,
researchers, students, and policy makers involved in soil science, ecology, and environmental
science.
Also available online via ScienceDirect featuring extensive browsing, searching, and
internal cross-referencing between articles in the work, plus dynamic linking to journal
articles and abstract databases, making navigation flexible and easy. For more information,

pricing options and availability visit www.info.sciencedirect.com.
* A distinguished international group of editors and contributors
* Well-organized encyclopedic format providing concise, readable entries, easy searches,
and thorough cross-references
* Abundant visual resources — photographs, figures, tables, and graphs — in every entry
* Complete up-to-date coverage of many important topics — essential information for
scientists, students and professionals alike
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Daniel Hillel
Columbia University
New York, NY
USA
EDITORS
Jerry L Hatfield
National Soil Tilth Laboratory
Ames, IA
USA
Kate M Scow
University of California
Davis, CA
USA
David S Powlson
Rothamsted Research
Harpenden
UK
Michael J Singer
University of California
Davis, CA
USA
Cynthia Rosenzweig

NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies
New York, NY
USA
Donald L Sparks
University of Delaware
Newark, DE
USA
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
R Bardgett
Lancaster University
Lancaster
UK
J L Boettinger
Utah State University
Logan, UT
USA
G Gee
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Richland, WA
USA
R Keren
The Volcani Center
Bet Dagan
Israel
J Kimble
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service
Lincoln, NE
USA
M B Kirkham
Kansas State University

Manhattan, KS
USA
M Kutilek
Prague
Czech Republic
D Martens
Southwest Watershed Research Center
Tucson, AZ
USA
K Mengel
Justus Leibig University
Giessen
Germany
K Reichardt
Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture
Piracicaba
Brazil
K Ritz
Cranfield University
Silsoe
UK
R Schulin
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
Schlieren
Switzerland
N Senesi
Universita
`
di Bari
Bari

Italy
J T Sims
University of Delaware
Newark, DE
USA
K Smith
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh
UK
R L Tate
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, NJ
USA
N van Breemen
Wageningen Agricultural University
Wageningen
The Netherlands
W H van Riemsdijk
Department of Soil Quality
Wageningen
The Netherlands
FOREWORD
The Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment is a vitally important scientific publication and an equally
important contribution to global public policy. The Encyclopedia brings together a remarkable range of
cutting-edge scientific knowledge on all aspects of soil science, as well as the links of soils and soil science to
environmental management, food production, biodiversity, climate change, and many other areas of signi-
ficant concern. Even more than that, the Encyclopedia will immediately become an indispensable resource for
policy makers, analysts, and students who are focusing on one of the greatest challenges of the 21st century.
With 6.3 billion people, our planet is already straining to feed the world’s population, and is failing to do so
reliably in many parts of the world. The numbers of chronically poor in the world have been stuck at some 800

million in recent years, despite long-standing international goals and commitments to reduce that number by
several hundred million. Yet the challenge of food production will intensify in coming decades, as the human
population is projected to rise to around 9 billion by mid-century, with the increased population concentrated
in parts of the world already suffering from widespread chronic under-nourishment.
Unlessthebestscienceis brought to theseproblems, the situation is likelytodeterioratesharply. Foodproduction
systems are already under stress, for reasons often related directly to soils management. In Africa, crop yields are
disastrously low and falling in many places due to the rampant depletion of soil nutrients. This situation needs
urgent reversal, through increasing use of agro-forestry techniques (e.g. inter-cropping cereals with leguminous
nitrogen-fixingtrees) and increasing the efficientapplicationsof chemical fertilizers.In other impoverished,as well
as rich, parts of the planet, decades of intensive agriculture under irrigation have led to salinization, water-logging,
eutrophication of major water bodies, dangerous declines of biodiversity and other forms of environmental
degradation. These enormous strains are coupled with the continuing pressures of tropical deforestation and the
lack of new promising regions for expanding crop cultivation to meet the needs of growing populations. Finally,
there looms the prospect of anthropogenic climate change. Global warming and associated complex and poorly
understood shifts in precipitation extremes and other climate variables all threaten the world’s natural ecosystems
and food production systems in profound yet still imperfectly understood ways. The risks of gradual or abrupt
climate change are coupled with the risks of drastic perturbations to regional and global food supplies.
The Encyclopedia offers state-of-the-art contributions on each of these challenges, as well as links to entries
on the fundamental biophysical processes that underpin the relevant phenomena. The world-scale and world-
class collaboration that stands behind this unique project signifies its importance for the world community.
It is an honor and privilege for me to introduce this path-breaking endeavor.
Jeffrey D Sachs
Director
The Earth Institute at Columbia University
Quetelet Professor of Sustainable Development
Columbia University, New York, USA
PREFACE
The term ‘soil’ refers to the weathered and fragmented outer layer of our planet’s land surfaces. Formed
initially through the physical disintegration and chemical alteration of rocks and minerals by physical and
biogeochemical processes, soil is influenced by the activity and accumulated residues of a myriad of diverse

