World Transport, Policy & Practice Volume 17.2 June 2011 pot

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World Transport, Policy & Practice
Volume 17.2 June 2011




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Eco‐Lo gica"Ltd."ISSN"1352‐7614"
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© 2011 Eco-Logica Ltd.

Editor
Professor John Whitelegg
Stockholm Environment Institute at York,
Department of Biology, University of York,
P.O. Box 373, York, YO10 SYW, U.K

Editorial Board
Professor Helmut Holzapfel
Universität Kassel,
Fachbereich 06 - Architektur, Stadt- und
Landschaftsplanung
AG Integrierte Verkehrsplanung

Gottschalkstraße 28,
D-34127 Kassel GERMANY



Eric Britton
Managing Director, EcoPlan International,
The Centre for Technology & Systems
Studies,
8/10 rue Joseph Bara, F-75006 Paris, FRANCE

Paul Tranter
School of Physical Environmental &
Mathematical Sciences, University of New
South Wales,
Australian Defence Force Academy,
Canberra ACT 2600, AUSTRALIA

Publisher
Eco-Logica Ltd., 53 Derwent Road, Lancaster,
LA1 3ES, U.K Telephone: +44 (0)1524 63175
E-mail:


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Contents

Editorial 3

John Whitelegg

Abstracts & Keywords 4

Street Conflict, Power and Promise: 5
Livable Streets: Humanising the Auto-Mobility Paradigm
A New Foreword for the Second Edition of Livable Streets
Bruce S. Appleyard, PhD


Driven To Excess: 12
Impacts of Motor Vehicles on the Quality of Life of Residents of Three Streets in Bristol UK
Joshua Hart and Prof. Graham Parkhurst
"
‘Peak Car Use’: Understanding the Demise of Automobile Dependence 31
Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy










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3"
Editorial
"

Thi s" is" an" unusual" and" important " issue" of" the"
journal." " We" are" deligh ted" to" carry" an" a rticle" by"
Bruce"Appleyard"in"the"United"Sates"which"is"his"
introduction" to" a" new" edition" of" Livable" Stre ets.""
Livable" Streets" by" Donald" Appleyard" was"
published" by"the"Unive rsity"of" California"Press" in"
1981"and"is"one"of"the"most"importa nt"transport"
texts" to" be" published" in" the" last" 40" years." " It"
immediately"identifies"the"street"as"an "important"
social" milieu" an d" an" asset" of" the" grea test "
importance" for" sociability," neigh bourliness,"
friendl iness" and" community" life." " Donald"
Appleyard""made"a "huge"leap"forward"leaving"" the"
tawdry" world" of" trans por t" economics ," cost‐
benefit"analysis,"highway"construction"and"foolish"
notion s" about" higher" car" based" mobility" feeding"
higher"quality"of"life"w ell"behind.""It"es tablishes"a"
new" paradig m" and" to" the" sham e" of" mo st"
transport" professionals" and" politicians" ma king"
decisions" on" tr ansport" choices" its " message" is"
diluted,"m isunderstood"and"ignored."""
"
Donald" Appleyard’s" book" opens" with" the"
senten ce:""“Nearly"everyone"in"the"worl d"lives"on"
a" s treet”." " He" goes" on" to" say" that" the" book" has"
two"objectives:"
"
 To"explor e"what"it"is"like"to"live"on"streets"
wit h"different"kinds"of"traffic"
"

 To"search"for "ways"in"which"more"streets"
can"be"ma de"safe"and"liv able"
"
These"two"objectives"capture"a"great"deal"of"t he"
spirit"and"purpose"of"World"Tra nsport"Policy"and"
Pra ctice"and"the"revised"edition"of"Livable"Stre ets"
will"be"warmly"welcomed" by"everyone " who" lives"
on"a"street "and"would"like"to"se e"lif e"made "better"
by" celebrating"the" quality" of"th ose" spaces"rather"
than" treatin g" them" as" sewers" for" the" rapid"
movement"of"lumps"of"metal."
"
Thi s"article"is"followed"by"a"UK"application"of"the"
Donald"Appleyard"methodology.""Joshua "Hart"and"
Graham"Parkhu rst"report"on"an"original"empirical"
application" of" “Livable" Street”" in" Bris tol" and"
confirm" the" original" findings" about" the" negative"
impacts" of" traffic" on" socia bility" and" conviviality"
and"the"need"to"assert"a"new"transport"paradigm"
that"puts "streets"and"human"life"at"the"top"of"the"
priority" l ist" and" not" somewhere" below" the" level"
of"a"car"driver"speeding"through"a"residential"area"
to"visit "a"gymnasium"in"orde r"to"keep"fit."
"
Fin ally"we"have"anothe r"major"contribution"from"
Pet er"Newman"and"Jeff"Kenw orthy.""In"this"article"
they" identify" the" concept" of" “peak" car" use”" and"
speculate" that" “we" ma y" now" be" witnessing" the"
demise"of"automobile"dependence"in"cities”.""The"
author s" identify" the" scale" in" decline" of" car" use"

and"discuss"6"possible"reasons"for"the"decline"and"
its" significance" for" the" fut ure" of" planning,"
engine ering," urban" design" and" fina ncing." " If" this"
phenomenon" is" well" established" and" can" be"
relied" on" to" continue " through" the" next" 30‐40"
years" then" we" can" confi dently" look" forward" to"
Donald" Appleyard’s" human" centre d" desires"
becoming" a" global" reality" and" that" will" be"
something"to"celebrate."
W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
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"
4"
Abstracts and Keywords

Street"Conflict,"Power"and"Promise: "!"#$%&'()*+''*,:(Humanis ing"the"Aut o‐Mobility "Par adigm"
A"New" Foreword"for"t he"Second"Edition"of"Livable"Streets"
Bruce"S."Appleyar d,"PhD"
"
Donald" Appleyard’s" semina l" book" “Livable"
Streets”"was"published"in"1981"and"in"this"article"
his" son," Bruce" Appleyard," has" written" an"
introduction"to"a"new"edition"to"be"published"by"
Longm an" in"2011."" "The"introduction"to" the" new"
edi tion"is"reproduced"i n"full"an d"puts"into"c ontext"
the"import ance"of"the"orig inal"work,"the"untimely"
death"of"Dona ld"at"the"hands"of"a"drunk"driver"in"
Athens" and" the" stronger" than" ever" relevance" of"
the"clarity"and"purpose"of"this"celebration"of"the"

street" and" how" to" go" about" restoring" streets" to"
human"beings."
"
Key"Words:""Appleyar d,"Livable"Streets"
"
"
Driven"To"Excess:""
Impacts"of"Motor "Vehicles"o n"the"Q uality"of"Life"of"Residents"of" Three"Streets"in"Bristol"UK" "
Joshua"Hart"and"Prof."Graham"P arkhurst"
"
Thi s" article" r eports" an" original" empiri cal" study"
carried" out" in" Bristol" (UK)" modelled" on" Donald"
Appleyard’s"study"publi shed"in"the"book"“Livable"
Streets”." " The" results"conf irm" the" findings" of"the"
original"work"by"Donald"Appleyard.""Hig her"le vels"
of" motor" vehicl e" traffic" were" found" to" have"
considerable" neg ativ e" impa cts" on" the" social" and"
physical" environment" whilst" reside nts" identify"
numerous" impacts " on" the" psy cho logi cal" and"
practical"aspects"of"quality"of"lif e."The"authors"go"
beyond" the" f indings " of" negative" impact" and"
ide ntify"policies ,"measures"and"interventi ons"that"
are "capable"of"restoring"st reets"to"people.""These"
include" reduced" numbers" of" parking" spaces,"
modal" shift" in" th e" directi on" of" walking" and"
cyc ling ,"“shared"space”" and"20mph/30kph"speed"
limits"in"urban"area"
"
Key" W ords:" Appleyard," Livable" Streets," Bristol,"
street"design,"shar ed"space,"parking,"walking"and"

cyc ling"
"
‘Peak"Car"Use’:"Understanding"the"Demise"of"Auto mobile"Dependence"
Pet er"Newman"an d"Jeff"Kenworthy"
"
Thi s"article"identifies"and"discusses"the"concept"of"
“peak" ca r" use”." " Car" use" is" declining" in" the" USA,"
UK, " Australia" and" a" range" of" other" relatively"
wealthy" cou nties." " Data" a re" presented" and"
discussed," the" decline" in" car" use" confirmed" and"
six" potential" causes" identified." " The" causes"
include"growth"in"public"transport"use,"hitting"the"
Marchetti" wall," reversal" of " u rban" sprawl," ageing"
of"cities,"growth"in"the"culture"of"urbani sm"and"a"
rise" in" fuel" prices." " The" article" concludes" wi th" a"
discussion" of" the" implicatio ns" of" a" decline" in" car"
use" for" traffic" engineers," planners," urban"
financiers" and" urba n" economist" and" confidently"
asserts "“th e"demise"o f"automobile"dependence”."
"
Key" Words:" Peak" car" use," decline" in" vehicl e"
kilometres" of" car" use," urban" sprawl," Marchetti ,"
urbanism,"fuel"prices,"traffic"engineers,"pla nners,"
financiers," urban" economists," de mise" of"
automobile"dependence "
"

5" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
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"
Stre et"Conflict,"Power"and "Promise: " "
!"#$%&'()*+''* ,:(Humanising"the"Aut o‐Mobili ty"Pa radigm(
A"New"Foreword"for"the"Second"Edition"of"Livable"Streets!
Bruce"S."Appleyar d,"PhD"
February"8,"2011
+'/.+0(
On" September" 23," 1982," Donald " Appleyard"
was" killed" by" a" speeding" drunk" driver" in"
Athens,"Greece."He"was"in"the"final"phases"of"
completing" his" book" on" environmental"
symbolism," u rban" identity," po wer " and" place."
It" remains" unpublished." A" year" e arlier," in"
1981," the " first" edition" of" !"#$%&'( )*+''*," was"
published," a" groundbre aking" and" seminal"
work," the" product" of" more" than" a" decade" of"
rigorous" research" and" exceptionally"
thoughtful" analysis." My" father ’s" untimely"
death" at" 54" was" not" only" extremely" painful"
for"me"and"my"famil y—I"was"seventeen"at"the"
time— It"was"also"a"devastating"loss"for"those"
concer ned" with" the" design," planning" and"
engine ering" of" our" streets ," as" well" as" the"
“th ousands" of" people" who" may" not" have"
known "him"but"whose"environment s"and"lives"
are " more" joyful" and" satisfying" because" he"
hel ped"plan"them"–"hum ane ly.”
1
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"

The"tragic"irony"of"Don ald" Appleyard’s"death"
by" an"automo bile"and"th e"re ckless"actions" of"
its" driver" (t he" only" one" to" surv ive" the" crash)"
underscores" central" questions" r aised" in"
!"#$%&'( )*+''*,—Had" the" drive" to"
accommodate"cars" and" truc ks" on" city" streets"
gone" too" far?" " Had" th e" objecti ve" been"
overshot," allowing" automobiles" to" take" over"
nei ghb ourhood"stre ets"wi th"me nacingl y"l ethal"
indiffe rence?""
"
Now," as" then," automobile" encroachment" of"
nei ghb ourhood"stree ts"is"skyrocketing"around"
the" world," especially" in" our" most" populous"
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"
1
Memoriam"written"for"Donald"Appleyard"by"Jacobs, "Cooper‐
Marcus"and"Dick ert"in"1982"
countries" (e.g.," Chin a," India," and" Indonesia)."
Thus" the" questions" raised" by" !"#$%&'( )*+''*,(
are "as"relevant"today,"if"not"more"so,"as"when"
they"were" first"published"in"1981.""
"
Althou gh" struck" down" by" an" automob ile," my"
father,"in"a"remarkable"stroke"of"phoenix‐like"
prescience," left" us" with" a" guidebook" to" find"
our"way"back :"to"recapt ure"o ur"str eets"for"our"
communities; " to" recr eate" and " preserve" them"
as" enriching" and " joyful" places" for" reside nts"

and" travellers" alike—a" greater" vision" than "
what" they" had" merely" become—condui ts" for"
traffic," shaped" upon" th e" principles" of" fluid"
dynamics"guiding"the"design"and"operation "of"
water" an d" sewer" sys tems— the" primary" goal"
bei ng" to" efficiently" f low " water" and" waste"
down" a" pipe.
2
" The" “pipes”" in" this" case,"
however," wer e" the" most" accessible" venues"
for"people"to"socialise"and"build"social"capital,"
engage" in" physical" activity" and" learn" about"
the" world," as" well" as" find" peace ," respite" and"
rejuvenation" from" their" daily" live s—our"
nei ghb ourhood"streets."
"
My " father" was" gone," but " he" left" us" with" rich"
insight ," guidance" and," perhaps" most"
importantly," a" promising" vision" and"
inspiration"for"us"to"recapture"our"streets"f or"
our" co mmuni ties." Although" struck" down" by"
an" automobile" at" the" hands" of" a" reckless"
driver," my" father’s" spirit" lives" on" through"
!"#$%&'()*+''*,"to"have"a" final"word.(((
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"
2
Peter"Norton"(2005)"Fighting"Traffic,"outlines"how"local"water"
and"sewage"agencies"were"the"first"to"take"over"the"operations"
of"city"streets,"adhering"the" principles"of"fluid"dynamics"to"such"

things" a s" how" signals" worked," wher e" signs" were" placed,"
resulting" in" campaigns" to" keep" p edestrians" out" of " the" streets"
entirely !"

6" """"""""" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P a c t i c e " "
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The!Importance!of!Livab le(Streets!
!"#$%&'()*+''*,"was"and"is"a"phenomenological"
ma ster piece" as" it" builds" on" my" father’s"
collect ive"insights"emerging"from"his"in‐depth"
analysis"of"the"effects"of"the"automobile"and"
traffic"on"people’s"lives ,"clarifying"i dea s"about"
how" we" shoul d" research," understand," and"
respond"to"unliveable"condi tions.
3
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"
Lookin g"back"over"the"decades"and "reflec ting"
on"the"legacy"of "!" #$% &'()*+''*,,"Univers ity"of"
Cal ifornia" Profes sor" Randolph" Hester" said" “it"
was" perhaps" the" most" i nfluential" urban"
design" book" of" its" time.”" " In" 2009," !"#$%&'(
)*+''*, " was " featured" in" JAPA" as" one" of" the"
most" in fluential" planning" books" of" its" own"
100" year" history," which" I" was" co‐author"
alo ngside"Reid"Ewing."In"his"first"draft"sent "to"
me ," Reid" began" the" artic le" stating" the"
following:"
"

“Don ald" Appleyard" was" one" of" the" giants" of"
the"urban" planning"field," at" a"time" when" the"
field" p roduced" giants." " Whi le" othe r" work" of"
Donald’s" influenced" our" caree rs " non e" had"
more"influence"on"us"and"other s"th an"! "#$%&'(
)*+''*, .” "
"
Furthermore," according" to" J.H." Crawford,"
Author"of"1$+2+''(1"*"',:"
""
“It" was" Donald" Appleyard's" !"#$%&'( )*+''*,"
that" finally" pushed" the" button."
Appleyard…laid" out" the " social" effects" of" cars"
on" cities" in" glaring" detail," using" the" best"
social‐network‐analy sis" m ethods" a vailable."
The" book" is" simpl y" an" indictment" of" the"
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"
3
While" the" first" edi tion" argued" for" a" national" policy" on" st reet"
liveability,"only"in"the"last"few"years"has"a"unifi ed"support"and"
articula tion" of" liveability" in" transpo rtation" emerged." And" still"
there"is"a"need"to"clari fy"how"liveability"goals"sh ould"be"applied"
to" guid e" policy." As" Don ald" Appl eyard" presents" the" most"
compre hensive" and" insightful"an alysis" of"liveability" in"g eneral,"
many"lessons"and"insights"can"be"provided"toward"guiding"the"
current" national"dialogue"on"liveability,"which"I" present" in"the"
final"sections"of"this"Second"Edition."
"
effects "of"street"traffic"on"the"fabric"of"urban"