forms of life. As it occurs in different geologic and climatic domains, soil is an exceedingly variegated body
with a wide range of attributes.
Considering the height of the atmosphere, the thickness of the earth’s rock mantle, and the depth of the
ocean, one observes that soil is an amazingly thin body – typically not much more than one meter thick and
often less than that. Yet it is the crucible of terrestrial life, within which biological productivity is generated
and sustained. It acts like a composite living entity, a home to a community of innumerable microscopic and
macroscopic plants and animals. A mere fistful of soil typically contains billions of microorganisms, which
perform vital interactive biochemical functions. Another intrinsic attribute of the soil is its sponge-like
porosity and its enormous internal surface area. That same fistful of soil may actually consist of several
hectares of active surface, upon which physicochemical processes take place continuously.
Realizing humanity’s utter dependence on the soil, ancient peoples, who lived in greater intimacy with
nature than many of us today, actually revered the soil. It was not only their source of livelihood, but also the
material from which they built their homes and that they learned to shape, heat, and fuse into household
vessels and writing tablets (ceramic, made of clayey soil, being the first synthetic material in the history of
technology). In the Bible, the name assigned to the first human was Adam, derived from ‘adama,’ meaning soil.
The name given to that first earthling’s mate was Hava (Eve, in transliteration), meaning ‘living’ or ‘life-giving.’
Together, therefore, Adam and Eve signified quite literally ‘Soil and Life.’
The same powerful metaphor is echoed in the Latin name for the human species – Homo, derived from
humus, the material of the soil. Hence, the adjective ‘human’ also implies ‘of the soil.’ Other ancient cultures
evoked equally powerful associations. To the Greeks, the earth was a manifestation of Gaea, the maternal
goddess who, impregnated by Uranus (god of the sky), gave birth to all the gods of the Greek pantheon.
Our civilization depends on the soil more crucially than ever, because our numbers have grown while
available soil resources have diminished and deteriorated. Paradoxically, however, even as our dependence on
the soil has increased, most of us have become physically and emotionally detached from it. Many of the
people in the so-called ‘developed’ countries spend their lives in the artificial environment of a city, insulated
from direct exposure to nature, and some children may now assume as a matter of course that food originates
in supermarkets.
Detachment has bred ignorance, and out of ignorance has come the delusion that our civilization has risen
above nature and has set itself free of its constraints. Agriculture and food security, erosion and salination,
degradation of natural ecosystems, depletion and pollution of surface waters and aquifers, and decimation of

biodiversity – all of these processes, which involve the soil directly or indirectly – have become abstractions to
many people. The very language we use betrays disdain for that common material underfoot, often referred to
as ‘dirt.’ Some fastidious parents prohibit their children from playing in the mud and hurry to wash their
‘soiled’ hands when the children nonetheless obey an innate instinct to do so. Thus soil is devalued and treated
as unclean though it is the terrestrial realm’s principal medium of purification, wherein wastes are decomposed
and nature’s productivity is continually rejuvenated.
Scientists who observe soil closely see it in effect as a seething foundry in which matter and energy are in
constant flux. Radiant energy from the sun streams onto the field and cascades through the soil and the plants
growing in it. Heat is exchanged, water percolates through the soil’s intricate passages, plant roots extract
water and transmit it to their leaves, which transpire it back to the atmosphere. Leaves absorb carbon dioxide
from the air and synthesize it with soil-derived water to form the primary compounds of life. Oxygen emitted
by the leaves makes the air breathable for animals, which consume and in turn fertilize plants.
Soil is thus a self-regulating bio-physio-chemical factory, processing its own materials, water, and solar
energy. It also determines the fate of rainfall and snowfall reaching the ground surface – whether the water thus
received will flow over the land as runoff, or seep downward to the subterranean reservoir called groundwater,
which in turn maintains the steady flow of springs and streams. With its finite capacity to absorb and store
moisture, and to release it gradually, the soil regulates all of these phenomena. Without the soil as a buffer, rain
falling over the continents would run off entirely, producing violent floods rather than sustained river flow.
Soil naturally acts as a living filter, in which pathogens and toxins that might otherwise accumulate to foul
the terrestrial environment are rendered harmless. Since time immemorial, humans and other animals have
been dying of all manner of disease and have then been buried in the soil, yet no major disease is transmitted by
it. The term antibiotic was coined by soil microbiologists who, as a consequence of their studies of soil bacteria
and actinomycetes, discovered streptomycin (an important cure for tuberculosis and other infections). Ion
exchange, a useful process of water purification, also was discovered by soil scientists studying the passage of
solutes through beds of clay.
However unique in form and function, soil is not an isolated body. It is, rather, a central link in the larger
chain of interconnected domains and processes comprising the terrestrial environment. The soil interacts both
with the overlying atmosphere and the underlying strata, as well as with surface and underground bodies of
water. Especially important is the interrelation between the soil and the climate. In addition to its function of
regulating the cycle of water, it also regulates energy exchange and surface temperature.

When virgin land is cleared of vegetation and turned into a cultivated field, the native biomass above the
ground is often burned and the organic matter within the soil tends to decompose. These processes release
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, thus contributing to the earth’s greenhouse effect and to global warming.
On the other hand, the opposite act of reforestation and soil enrichment with organic matter, such as can be
achieved by means of conservation management, may serve to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. To
an extent, the soil’s capacity to store carbon can thus help to mitigate the greenhouse effect.
Thousands of years are required for nature to create life-giving soil out of sterile bedrock. In only a few
decades, however, unknowing or uncaring humans can destroy that wondrous work of nature. In various
circumstances, mismanaged soils may be subject to erosion (the sediments of which tend to clog streambeds,
estuaries, lakes, and coastal waters), to leaching of nutrients with attendant loss of fertility and eutrophication
of water bodies, to waterlogging and impaired aeration, or to an excessive accumulation of salts that may
cause a once-productive soil to become entirely sterile. Such processes of soil degradation, sometimes called
‘desertification,’ already affect large areas of land.
We cannot manage effectively and sustainably that which we do not know and thoroughly understand. That
is why the tasks of developing and disseminating sound knowledge of the soil and its complex processes have
assumed growing urgency and importance. The global environmental crisis has created a compelling need for a
concentrated, concise, and definitive source of information – accessible to students, scientists, practitioners,
and the general public – about the soil in all its manifestations – in nature and in relation to the life of humans.
Daniel Hillel
Editor-in-Chief
May 2004
PREFACE ix
INTRODUCTION
The Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment contains nearly 300 articles, written by the world’s leading
authorities. Pedologists, biologists, ecologists, earth scientists, hydrologists, climatologists, geographers, and
representatives from many other disciplines have contributed to this work. Each of the articles separately, and
all of them in sequence and combination, serve to summarize and encapsulate our present knowledge of the
world’s variegated soils, their natural functions, and their importance to humans.
Concise articles surveying specific aspects of soils (soil genesis, soil chemistry and mineralogy, soil physics
and hydrology, and soil biology) are complemented by articles covering transdisciplinary aspects, such as the

role of soils in ecology, the history of soil utilization for agricultural and engineering purposes, the develop-
ment of soil science as a discipline, and the potential or actual contributions of soils to the generation, as well
as to the mitigation, of pollution and of global climate change.
This comprehensive reference encompasses both the fundamental and the applied aspects of soil science,
interfacing in general with the physical sciences and life sciences and more specifically with the earth sciences
and environmental sciences.
The Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment manifests the expanding scope of modern soil science, from
its early sectarian focus on the utilitarian attributes of soils in agriculture and engineering, to a wider and much
more inclusive view of the soil as a central link in the continuous chain of processes constituting the dynamic
environment as a whole. Thus it both details and integrates a set of topics that have always been of vital
importance to human societies and that are certain to be even more so in the future.
Daniel Hillel
Editor-in-Chief
May 2004
CONTENTS
Contents are given as follows: CHAPTER NAME Author(s) Page number
VOLUME 1
A
ACID RAIN AND SOIL ACIDIFICATION L Blake 1
ACIDITY N Bolan, D Curtin and D Adriano 11
AERATION D E Rolston 17
AGGREGATION
Microbial Aspects S D Frey 22
Physical Aspects J R Nimmo 28
AGROFORESTRY P K R Nair 35
AIR PHASE see AERATION; DIFFUSION
ALBEDO see ENERGY BALANCE; RADIATION BALANCE
ALLOPHANE AND IMOGOLITE see AMORPHOUS MATERIALS
ALLUVIUM AND ALLUVIAL SOILS J L Boettinger 45
ALUMINUM SPECIATION D R Parker 50