nei ghb ourhoods.”"""
"
And" finally," C." Kenneth" Orsk i" sums" up" the"
significance" !"#$%&'( )*+''*," gave" towards "
research"and"practical"guidance"of "the"design"
and"oper ation" of" our" streets"and" cities"when"
he"says:"
"“Appleyard" tells" us" exactl y" what" is" wron g"
wit h" city" streets" and" how" to" m ake" small"
changes"that"will" get"big"results”"
(
!"#$%&'()*+''*,"was"writ ten"in"the"progressive"
voice"of"the"1960s"and"1970s,"pointing"out"an"
injustice" and" presenting" ways " to" right" them;"
to" improve" the" world;"to"fight"for"equality" in"
our"city’s"mos t"accessible" public" spaces—our"
streets.
4
"
"
In" sum,( !"#$%&'( )*+''*," provided" the" most"
compelling" evidence‐based" arguments" for"
why" we" sho uld" control" the" volume, " and "
especially" the" speed," of" cars" on" our" streets."
While" there" may" be" many" reaso ns" for" the"
enduring" legacy" of" !"#$%&'( )*+''*," and" the"
work" of" Donald" Appleyard," one " rea son"
em erges" over" all" others—!"#$%&'( )*+''*,"
uncovered," articulate d" and" perhaps" more"
importantly,"pictured"the"emergin g"conflict "in"

our" streets" between" traffic" and" people—a"
power" struggle" that" was" felt" by" many," but"
until" !"#$%&'( )*+'' *,3" was" not" fully"
understoo d," let" alone" c learly" imagined" or"
pictured." !"#$%&'( )*+''*," forever" transformed"
the" theoretical" an d" methodo logi cal"
paradigms" of" how" pr ofessionals" add ress" the"
design" and" use" and" promise" of" our" streets."
And" while" many" professionals" may" still"place"
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"
4
"Streets"are"still"important"today"for"social"transfor mation."As"I"
was" finishing" my" work" on"this"Second"Edition," I"was"struck"by"
the" theme" and" title" of" a" February" 2," 2011" ar ticle" by" Anthony"
Shadid" highlighting" the" continuing" importance" of " our" streets"
for"social"change ,"“)*+''*(4$**&'(5#'+(*6'(7+$%(-8*8+'”."Where"
he" states" “CAIRO" —" T he" future" of" the" Arab" world," perched"
between" revolt" and" the" contempt" of" a" crumbling" order," was"
fought"for"in"the "streets"of"downtown"Cairo"on"Wednesday.”"

7" """"""""" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P a c t i c e " "
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a" priority" on" mobility" an d" increasing" vehicle"
throughput" over" live ability," whet her"
unwittingl y" or" on" purpose," they" do" so" with"
caution"because"of"the"multitude"of"the"work"
of" those" who" have" built" on" the" foundations"
provided" by" !"#$%&'( )*+''*,3( furthering" its"

legacy, " allowing" my" father’s" spirit," passion"
and"purpose" to"recreate"ou r"street s"as"joyful"
and"enriching"pla ces" to"live"on"and"in.""
!
The!Audie nce!
!"#$%&'( )*+''*," is" more" than" a" book" for"
pla nners" and" engineers." It" is" also" for"
psychologists, " sociologists," and" anyone"
interested" in" people’s" satisfaction" with" their"
dai ly" lives—as" revealed" through" their"
behavi our," as" much" as" by" their" statements"
when" asked." This" in‐depth" probing" and"
analysis"conducted"by"m y"father"of"quality"of"
life"satisfact ion,"or" liveab ility ,"is"i mportant" to"
recogn ise," as" my" father" uncovered" a" critical"
phenomenon" of" human" behaviour—our"
exceptional" ability" in" the" presence" of" poor"
environmental" con ditions" to" adapt," and"
actually" sublimate" the" impacts." For" example,"
he" found"that" traffic"drives"people" to"retreat"
deeper" into" the " shelter" of" their" homes,"
eventually" accepting" and" ignoring" the"
negative"impacts"o f"traffic"on"their"streets,"let"
alo ne" the" loss" of" valuable," accessi ble" pub lic,"
community"space."Th us"he"spoke"to"our"need, "
as" people" working " in" the" public" intere st," to"
develo p" skills" of" observati on" to " recognis e"
problems" that" exist," even" if" they" ar e" not" yet"
recogn ised"by"those"af fected."In"sum,"through"
his" research" he" revealed" a" suppressed"

injustice" that" literally" pushed" people" away"
from"their"streets,"while"telling"them"“Things"
could" be" bet ter!”" —a" core" justification" for"
engaging" in" exercise s" of" pl anning" and" urban"
design."
"
Also," there" is" much" more" to" the" book" than"
what" most" people" have" often" cited" —" few"
seem" to" realise" that" the" gra phics" most" often"
cited" are" actually" from " what" my" father"
considered"“ a"simple"pilot"study”"when"in"fact"
the"book" contains" phenomenological" insights"
from"my"father’s"study"of"a"div erse"spectrum"
of" streets " ra nging" in" context," traffic" levels,"
streetscape," socio‐demographic"
characteristics,"et c.""
(
!"#$%&'( )*+''*," also" presents" a" presci ent"
analysis" of " social" networking." While" many"
ma y" think" of" “social" networking”" as" a" new"
term," !"#$%&'( ) *+'' *,( establishes" the"
importance" of" this" important" quality" of" the"
human"experi ence.
5
"
"
There"is"still"an"enormous"amount"of"work"to"
be" done." Not" only" in" retrofitting" and"
completin g"o ur"streets"to"be"more"liveable"in"
the" developed" economies," but" especially" in"

em ergi ng"economies"such"as"China,"India"and"
Indonesia" where" neighb ourhood"
encroachment" by" cars" is" increasing" at" an"
alarmingly" accelerating" pace." The" insights" of"
!"#$%&'( )*+''*, " can" help" us" understand" the"
power" struggle" and" conflict" playing" out" in"
these" streets," whil e" also" giving" us" insight,"
guidance"and"inspiration"fo r"the"promise"that"
these" streets" ca n" play" in" fostering" enriching"
and" rejuvenating" joy" in" people’s" everyday"
lives.""
"
9+.:';*".<,( .2( 28*8+'( *+$22";( 2$*$&"*"',(
,8==',*( *6$*( *6' ( =&.%$&( +.$0( 0'$*6(
*.&&( /"&& ( =+./( ,"= <"2";$<*&>3( %8*( $*(
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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
"
5
" T he" research" methods" presented" in" !"#$%&'( )*+''*," is" now"
being" considered" to" p rovide" a" model" for" how" we" study" web‐
based" social" networki ng." Indeed" many" images" used" by"
Facebook" and" Go ogle" to" represent" their" global" networking"
activity"are"similar"to"the"graphics"in"!"#$%&'()*+''*,."

8" """"""""" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
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6
"
"
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""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
"
6
" Kopits," Elizabeth" and" Cropper," Maureen," 2005." Traffic"
fatalities" a nd" economic" growth." Accident" Analysis" &"
Prevention"37"(1):169‐178."


',*"@$ *',( *6$*( 16"< $( /"&&( 6$#'( 6$&2( $(
@"&&".<(0'$*6,('$;6(>'$+ (%>(BCBCA
N
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"
Braided!Threads!of!E vents!