AMMONIA D E Kissel and M L Cabrera 56
AMORPHOUS MATERIALS J Harsh 64
ANAEROBIC SOILS P W Inglett, K R Reddy and R Corstanje 72
ANION EXCHANGE see CATION EXCHANGE
APPLICATIONS OF SOILS DATA P J Lawrence 78
ARCHAEA J E T McLain 88
ARCHEOLOGY IN RELATION TO SOILS J A Homburg 95
B
BACTERIA
Plant Growth-Promoting Y Bashan and L E de-Bashan 103
Soil L J Halverson 115
BACTERIOPHAGE M Radosevich, K E Williamson and K E Wommack 122
BIOCONTROL OF SOIL-BORNE PLANT DISEASES C E Pankhurst and J M Lynch 129
BIODIVERSITY D H Wall 136
BUFFERING CAPACITY B R James 142
BULK DENSITY see POROSITY AND PORE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION
C
CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM IN SOILS N Bolan, P Loganathan and S Saggar 149
CAPILLARITY D Or and M Tuller 155
CARBON CYCLE IN SOILS
Dynamics and Management C W Rice 164
Formation and Decomposition C A Cambardella 170
CARBON EMISSIONS AND SEQUESTRATION K Paustian 175
CATION EXCHANGE L M McDonald, V P Evangelou and M A Chappell 180
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA A P Schwab 189
CHEMICAL SPECIATION MODELS see SURFACE COMPLEXATION MODELING
CHERNOZEMS see GRASSLAND SOILS
CHILDS, ERNEST CARR E G Youngs 195
CIVILIZATION, ROLE OF SOILS D Hillel 199
CLASSIFICATION OF LAND USE see LAND-USE CLASSIFICATION

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS R W Arnold 204
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Australian R W Fitzpatrick 211
FAO F O Nachtergaele 216
Russian, Background and Principles M Gerasimova 223
Russian, Evolution and Examples D Konyushkov 227
USA D J Brown 235
CLAY MINERALS D G Schulze 246
CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS P Bullock 254
CLIMATE MODELS, ROLE OF SOIL P Smith 262
COLD-REGION SOILS C-L Ping 268
COLLOID-FACILITATED SORPTION AND TRANSPORT R Kretzschmar 276
COMPACTION J J H van den Akker and B Soane 285
COMPOST T L Richard 294
CONDITIONERS R E Sojka, J A Entry and W J Orts 301
CONSERVATION see EROSION: Water-Induced; Wind-Induced; SUSTAINABLE SOIL AND LAND
MANAGEMENT; TERRACES AND TERRACING
CONSERVATION TILLAGE M R Carter 306
COVER CROPS L Edwards and J Burney 311
CROP ROTATIONS C A Francis 318
CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS L S Pereira and I Alves 322
CROP-RESIDUE MANAGEMENT D C Reicosky and A R Wilts 334
CRUSTS
Biological J Belnap 339
Structural R L Baumhardt and R C Schwartz 347
CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE M R Carter and E McKyes 356
D
DARCY’S LAW D Swartzendruber 363
DEGRADATION C J Ritsema, G W J van Lynden, V G Jetten and S M de Jong 370
DENITRIFICATION D A Martens 378

DESERTIFICATION D Hillel and C Rosenzweig 382
DIFFUSION T Addiscott and P Leeds-Harrison 389
DISINFESTATION A Gamliel and J Katan 394
DISPERSION see FLOCCULATION AND DISPERSION
DISSOLUTION PROCESSES, KINETICS K G Scheckel and C A Impellitteri 400
DRAINAGE, SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE N R Fausey 409
DRYLAND FARMING G A Peterson 414
E
EARTHWORMS see FAUNA
EDAPHOLOGY A L Ulery 419
ELECTRON PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE see ELECTRON-SPIN RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY
ELECTRON-SPIN RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY N Senesi and G S Senesi 426
ELECTROSTATIC DOUBLE-LAYER see CATION EXCHANGE
ENERGY BALANCE M Fuchs 438
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING P J Loveland and P H Bellamy 441
ENZYMES IN SOILS R P Dick and E Kandeler 448
EROSION
Irrigation-Induced G A Lehrsch, D L Bjorneberg and R E Sojka 456
Water-Induced J E Gilley 463
Wind-Induced T M Zobeck and R S Van Pelt 470
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS E A Kirkby 478
EUTROPHICATION A J Gold and J T Sims 486
EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM BARE SOIL C W Boast and F W Simmons 494
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION G Stanhill 502
F
FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION
Biota A H Jahren 507
Climate O C Spaargaren and J A Deckers 512
Human Impacts J Sandor, C L Burras and M Thompson 520
Parent Material K R Olson 532