As" a"UC"Berkeley"professor" passionate" abo ut"
his" work" wh ich" focu sed" on" the" well‐being" of"
children" and" families," our" family" and" work"
activities" were" often" combined." M any" of" our"
summer" travels " followed" his" w ork, " taking" us"
to" fascinat ing" places" where" he" would" often"
share" with" u s" his" interests" and" ask" us" about"
ours." I" realize" now" that" he" was" tryin g" to"
understand" how" we," as" c hildren " and"
tee nagers," perceived" t he" world." At" home" he"
would" continue" this" line" of" inquiry" in"vario us"
ways"suc h"as"bringing" his"grad"students"to"our"
classes" to" conduct" c ogn itive" ma pping"
exercises"where"we"would"draw" maps"of" our"
nei ghb ourhoods" and" our" journey’s" to" and"
from" school." These" early" memories" would"
later" in spir e" me" to" conduc t" similar" res earch"
resulting" the" article" “Livable" Streets" for"
);6 &;6"&0+'<”," written" for" the" National"
Centre" for" Bicycling" and" Walking"
(www.bikewalk.o rg)" which," among" other"
things," examines" the" liveabil ity" impacts" of"
traffic" exposure" exacerbated" by" inadequ ate"
pedest rian" and" bicycle" infrastructure" on"
children"during"their"journeys"to"school"( parts"
of"which"are"featured"in"Part"3"of"th is"Sec ond"
Edi tion"of"!"#$%&'()*+''*,).
8
"
"

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
"
7
ence_injury_prevention/publicatio
ns/road_traffic/world_report/mai n_messa ges_en.p df"
8
" Central" research" within" this" work" combined" the" liveability"
research" approaches" of" my" fathe r" wit h" the" image/cogn itive"
mapping" methods" of " Kevin" Lynch." In" brief," I" asked" the"
elemen tary"school"kids"to"sketch"maps"of"their"n eighbourhood"
to"better"understand"their"views"of"neighbourhood"walkability,"
asking" them" to" also" mark" the" location" of" their" home," scho ol,"
friends' " houses," danger" zones" and" places" they" liked" to" play."
Comparing" their" map s" wi th" those" of" children" in" ot her"
neighbourhoods"who"were"exposed"to"lighter "levels"of"traffic,"I"
was" able" to" illustrate" the" necessary" improvements" for"
increasing" walkability" and" neighbourhood" liveability." I" then"
worked" wi th" the" neighbourhood" to" receive" a" grant" to" build"
paths" and" improve" cro sswalks" alo ng" the" busiest," most"
dangerous"streets"leading"to"the"elementary"school."



9" """"""""" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
After" my" father’s" sudden" death," !"#$%&'(
)*+''*, " se rved" as" lasting" touchstone" for" me."
While" one" might" look" to" diaries" or" letters" of"
lost" loved" ones, " I" add itionall y" had" a" book"
filled" with" my" father’s" caring" e xpressions" of"

concer n"for"the"welfare"of"children."As" I"pored"
through" my" father’s" work," I" began" to" realise"
that" he" had" actual ly" been" inspired" by " critica l"
events"in"my"own "lifeA(
"
One" day" as" I" was" working" on " this" second"
edi tion" I" contacted" one" of" the" engineers" my"
father" worked" with," Daniel " T." Smith," about"
including" some" of" th eir" joint" research." " Early"
in" the" conversation" he" asked" me," “were" y ou"
the"son"who"was"hit"by"a"car?”""I"was.""
"
You" see, " arou nd" the" time" my" father" first"
starting" working" on" his" !"#$%&'( )*+''*,"
research,"I"was"hit"by"a"car"and"ne arly "killed—
I"was"4‐years"old.""
"
Thus," my" father’s" expression" throughout"
!"#$%&'( )*+ ''*," of" the" need" for" us " to" care "
about" children’s" safe ty" was" not" a" rhetorical"
exercise." No r" is" my" understanding" of" what" it"
me ans" to " be" traumatically" hit" by" a" car." And"
while" both" our" passions" and" purposes" for"
working" on" stree t" safety" and" liveability " run"
deep,"we"should"all"be"dedicated"to"following"
my" father’s" example" of" even‐handed ,"
thoughtful" and" intellectual ly" honest" ana lyses"
regarding" the " subject." Considering" he" nearly"
lost"his"four" year‐old" son," he"d eserves " praise"
for"ne ver"letting "that"experience"overshadow"

his" scholarship." Nevertheless," it" is" clear" that"
this" experience" deeply" affected" and"
motivated " him" and" his" pass ionate" work"
toward" reforming" the" manner" i n" which" we"
design" our" streets" to" improve" the" welfare" of"
children"around"t he"world."
"
It" has" been" said" that" people" who" go" into"
pla nning"are"answeri ng"a"calling"of"some"sort."
For"me,"more"than"a"“c alling”,"but"a"deep "well"
of" purpose" and" passion" was" unl eashed" by"
particular" events"and "people.""
"
A"key"cata lyst"for"me"was"a"former"stud ent"of"
my" father’s ," Nick" Bevilacqua," Ph D," who" li ved "
wit h"his"wife" and"t wo" children" in"a"suburban"
nei ghb ourhood" near" Walnut" Creek," CA." In"
1992" Nick" asked" me" to" help" him" and" his"
nei ghb ours" deal" with" a" dangerous" traffic"
situation" prohibiting" children" from" safely"
walking" or" bicycl ing" to" their" school," and"
ending" his" request" for" my" help" by" saying"
“your"father "woul d"understand.”"Like"many"of"
the" former" students " an d" colle agues" of" my"
father" I" have" been" fortun ate" to" encounter," I"
could" see " a" glimmer" in" his" eyes" reflecting"
fond" memories" of" my" father" who," as" a"
tea cher," colle ague" and" father," treated" those"
around"him"well.
9

"How"c ould"I"refuse?"
"
Over"the"next"several"years,"I"volunteered"my"
time"working"throughout"numerous"suburban"
nei ghb ourhoods"on"a"compre hensive"range"of "
issues" including" an" in‐depth " analysi s" of" the"
nature" of" critical" problems" now" commonly"
understoo d" as" part" of" t he" Safe" Routes" to"
School"movement.
10
"Many"evenings,"Nick"and"
I" walked" thr oug h" these" neighbourhoods"
discussing" the" challenges" of" achi eving" street"
liveabi lity" and" how" my" father" would" addr ess"
such" problems." Sadly," these" conversations"
were" quickly" extinguished" as" Nick" was" also"
taken"from"us"too"soon."
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
"
9
" These" experiences" taught" me" important" lessons" about" how"
one’s"spirit"lives"on"in"others"long"past"the"time"they"leave"this"
earth."Along"the se"lines," it"also"showed"m e"the"importance" of"
the" “golden" rule”" and" the" need" to" treat" people" fairly," with"
thoughtfulness" and" grace." After" a" long" life" in" and" aroun d" the"
academy," I" have" found" that" these" qualities" are" not" always"
present " in" faculty." " Another" thing" I" have" also" learned" is" the"
academy," unlike" any" other" institutio n," has" a" long" memory.
"
Although" my" sibling s" and" I" lost" our" father" at" a" young" age," he"

left"us"with"a"rich"legacy"of"his"kindness"and"goodwill.""
10
" I" also" researched" how" and" why" these" suburban"
neighbourhoods"were"designed"the"way"they"were,"conducted"
my" own" studies" on" the" negative" effects" of" traffic" on"
schoolchildren"as"they"walked"to"school,"a nd"much "more."

10" """"""""" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
"""
Unbeknownst" to" me" when" I" agreed" to" help"
him,"Nick"had"been"diagnosed"with"a" terminal"
form" of" cancer" and" wa s" only " gi ven" a" sh ort"
time"to"live."He"died"in"the"spring"of"1994."At"
his" funeral," I" was" tol d" that" our" work," which"
included" analysing" neighbourhood" pr oblems,"
working" with" the" community" and" public"
agencies" to" secure" funds" to " improve"
connections" to" two" schools" along" one" of" the"
most" dangerous" stree ts" in" their"
nei ghb ourhood" had" extended" his" life" well"
beyond"initial"predictions.""
"
After" that" day," I" said," “enough”!" Two" people"
close" to" me," who" had" dedic ated" th emselves"
to"creating"better"places"for"our"communit ies"
had" been" taken" from" us" —" “at" the" height" of "
their" powers”
11

—" and" there" was" still" much"
more"work"to" be"done!""
"
Ever"since,"I"have"not"only" carr ied" with" me"a"
strong" passion" a nd" purpose" toward" worki ng"
in" the" field" of" planning" and" urban" design" to,"
as" my" father" would" say," “do" something" you"
find" fulfilling" and" makes" the" world" a" bett er"
pla ce,”" but" to" const antly" examine" and"
overco me"the"barriers"(institutiona l,"financial,"
cultural)" in" the" way" of" implementing" the"
promising" vision" laid" out" by" my" father" in"
!"#$%&'()*+''*,A"
"
Soon"thereaf ter"I"applied"to"and"attended"t he"
Masters" in" City" Plan ning" program" at" UC"
Berkeley" where" much" of" my" master’s" work"
foc used"on"a"b road"range"of"issues,"obstacles"
and" solutions" associated" with" grassroot s"
community" action" to" retrofit" suburban"
streets," culminating" in" my" professional"
report, " “Retrofitti ng" Auto‐Suburbia:" A"
Community" guide" to" overcoming" Auto‐
domination”."""
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
"
11
"""""Professor"Fred"Collignon ’s"letter"to"studen ts,"faculty"and"
staff"of"the"College"of"Environmental"Desig n"at"UC"
Berkeley"informing"them"of"my"Father’s"death."