Time E F Kelly and C M Yonker 536
FAUNA T Winsome 539
FERTIGATION U Kafkafi and S Kant 1
FERTILITY J L Havlin 10
FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZATION H W Scherer 20
FIELD CAPACITY see WATER CYCLE
FLOCCULATION AND DISPERSION I Shainberg and G J Levy 27
FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY N Senesi and V D’Orazio 35
FOLIAR APPLICATIONS OF NUTRIENTS M Tagliavini and M Toselli 53
FOOD-WEB INTERACTIONS P C de Ruiter and J C Moore 59
FORENSIC APPLICATIONS W F Rowe 67
FOREST SOILS J R Boyle 73
FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY D Peak 80
FRACTAL ANALYSIS Y Pachepsky and J W Crawford 85
FREEZING AND THAWING
Cycles B Sharratt 98
Processes G N Flerchinger, G A Lehrsch and D K McCool 104
FUNGI K Ritz 110
VOLUME 2
G
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS J Bo¨hner, T Selige and R Ko¨the 121
GERMINATION AND SEEDLING ESTABLISHMENT A Hadas 130
GLOBAL WARMING see CARBON EMISSIONS AND SEQUESTRATION; CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS;
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
GRASSLAND SOILS J A Mason and C W Zanner 138
GREEN MANURING see COVER CROPS
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS K A Smith 145
GROUNDWATER AND AQUIFERS Y Bachmat 153
GROUNDWATER POLLUTION see POLLUTION: Groundwater
H

HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSPORT R Horton and A Globus 169
HEAT CAPACITY see THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES
HEAT FLOW see THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES
HEAVY METALS D C Adriano, N S Bolan, J Vangronsveld and W W Wenzel 175
HILGARD, EUGENE WOLDEMAR R Amundson 182
HOOGHOUDT, SYMEN BAREND P A C Raats and R R van der Ploeg 188
HUMIFICATION T C Balser 195
HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES, TEMPERATURE EFFECTS S A Grant 207
HYDRIC SOILS G W Hurt 212
HYDROCARBONS P Kostecki, R Morrison and J Dragun 217
HYDRODYNAMIC DISPERSION see SOLUTE TRANSPORT
HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS T P A Ferre´ and A W Warrick 227
HYSTERESIS J H Dane and R J Lenhard 231
I
IMMISCIBLE FLUIDS R J Lenhard, J H Dane and M Oostrom 239
INCEPTISOLS A Palmer 248
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION see POLLUTION: Industrial
INFILTRATION T P A Ferre´ and A W Warrick 254
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY see FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
IRON NUTRITION K Mengel and H Kosegarten 260
IRRIGATION
Environmental Effects S Topcu and C Kirda 267
Methods D L Bjorneberg and R E Sojka 273
ISOTOPES IN SOIL AND PLANT INVESTIGATIONS K Reichardt and O O S Bacchi 280
ISOTROPY AND ANISOTROPY T-C J Yeh, P Wierenga, R Khaleel and R J Glass 285
J
JENNY, HANS R Amundson 293
K
KELLOGG, CHARLES J D Helms 301
KINETIC MODELS P M Jardine 307

KIRKHAM, DON D R Nielsen and R R van der Ploeg 315
L
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS
LANDFILLS see WASTE DISPOSAL ON LAND: Municipal
LAND-USE CLASSIFICATION J A LaGro Jr 321
LAWES, JOHN BENNET AND GILBERT, JOSEPH HENRY A E Johnston 328
LEACHING PROCESSES B E Clothier and S Green 336
LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON R R van der Ploeg, W Bo¨hm and M B Kirkham 343
LIMING E J Kamprath and T J Smyth 350
LIPMAN, JACOB G. J C F Tedrow 358
LOESS A J Busacca and M R Sweeney 364
LOWDERMILK, WALTER CLAY J D Helms 373
LYSIMETRY T A Howell 379
M
MACRONUTRIENTS C W Wood, J F Adams and B H Wood 387
MACROPORES AND MACROPORE FLOW, KINEMATIC WAVE APPROACH P F Germann 393
MAGNESIUM IN SOILS see CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM IN SOILS
MANURE MANAGEMENT J T Sims and R O Maguire 402
MARBUT, CURTIS FLETCHER J P Tandarich 410
MATRIC POTENTIAL see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS; WATER POTENTIAL; WATER RETENTION
AND CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
MEDITERRANEAN SOILS J Torrent 418
METAL OXIDES A C Scheinost 428
METALS AND METALLOIDS, TRANSFORMATION BY MICROORGANISMS S M Glasauer,
T J Beveridge, E P Burford, F A Harper and G M Gadd 438
METALS, HEAVY see HEAVY METALS
MICROBIAL PROCESSES
Environmental Factors P G Hartel 448
CommunityAnaly sis C H Nakatsu 455
Kinetics N S Panikov 463