"
Recently"I"finished"my"PhD"in"City"&"Regional"
Planning" at" UC" Berkeley ," where" I" combined"
the" ri chn ess" of" urban" design" research"
approaches" with" rigorou s" empirical" methods"
to" better" understand" how" urban"
environments "i nfluence"the"use"of"green"and"
active" modes" (walkin g" and" bicycling)." One" of"
my" nex t" projects" will " be" to" complete" the"
unpublished" manuscri pt" my" father" was"
working" on" when" he" wa s" killed( O0'<*"*>3 (
9./'+3($<0(9&$;'.""For"now,"it"is"an"honour "to"
presen t" to" you" the" Second" Editi on" of" my"
father’s" !"#$%&'( )*+''*,." Work" that" cont inues"
to" be" as" relevant" today" as" whe n" it" w as" first"
published."
"
Bruce"S."Appleyar d,"PhD"
"
Em ail:"
"
"
Traum a(and(Tragedy:(The(Inspiration(
and(Eclipse(of(Livable(Streets((
V.( *6",( 0$>3( O( ;$<<.*( ,"*( 0./<( $<0(
%+"<=(*.( @'@.+>(*6'(?+';",'(0'*$"&,(.2(
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'#' +>( ,.( .2*'<( @>( ; 6"&06 0( ,&8@%'+(
/.8&0(%'(,6$**'+'0(%>(*6'(#",".<(.2($(
*./'+"<=( /$&&( .2( *6'( @.,*(

8<"@$="<$%&>( $&"'<( @$*'+"$&( *.( @>(
2&',6($<0(%.<' ,3(,8 00' <&>(+.&&" <=(.#'+(
@> ( +"=6*( ,6.8&0'+( EE( @$<=&"<=( $<0(
*.,,"<=( @'( /"*6( "<0"22'+'<;'_$(
<"=6*@$+'( ,.( *'++"2>"<=( O( /.8&0(
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Y+$,'0( 2+.@( @>( ;.<,;".8,( @ '@.+>3(
*6' (*'++.+(&8+D'0("<(*6'(,6$0./,(.2(@>(
;6"&06 0 A(
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<"=6*@$+',( 2"<$ &&>( ,*.??' 03( *6$*( O(
+'$ &",'0( *6",( @8,*( 6$ #'( %''<( *6'( ;$ +(
*6$*(<'$+&>(D"&&'0(@'(/6 '<(O(/$,(2.8+(
>'$+,( .& 0( "<( LKTKA( 7*( *6$*( *"@'( .8+(

11" """"""""" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
2$*6'+(%'=$<(6",(+"=.+.8,($<0(,'@"<$&(
+','$+;6( .<( *6'( <'=$*"#'( '22';*,( .2(
;$+ ,( .<( ?'.?&'3( ,*+''*,( $<0(
;.@@8<"*"',3( ;8&@"<$*"<=( "<( *6'(
?8%&";$*".<(.2(!"#$%& '()*+''* ,("<(LKHLA(
(
7%.8*( $( >'$+( $2*'+( "*,( ?8%& ";$*".<3( .<(
)'?*'@%'+( BZ3( LKHB3( .8+( `$0( /$,(
,$0&>(D"&&'0(%>($(,?''0"<=(0 +8<D( 0+"#'+(
/6.(2&"??'0(.#'+($(@'0"$<("<(7*6'<,3(
a+'';' _;+8,6"<=(6"@A((

(
7<0( ,.( "*( =.',_$( @$<b,( /.+D( *6$*(
6$,( 2.+( 0';$0',( ,'+#'0( $,( $( %'$;.<(
2.+( +';$?*8+"<=( *6'( &"#'$ %"&"*>( .2( .8+(
,*+''*,( /$,( "< ( 2$;*( %.*6( "<,?"+'0( $<0(
>'*3( "<( *+$=";( " +.<>3( ';&"?,'0( %>( */.(
*+$8@$*";( ;$+( ;+$,6',( *6$* ( *.+'( $*( $(
2$@"&>3(*6'"+(2+"'< 0,($<0( ;.&& '$= 8',A (
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7??&'>$+0 b,( 8+(16"&0+'<A((
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R'($& &(0'$+& >(&.#'( $<0( @",,( 6"@3($<0(
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'<+ ";6" <=( ,?"+"* ( 2.+( .8+( ;6"&0+'<3(
?$+*<'+,($<0(2+"'<0,A(
(
"
"
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12" " """"""""" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d "
P a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 "
"
"
Driven" To" Excess: " Impacts" of" Motor" Vehicles" on" the" Quality" of" Life" of"
Residents"of"Three"Streets"in"Bristol"UK"
"
Joshua"Hart"and"Prof."Graham"P arkhurst"
"
cV6'(78*.@.%"&' 3(,$*",2"'+(.2(?+"#$*'(<''0,3(0'@$<0,3($<0 (/6" @,(_(6$,(;+'$*'0($<(" <,$*"$%&'(
0'@$<0(2.+($;;',,3($<0($(/6 .&'(?+.2',,".<(.2(?&$<<'+,($<0('<="<''+,(%.*6(,'+#"<=($< 0(28+*6'+(
,*"@8&$*"<=(*6$*(0'@$<0Ad(
(
Donald"Appleyard,"“Streets"Can"Kill"Cities:" Third"World"Bewa re!”"(Appleyard,"1980)"
"
Introduction"
The" us e" of" motor" vehicles" in" most" urban"
are as" of" the" world" has" reached" such"
ubiquity"and"intensity"th at"few"citizens"are"

fully"aware"of"the"exte nt"of"detriment"they"
cause" to" quality" of" life." Nonetheless," a"
study" conducted" in" spring" 2008" in" Bristol,"
UK, " attempted" to" understa nd" residents’"
perceptions"of"the"impacts"of"motor"traffic"
on" their" home s" and" streets," and" on"
individual" and " community" health." On"
streets" with" moderate" to" heavy" motor"
traffic," our" research " found" significant"
erosion" o f" social" capital," and" w idespread"
discontent" from" residents" about" the"
health"and"safety "impacts"of"car"traffic "o n"
their" street." The" results" provide" renewed"
foc us"on"a"debate"a bout"urban"traffic"and"
quality"of"li fe"that"has"inten sified"as"motor"
vehicle"numbers"‐"and"their "impacts"‐"have"
increased. ""
"
The" study" methodology" replicate s" the"
work" of" Donald" Appleyard" (1969)," who"
demonstrated" that" people" living" on" a"
street"with" relatively"heavy"tra ffic"had" only"
one‐third" as" many" social" connections" as"
people" livi ng" on" a" relatively" light‐traffic"
street." S ubsequent" s tudies" investigated"
street" design," traffic," and " neighbourho od"
quality" of" life;" work" that" culminated" with"
the" publication" of" the" seminal" work"
!"#$%&'( )*+''*," (Apple yard," 1981)." !"#$%&'(
)*+''*, " revealed" the" social" impacts" of"

motor" traffic" in" fine" detail" through"
interviews " and" street" observations,"
demonstrating" that" casual" conversations,"
children’s" play ," and" other" street‐based"
social" life" tend" to" be" suppressed,"
particularly"as"vehicle"volumes"and"sp eed s"
increase." Appleyard’s" findings" provided" a"
quantitative" case" for" policymakers" to"
consider" the" soc ial" impacts" of" current"
transport"policies."Figure"1"reproduces"the"
iconic"diagr am"of"the"original"study ,"which"
visually" represent s" the" erosion" o f" social"
interaction" as" traffic" volum es" increase."
(Appleyard,"1969)"
"
The" present" article" begins" by" making" the"
cas e" that" there" was" a" timely" need" for" a"
21
st
" Century" replicatio n" of" Appleyard’s"
original" work," due " to" the" changing"
sociocultural" and" transport" conditions"
over" the" intervening" decade s." The re" was"
also" a" need" for" contemporary" research"
into"the"impacts "of"motor"vehicle"traffic"on"
nei ghb ourhoods" outside" of" the" United"
Sta tes."Section"2"examines"the"evidence"of"
social" and" environmental" damage" and"
deterioration" of" pu blic " health" associated"
wit h"motor "vehicle"dependence.""Se ction"3"

briefly" introdu ces" the" methodology" and"
the" data" collection" procedures." Section" 4"
initiates" presentation" of" the" findings,"
considering" qual itative" data" about" life" in"
the" streets" and" incl uding" perceptions"
about" ‘home" t erritories’." These" are"
followed" by" quantitative" analysis" of" the"
relative" numbers" of" friends" and"
acquai ntances" reported" by " the"

13" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
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"
"
participan ts." A" final" discussion" section "
reviews" the" extent" to" which" the " tools"
necessary" to" add ress" th e" prob lems"
ide ntified"already"exi st."
!
Figure" 1:" Appleyard’s" (1969)" diagram" o f"
intra‐street" social" connections." Lines"
represent" specific" social" connections"
whilst" dots" identify" where" people " wer e"
reported"to"gathe r."
"
Appleyard’s!Thesis!Revis ited!
Sin ce" Appleyard’ s" contributions," bot h"
vehicle" ownership" and" traffic" have"
continued "to "rise:"for"example"doubli ng"in"
the" UK" since" 1980" (Fig ure" 2)." However,"

vehicle‐specific" emissions" performance"
has" improved" considerably" since" the"
1960s," whilst" building" design" and"

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"
"
adaptation" have" become" more" defensive"
wit h" respect" to" vehicle" impa cts," through"
the" orientation" of" resid ential" buildings"
away"from"the"carriagewa y"and"double"or"
even"triple"glazing"fitted"as"standard."""
"
With" many"more"car" owners" and" users,"it"
might" be" argued" that" the" co sts" and"
benefits" of" motorisation" are" mor e" ev enly"
distributed," and" so" perhaps" more" readily"
accepted." "
"
Additionally," with" the" delocalisatio n" o f"
community," including" due" to" the" rise" of"
online" commu nities," there" may" be" less"
local"connectivity"and"street"in teraction"to"
be"affected"by"traffic"in"the"first "pla ce."
"
"
Figure" 2:" Increase" in" car" owne rshi p" and"
distance"travelled,"UK"1950‐2009"
Data"source: "UK"Departme nt"for"Transport"

(20 11)"
"
The" surge" in" motor" traffic" has " been"
accompanied" by" ongoing" documenta tion"
and" analysis" by" academic s" and"
environmental" and " health" agencies"
concer ning"the"widespread"impact s"of"the"
consequences" of " motorisation." In" part"
these" initiatives" indica te" that" long‐
establi shed" prob lems" continue" to" be"
significant," and" at" the" same" time" novel"
are as" of" concern"have" emerged."Research"
into" these" impacts" falls" into" seve n" inter‐
related" categori es:" ac cessibility," noise,"
tox ic" pollution," climate " change," traff ic"
danger," physical" inactivi ty," and" social"
degradation,"which"are"briefly"s ummar ised"
here."
"
The" scien tific" basis" of" climatic" variat ion"
was" wel l" established" by" the" 1970s. "
However," that" there" is" a" real" threat" of"
catastr ophic" int erferen ce" in" the" global"
climate" syst em" in" the" next" years" and"
decades" if" humans " continue" to" emit" CO
2
"
and"other"cli mate"c hange"gases"at"current"
rates" has" only" gained" (near)" consensus" in"
more" recent" years" (e.g." Hansen " et" al.,"

2008)."Future"impacts"are"likely"to"include "
me lting" ice" caps " an d" glaciers," rising" sea"
levels," spread " of" drought,"
ma lnutrition," disease," and" extreme"
weather"events,"many"of"which"may"
appear"in"a"manner"that"is"abr upt"or"
irreversible" (IPCC," 200 7)." For" man y,"
future" climate" chang e" impacts" are"
somewhat" disconnected" from" the"
immediate" and" local" decision" to"
drive." " " Nevertheless," cars" continue"
to" be" a" significant" source" of"
greenhouse" gases." " For" instance,"
Cal ifornia’ s" motor" vehicles" alone"
em it" w ell" over" 100" million" metric"
tons" of" CO
2
" annually" (C alifornia" Air"
Resources"Board,"2004)."
"
In" contrast," poor" urban" air" qua lity" is"
fundamentally" local " in" character," and"
motor" traffic" is" the" primary" cause; "
polluti ng" in" areas" close" to" where" people"
live" and" breathe" (Duhme" et" al.," 1996)."
Scientific" and " medical" knowled ge" has"
develo ped" significantly" since" the"
em ergence" of" traff ic‐related" smogs, " with"
global" estimates" suggesting" that" air"
polluti on" affects" more" than" 1.5" billion"

people" (Satterthwaite," 1999) " and" causes"
over" 2.4" million" premature" death s"
annually"(WHO,"2002)."Motor"traffic"is"also"
considered" to" be" one" of" the" most"

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"
"
significant" causes" of" non‐point" so urce"
water" pollution," which" has" eroded" water"
quality" in" rivers," lak es," a nd" streams"
particularly" in" urbanised" areas" (Litman,"
2010).""
"
Similarly," awaren ess" of" the " range " and"
extent" of"health"and" quality" of"l ife" effects"
of"exposure"to"excessive"and/or"prolonged"
noise" has" developed." Ho wever," no ise"
polluti on" gener ally" receives" much" less"
attenti on" than" air" polluti on" and" crashes"
when" the" env ironme ntal" effe cts" of"
transport" schemes" are" assessed." Traffic"
noise" has" been" identified" as" causing"
annoyance," cognitive" performance"
degradation," hearing" loss," and" slee p"
deprivatio n," and" is" implic ated" in" heart"
disease," depr essi on" and" hypertension"
(Simpson," 2007)." Traffic‐ related" sleep"
disturbances"are"also"linked"with"increase d"

child"pedestrian"casualti es"(WHO,"2005)."
"
Greate r" car" ownership " has" in" general"
improved" accessibility" for" those" able" and"
willing " to" travel" by" car;" expanding" road"
networks" and" the" associated"
infrastructure" have" allowed" for"
unprecedented" personal " mobility."
However," expanding" mobility" for" car"
owners" has" led" to" a" diminishin g" level" of"
accessibili ty" for" those" using" other" means"
of" travel" than" a" car" (Litman," 2003)." Even"
for" car" travellers," what" was" once" an"
accessibili ty" benefit" tends" to" become" a"
mobility" necessity" as" faci lities" are"
centralised" as" part" of" an" o ngo ing" shift" of"
transport" costs" from" producer" to"
consumer."
"
Global ly," road" crashes" kill" or" seriously"
injure"at"least"50"million"peop le"every "year"
(WHO," 2004)." " The" fear" of" being" killed" or"
injured" by" a" motor" vehic le" is" als o" one" of"
the"p rimary"factors"p reventing"greater"use"
of" active" travel," parti cularly" among"
children." Vehicle" speed " is" strongly"
associated"with"pedestrian"fatality"rates"in "
a"collis ion,"with"a"large"inc rease"in"injuries"
and" fatalities" occurring" where" the" vehicle"
speed"prior"to"colli sion"was"above"20mph."

And" whils t" comparative ly" few" individ uals"
ma y" be" directly" affected" by" serious"
collisions," public" health" in" general " has"
seen" a" significa nt" decline" along" with" the"
gro wth" of" sedentary" lifestyles," fuelled" by"
an" aversion" to" walking" or" cycling" through"
car‐oriented" areas." The" obesity/ inactivity"
pandemic" is " associated" with" increased"
rates" of" stroke," heart" attack," certain"
cancers,"diabetes,"and"depression"(Sallis"et"
al.,"2004). "In"the"US,"70%"of"the"population"
fails" to" meet" minimum" recommended"
physical" activity" rates" (USD HHS," 2000);" a"
deficiency " that" leads" to" over" $77" billion"
per"year" in" avoidabl e" hospital"cost s"(Pratt"
et"al.,"2000).""
"
Las tly," bu t" with" great" importance" for" the"
cur rent"study,"healthy"social"networks"are"
not"only"crucial"to"happine ss"and" quality"of"
life," they" also" defend" against" multiple"
forms"of"mortality:"“over"t he"last"20"years"
more" than" a" dozen" large" studies" have"
shown" that" people" who" are" soci ally"
disconnected" are " between" 2" and" 5" times"
more" likely " to" die" from" all" causes ,"
compared" with" matched" individuals" who"
have" close" ties" with" family," friends," and"
the" community”" (Putnam," 2000" cit ed" in"
Leyden,"2003)."