MICRONUTRIENTS L M Shuman 479
MINERAL–ORGANIC–MICROBIAL INTERACTIONS P M Huang, M C Wang and M K Wang 486
MINERALS, PRIMARY P M Huang and M K Wang 500
MINERALS, SECONDARY see CLAY MINERALS
MINIMUM TILLAGE see CONSERVATION TILLAGE
MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT see SOLUTE TRANSPORT
MORPHOLOGY P R Owens and E M Rutledge 511
MULCHES C L Acharya, K M Hati and K K Bandyopadhyay 521
MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI L M Egerton-Warburton, J I Querejeta, M F Allen and S L Finkelman 533
N
NEMATODES D A Neher and T O Powers 1
NEUTRON SCATTERING M J Fayer and G W Gee 6
NITROGEN IN SOILS
Cycle M S Coyne and W W Frye 13
Nitrates D S Powlson and T M Addiscott 21
Nitrification J I Prosser 31
Plant Uptake A Hodge 39
Symbiotic Fixation J I Sprent 46
NITROGEN FERTILIZERS see FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZATION
NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL G W Gee, P D Meyer and A L Ward 56
NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY N K Fageria and V C Baligar 63
NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT G D Binford 71
VOLUME 3
O
ORGANIC FARMING C A Francis 77
ORGANIC MATTER
Principles and Processes M Schnitzer 85
Genesis and Formation K M Haider and G Guggenberger 93
Interactions with Metals N Senesi and E Loffredo 101
ORGANIC RESIDUES, DECOMPOSITION A J Franzluebbers 112

ORGANIC SOILS D L Mokma 118
OVERLAND FLOW T S Steenhuis, L Agnew, P Ge´rard-Marchant and M T Walter 130
OXIDATION–REDUCTION OF CONTAMINANTS C J Matocha 133
P
PADDY SOILS C Witt and S M Haefele 141
PARENT MATERIAL see PEDOLOGY: Basic Principles; FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION: Parent Material
PEDOLOGY
Basic Principles M J Singer 151
Dynamic F C Ugolini 156
PEDOMETRICS I O A Odeh and A B McBratney 166
PENMAN, HOWARD LATIMER J L Monteith 176
PENMAN–MONTEITH EQUATION R Allen 180
PERCOLATION see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS
PERMAFROST see POLAR SOILS
PERMEABILITY see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS) see POLLUTANTS: Persistent Organic (POPs)
PESTICIDES R H Bromilow 188
PETROLEUM see HYDROCARBONS
pH N Bolan and K Kandaswamy 196
PHOSPHORUS IN SOILS
Overview J T Sims and P A Vadas 202
Biological Interactions M D Mullen 210
PHYTOTOXIC SUBSTANCES IN SOILS M Qadir, S Schubert and D Steffens 216
PLANT–SOIL–WATER RELATIONS R A Feddes and J C van Dam 222
PLANT–WATER RELATIONS C Gimenez, M Gallardo and R B Thompson 231
POISEUILLE’S LAW see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS
POLAR SOILS J C F Tedrow 239
POLLUTANTS
Biodegradation P B Hatzinger and J W Kelsey 250
Effects on Microorganisms M E Fuller 258

Persistent Organic (POPs) D Johnson 264
POLLUTION
Groundwater H Rubin 271
Industrial S P McGrath 282
POLYMERS AND MICROORGANISMS M C Rillig 287
POORLY CRYSTALLINE ALLUMINOSILICATES see AMORPHOUS MATERIALS
POROSITY AND PORE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION J R Nimmo 295
POTASSIUM IN SOILS P M Huang, J M Zhou, J C Xie and M K Wang 303
PRECIPITATION, WATERSHED ANALYSIS J V Bonta 314
PRECIPITATION–DISSOLUTION PROCESSES W P Robarge 322
PRECISION AGRICULTURE see SITE-SPECIFIC SOIL MANAGEMENT
PREFERENTIAL FLOW see UNSTABLE FLOW; MACROPORES AND MACROPORE FLOW,
KINEMATIC WAVE APPROACH
PRODUCTIVITY D L Karlen 330
PROFILE see MORPHOLOGY
PROTOZOA W Foissner 336
Q
QUALITY OF SOIL B J Wienhold, G E Varvel and J W Doran 349
R
RADIATION BALANCE J L Hatfield, T J Sauer and J H Prueger 355
RADIONUCLIDES see ISOTOPES IN SOIL AND PLANT INVESTIGATIONS
RAINFED FARMING see DRYLAND FARMING
RANGE MANAGEMENT G L Anderson 360
RECYCLING OF ORGANIC WASTES see POLLUTANTS: Biodegradation
REDISTRIBUTION see WATER CYCLE
REDOX POTENTIAL R D DeLaune and K R Reddy 366
REDOX REACTIONS, KINETICS P S Nico and S Fendorf 372
REMEDIATION OF POLLUTED SOILS E Lombi and R E Hamon 379
REMOTE SENSING
Organic Matter D K Morris, C J Johannsen, S M Brouder and G C Steinhardt 385

Soil Moisture T J Jackson 392
RHIZOSPHERE A C Kennedy and L Z de Luna 399
RICHARDS, LORENZO A. W R Gardner 407
ROOT ARCHITECTURE AND GROWTH L E Jackson 411
ROOT EXUDATES AND MICROORGANISMS B-J Koo, D C Adriano, N S Bolan and C D Barton 421
S
SALINATION PROCESSES I Shainberg and G J Levy 429
SALINITY
Management D Hillel 435
Physical Effects D Russo 442
SALT BALANCE OF SOILS see SALINATION PROCESSES
SALT-AFFECTED SOILS, RECLAMATION R Keren 454
SAND DUNES H Tsoar 462
SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FLOW see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS;
VADOSE ZONE: Hydrologic Processes
SCALING
Physical Properties and Processes G Sposito 472
Transport Processes R P Ewing 477
SEPTIC SYSTEMS R L Lavigne 485
SHIFTING CULTIVATION R Lal 488
SITE-SPECIFIC SOIL MANAGEMENT C J Johannsen and P G Carter 497
SLASH AND BURN AGRICULTURE see SHIFTING CULTIVATION
SLUDGE see WASTE DISPOSAL ON LAND: Liquid; Municipal
SODIC SOILS G J Levy and I Shainberg 504
SOIL–PLANT–ATMOSPHERE CONTINUUM J M Norman and M C Anderson 513
SOLUTE TRANSPORT M C Sukop and E Perfect 521
SORPTION
Metals D L Sparks 532
Organic Chemicals B Xing and J J Pignatello 537
Oxyanions C P Schulthess, H Wijnja and W Yang 548

SORPTION–DESORPTION, KINETICS D L Sparks 556
SPATIAL PATTERNS J H Go¨rres and J A Amador 562
SPATIAL VARIATION, SOIL PROPERTIES R Webster 1
SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA K D Pennell 13
STATISTICS IN SOIL SCIENCE R Webster 19
STERILIZATION see DISINFESTATION
STOCHASTIC ANALYSIS OF SOIL PROCESSES D Russo 29
STRESS–STRAIN AND SOIL STRENGTH S K Upadhyaya 38
STRUCTURE V A Snyder and M A Va´zquez 54
SUBSOILING R L Raper 69
SULFUR IN SOILS
Overview M A Tabatabai 76
Biological Transformations S D Siciliano and J J Germida 85
Nutrition M A Tabatabai 91
SURFACE COMPLEXATION MODELING S Goldberg 97
VOLUME 4
SUSTAINABLE SOIL AND LAND MANAGEMENT J L Berc 108
SWELLING AND SHRINKING D Smiles and P A C Raats 115
T
TEMPERATE REGION SOILS E A Nater 125
TEMPERATURE REGIME see THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES
TENSIOMETRY T K Tokunaga 131
TERMITES see FAUNA
TERRA ROSSA see MEDITERRANEAN SOILS
TERRACES AND TERRACING G R Foster 135
TESTING OF SOILS A P Mallarino 143
TEXTURE G W Gee 149
THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES D Hillel 156
THERMODYNAMICS OF SOIL WATER P H Groenevelt 163
TILLAGE see CONSERVATION TILLAGE; CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE; ZONE TILLAGE