"
Given" the" salie nce" of" the" topic" at" hand,"
and" the" growing" importance" of"
Appleyard’s"original"research"in"li ght"of"the"
ongoing"environmental"crisis,"a"number"of"
follow‐up"studies"have"been"undertaken"i n"
the" inte rvening" decades." Three" were"
ide ntified" during" a" literature" review" as"
representing" close" replications" of" the"
original" methodology." A n" unpublished"
paper" produced" for" a" research " methods"
class" of" the " University" of" California" at"
Berkeley"(Patterson"et"al.,"198 8)"reports"a"
study" that" involved" a" group" of" graduate"
students" returning" to" the" sam e" San"

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"
"
Fra ncisco" stree ts" studies" by" Appleyard."
They" found" similar" results:" the" busier"
streets"had"less"developed"social"networks"
and" abbreviated" areas" of" personal"
territory" compared" to" stre ets" with" fewer"
motor" vehicles."
"
A" decade" later," in" a" study" titled" ‘Livable"
Streets" Revisited’," Bosselmann" and"
MacDonald" (1997)" sought" to" determine"

the" social" a nd" environmental" i mpacts " of"
normal" heavily" tr afficked" roads" compared"
wit h" boulevards" (with" local" reside ntial"
streets" paralleling" the" main" car riag eway"
on" either" side)." " The" results" confirmed"
Appleyard’s" findings" that" “heavy" traffic" is"
associated" with" a" withdrawal" from" the"
physical" environment”." " Despite" having"
very" heavy" levels" of" traffi c" (about" 45,000"
vehicles/d ay)," residents" living" along" a"
boulevard" designed" with" side " streets"
recorded"lower"levels"of"irritation"with"the"
negative" effects" of" traffic," showing" that"
boulevard" designs" may" at" least" pa rtially"
mitigate"the"wors t"effect s"of"heavy"traffic."
"
Most" recently," a" study" was" undertaken" in"
New" York" City" by" the" pedestrian," bicycle,"
and" public" transit" advocacy" organisation"
Tra nsportation" Alternatives" (2006)." The"
researchers" used" a" corps" of" volunteers" to"
conduct" 600" door‐ to ‐door" interviews" in"
four"neighbourhoods"over"the" course"of"a"
year."Compared" with" the"i nitial"Appleyard"
study," they" selected" streets" wi th"
significantly" lower" traffic" volumes;" with"
low," m edium," and" high" traffi c" street s"
having"less"than"1,000,"2‐3,000,"and"5,000"
motor" vehicles" per" day" respectively."
Nonetheless," the" findings" echo ed"

Appleyard," with" those" on" the" highest‐"
traffic"streets"found"to"hold"more"negative"
views" of" thei r" block," repor ting" more"
interruptions" of" sleep," meals," and"
conver sations," and" spending" si gnificantly"
less" time" walking," sho pping," and" playing "
wit h"their"chil dren."
"
However," it" was" notable" that" all" three" of"
these" studies " were" carried" out" in" the" US,"
which" has" both" a" specific" built"
environment" context" and" a" particular"
culture" of" ca r" dependence." The" authors"
were" interested" to" examine" whether"
similar" findings" woul d" be" produced"
through" a" replication" of" the" study" in" a"
typ ical" Briti sh" city," nearly" four" decades"
after"the"original. "
!
Data!Colle ctio n!
The" urban" location" for" the" study" was"
Bristol," a" city" of" 520,000" inhabit ants"
located" in" Southwest" England," UK." In" th e"
UK" context," Bristol" is" fairly" typical" of" t he"
large" urban" areas" outside" London,"
although"with " the"lowest"traffic"speed s"of"
this" group" (and" so" by" implication" the"
greatest" congestion)" and " a" public"
transport"modal"share"of"less"than"15% ,"it"
is"arguabl y"the"most"car"d epe ndent"of"the"

ma jor" urban" areas." However," for" the"
purposes" of" the" replication," what" was"
more" important" than" the" choice" of" city"
was"th e"selection"of"the"specific"resid ential"
streets" for"study."Three " residen tial"streets"
in" the" north"of"the" city" were" identified" as"
bei ng"very"similar"apart"from"the"volumes"
of" motor" traffic" pass ing" through" them"
(Ta ble" 1)." Two" were" through‐rout es"
providing" for" lo cal" and" c ross‐city"
movements,"whilst"the "third"had"originally"
been" constru cted" with" a" simi lar"
carriag eway" width" fit" for" the" same"
function"but"the"stre et"was "never"adopt ed"
for"this"purpose,"rema ining"a"cul‐de‐sac"at"
the" south" end." As" a" result" it" has" a" much"
lower" traffic" volume." All" three" streets" are"
lined" on" both" sides" principally" with" late"
19t h" and" early" 20th" Cen tury" family"
dwelling"h ouses"of"two"or"three"storeys"in"
hei ght, " mostly" in" terraces" but" with" some"
semi‐d etached" (adjoined" pairs)." Most" of"
the"properties"are"set"back"about"5m"f rom"
the" carriageway," with" small" private" front"
gardens" and" larger" gard ens" to" the" rear."
They" were" generally" constructed" without"

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"

"
off‐street" parking," and" most" car" parking"
therefore" oc curs" on" the" st reet," although"
some" off‐street" parkin g" has" been"
retrofitted," generally" through " the"
conver sion" of" front" gardens" to" paved"
drivew ays." The" streets" are" hence" very "
typ ical" of"the"pre‐war"housing" that"makes"
up" a" sign ificant" p art" of" the" UK" residential"
stock."
"
Table" 1" Thre e" Bristol" UK" street s" selected"
for"study"
Street"
Category"
Tra ffic"Vol ume"
Dovercourt"
Road""
Light"
140" motor"
vehicles/d ay"
Filton"
Avenue"
Medium""
8,420" motor"
vehicles/d ay"
Muller "Road"
Heavy"
21,130" motor"
vehicles/d ay"

"
Twenty" households" on" each" street" were"
interviewed" fac e‐to‐face " a bout" their"
street," social"ties," and" views"about"traffic."
Like" the" original" Appleya rd" study,"
residents"were"told"that"this"was"a"general"
study"about "neighbourhood"life"and"how"it"
could"be"improved."
"
Reside nts’ !Views!about!t heir!Street s!
"
"
"
Photo."1:"Light"Street"(14 0"vehicles/"day)""
"
From" physical" appearance"alone,"t he" light"
street" (Photo." 1)" w as" very" similar " to" the"
me dium" and" heavy" streets." From" the" 20"
interviews " with"residents,"it " emerged" as"a"
closely ‐knit"community."A "majority"(13"out"
of" 20)" described" the" street " in" posit ive"
social" terms." " “(Light" street)" is" a" friendly"
street" ‐"m ost" people" know"other"people,”"
said" a" 49‐year‐old " woman," a nd" “good"
communication" between" hous es,"
tog etherness”"was"proffered"by"a"15‐year‐
old" boy." Especially" the" elderly" reside nts"
felt"suppor ted"and"cared"fo r:"a"70‐year‐old"
woman" who" lived" alon e" remarked" that,"
“people"o n"the"street"h ave" always"helped"