TILTH D L Karlen 168
TIME-DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY G C Topp and T P A Ferre´ 174
TROPICAL SOILS
Arid and Semiarid H C Monger, J J Martinez-Rios and S A Khresat 182
Humid Tropical S W Buol 187
U
UNSTABLE FLOW T S Steenhuis, J-Y Parlange, Y-J Kim, D A DiCarlo, J S Selker, P A Nektarios,
D A Barry and F Stagnitti 197
URBAN SOILS J L Morel, C Schwartz, L Florentin and C de Kimpe 202
V
VADOSE ZONE
Hydrologic Processes J W Hopmans and M Th van Genuchten 209
Microbial Ecology P A Holden and N Fierer 216
VIRUSES see BACTERIOPHAGE
VOLCANIC SOILS G Uehara 225
W
WAKSMAN, SELMAN A. H B Woodruff 233
WASTE DISPOSAL ON LAND
Liquid C P Gerba 238
Municipal D A C Manning 247
WATER AVAILABILITY see PLANT–SOIL–WATER RELATIONS
WATER CONTENT AND POTENTIAL, MEASUREMENT G S Campbell and C S Campbell 253
WATER CYCLE D K Cassel and B B Thapa 258
WATER EROSION see EROSION: Water-Induced
WATER HARVESTING D Hillel 264
WATER MANAGEMENT see CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS
WATER POTENTIAL D Or, M Tuller and J M Wraith 270
WATER REQUIREMENTS see CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS
WATER RETENTION AND CHARACTERISTIC CURVE M Tuller and D Or 278
WATER TABLE see GROUNDWATER AND AQUIFERS

WATER, PROPERTIES D Hillel 290
WATER-REPELLENT SOILS J Letey 301
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT M D Tomer 306
WATER-USE EFFICIENCY M B Kirkham 315
WEED MANAGEMENT D D Buhler 323
WETLANDS, NATURALLY OCCURRING E K Hartig 328
WIDTSOE, JOHN A. AND GARDNER, WILLARD G S Campbell and W H Gardner 335
WIND EROSION see EROSION: Wind-Induced
WINDBREAKS AND SHELTERBELTS E S Takle 340
WOMEN IN SOIL SCIENCE (USA) M J Levin 345
WORLD SOIL MAP H Eswaran and P F Reich 352
Z
ZERO-CHARGE POINTS J Chorover 367
ZONE TILLAGE J L Hatfield and A T Jeffries 373
Table of Contents, Volume 1
A 1
Acid Rain and Soil Acidification 1
Introduction 1
Acid Rain 1
Atmospheric Transport, Secondary Chemistry, and Acid Rain 2
Dry oxidation of sulfur and nitrogen oxides 2
Wet oxidation of sulfur 2
Acid Soil 3
Sources of Acids in Soils 4
Internal Acid Production in Soils 4
Carbonic and organic acid production 4
Nitrogen accumulation and transformations 5
Assimilation of Nutrients by Vegetation 5
Deposition of Nitrogen Species and Nitrogen Transformations 5
Addition of Dissolved Strong Acids Through Acid Deposition 5

Observations of Changes in Soil Acidification due to Acid Deposition 5
Proton Sinks and Buffer Ranges 6
Carbonate and Silicate Buffers 7
Cation Exchange Buffer 7
Aluminum and Iron Buffer 8
Proton Adsorption Reactions 9
Acid Sources and Sinks: Input-Output Relationships and the
Calculation of Proton Balances 9
Acidification, Ecosystem Stability and Global Change 9
Further Reading 11
Acidity 11
Introduction 11
Processes Generating Acidity in Soils 12
Acid Drainage 12
Acid Precipitation 12
Elemental Cycling 13
Fertilizer Reactions 14
Measurement and Effects of Soil Acidity 15
Amelioration of Soil Acidity 16
Further Reading 17
Aeration 17
Introduction 17
Soil-Air Composition 17
Gas Exchange Mechanisms 18
Diffusion 18
Convection 18
Gas Reactions 19
Respiration 19
Oxidation-Reduction Processes 19
Production and Consumption of Other Gases 19

Aeration Requirements 20
Plants 20
Remediation of Contaminated Soils 20
Summary 20
Further Reading 21
Aggregation 22
Microbial Aspects 22
Introduction 22
Microorganisms and Aggregate Formation 22