each" other" in" times" of" illness" and"
difficulty.”" Another" older" lady" living" alone"
felt" lucky" to" live" on" such" a " street" where "
“everyone’s" kind," thoughtful," helpful," and"
rea lly" lovely" to" me." When" my" next" door"
nei ghb our" hasn’t" seen" me" for" a"few"days,"
he" knoc ks" just" to" see" if" I’m" okay…." there"
are " more" families" here" ‐" people" who" stay"
for"a"while"and"put"down"roots."We"share"
pla nts" and" look" after" each" other." There" is"
rea lly"a"sense"of"c ommunity.”"
"
Of" course," the" street," just" like" any" other,"
has" its" p roblem s." Many" of" the" older"
genera tion" lamented" the" deterioration" of"
the" street’s" social" life," in" sp ite" of" the" fact"
that" most" of" them" still" had" quite" a" few"
friends" and" a cqu aintances" nearby." A" man"
who" ha d" lived" on" the" street" for" 42" years"
said"that "“people"don’t"talk"in"the"street"as"
much"as"the y"used"to."Everyone"here"used"
to"know"each"oth er."We"used"to"sit"on"the"
wall"and"chat "‐"there "would"be"4"or"5"of"us"
‐"those"in"their"60s"would"chat"with"those"
in" th eir" 30s." I" haven’t" seen" tha t" since" the"
1980s.”" This" kind" of" intergenerational"
socialising" that" is" essential" to" healthy"
communities" (Benson," 2002)" was" often"
centred" around" the" minding" of" children"
who" would" play" in" the" street," an" activity"

that" still" occurred," but" far" less" fr equently"
than" before." On e" resident" intimated" why:"
“when" o ur" kids" were" small," th ey" were"
always " in" the" street" ‐" there" w ere" fewer"
cars"then.”"
"

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"
One" older" lady " seemed" to" recognise" the"
addictive" properties" of" the" car:" “I’m" glad"
that" I" didn’t" ge t" a" car" beca use" I’d" be"
dependent"on" it"now." ).@'( .2(@>( 2+"'<0,(
/.8&0(+$*6'+(=.(/"*6.8*(2 0(*6$<(="#' (8?(
*6' "+( ;$+." I" value" my" independence" too"
much.”"
"
Even" on" one" of" the" quietest" s treets" in"
Bristol," with" only" about" 140" vehicles" per"
day," the" occasional" speedin g" car" was"
enough" to" create" the" perception" of" a"
potent ially" dangerous" env ironme nt" and"
prevent" children" from" playing " in" the"
street." In" a" knock‐on" effect," t his" also"
prevented" adults"(who"wo uld" not"then"be"
minding" their" children" wh ile" they" were"
pla ying)"fro m"so cialising"in"the"street."The"
occasional" fast" traffic" was" als o" the" most"

frequently" cited " cause" of" s tres s." A" single"
mother" of" a" young" child" said" that" “a" few"
cars" come" very" quickly" and" threaten"
people" in" the" stree t." I" am" constantly"
worried"that "my"two‐year‐old"will"dart"out"
at"the"wrong"t ime.”"
"
In" summary," light" street" emerged" as" a"
community" where" peop le" were" relatively"
content" with" the" local" environment" and"
their" neighbours: " a" stree t" with" a" healthy"
social" life" and" a" lower" incid ence" of"
reported"stress"than"the"other" two"streets,"
apparently" with" a" support" network" that"
could"be"relied"upon"during"‘rough" times’."
"
"
"
"
Plate" 2: " Medium" Street" (8420"
vehicles/d ay)"
"
Filton"Avenue "(Me dium"Street,"Photo."2)"is"
a" moderat ely‐busy" residential" distribut or"
road" providing" access" to" major"
em ployment" and" retail" cent res" in" the" city"
centre" to" the " south" and" major" peripheral"
commercial"zone s"to "the"nort h"of"the"city."
Many" seemed" to" realise" that" the" traffic"
was" unde rmining" the" social" life" of" th e"

street."An"elderly"couple,"who"had"lived"in"
their"house"for"48"years,"said"that"medium"
street" is" “not" very" neighbourly" or" friendly"
because"you’re"on"a"main"ro ad.”"
"
The" oldest " inhabitant" intervie wed" on "
me dium"street"was"a"91 ‐year‐old"man "who"
had" been" living" in" the" same" house" for" 81"
years." When" asked" to" describe" his" street"
he"said"“traffic"is"reall y"the"main"thing"‐"life"
has"ch anged"tremendously"because"of"the"
car." Neighbou rs" don’t" see" each" other" like"
they" used" to," because" people" get" out" of"
their" front" doo r," get" in" the" car," a nd" v ice"
versa" wh en" they" get" home.”" A" sin gle"
woman"in"her"twe nties"described"medium"
street" as" being" “busy" in" term s" of" the"
traffic," quite" impersonal" ‐" part" of" the"
busyness" means" that" it"doesn’t" feel" much"
like" a" community" place.” " One" older"
woman"even"went"as"far"as"to"say"that"“if"
you" were" to" di e" here," nobody" would"
know.”"
"
One" mother" on" medium" street" said" that"
she"acti vely"discourage d"her"children"from"
forming" friendships" across" the" street," in"
order"to"avoid "crossing"th e"busy"road"on"a"
regular" ba sis" ‐" evidence" that" traffic" flows"
can" hinder" the" developme nt" of" social"

networks." Whilst" this" may" be" an" e xtreme"
examp le" of" such" a" mechanism," it" may" be"
indicative" of" t he" more" gener al" u nderlying"
attitudes" and" beliefs" about" traffic"
dominance."
"

19" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
"
Yet " despite" the" bleak" reality" of" a"
nei ghb ourhood"impacted"by"the"noise"and"
fumes" of" traffic," many" of" the" residents"
expressed" an" appreciation" of" their"
nei ghb ours" and" a" desir e" to" see" a" more"
fully‐fledged" community" develop." A"single"
woman" in" her" thirti es" said" that" “we" need"
to"be"a"bit"more"friendl y"on"this"street"‐"it’s"
important"to"know"your"neighbours.”"
"
Heavy" street"(Muller"Road,"Ph oto."3)" links"
at" its" southe astern" end" direc tly" to" a"
junction" of" Bristol’s" urban" motorway" spur"
from" the" natio nal" motorway" network." At"
its" northwes t" t erminu s" i t" joins" an" arterial"
road" linking" the" city" centre" with" mor e"
peripheral"northern"suburbs."
"
"

"
"
Photo." 3:" Heavy" Street" (21,130" vehicles/"
day)"
"
The" dominan t" picture" that" emer ged" of"
heavy"street "from "the"int ervi ews"was "that"
of"a"street"where" residents"largely"‘keep"to"
themselve s’,"and "have"arranged"their"lives"
in" such" a" way" as" to" mini mise" the" primary"
source"of"stress"on"their"street,"which"the y"
ide ntified, " mo re" than" any" other" cause," as"
the" heavy" vehicular" traffic" (14" out" of" 20"
households)."
"
Althou gh" several" residents" mentioned"
their" “friend ly" neighbours”" and" two"
residents" said" that" they" “swap" Christmas"
presen ts,"and"often"have"meals"together,”"
more" often"than"not" these" friends" and/or"
acquai ntances" were" located" in" close"
proximity" to" the" interviewee’s" home," and"
only" rarely" across" the" street." More"
residents"expressed"negative"ob servations"
about"the" stre et"than"positiv e."
"
A" middle‐aged" man"living"alon e"described"
heavy" street"traffic"as"a" “mountain" range,"
cut ting"you"off"from"the"other " side" of"the"
road.”" He" described" the" stree t"

environment"almost"like"a"w ar"zone:"“The"
street" is" hellishly" busy….it’s" a" bloody"
nightmare ." " The" buses" and" lorries" shake"
the" house" when" they" co me" by." The" air"
polluti on" can" be" quite " bad" out" the" front,"
sometimes" during" rush" hour " you" feel" the"
air" getting" thicker" and" thicker.”" He" went "
on" to" say" that" “people" have" moved" out"
because"of"the"traffic.”"Over " half"of"those"
interviewed"repo rted"sp ending" more"time"
in" the" back" of" the" house" due" to" traffi c"
noise."
"
Poor" air" quality" turned" ou t" to" be" a" major"
irritant" and" source" of" frustra tion." " A"
ma rried" couple" in" their" late" thirties" who"
have"been"living"on"the"street"for"six"years,"
and" have" a" four‐year" old" daughter,"
seemed" desperate:" “This" street" is"
unfriendly," suspicious," dirty," and " not" very"
family" friendly ." We" don’t" like" it," mostly"
because" of" the" traffi c.”" The " father"
reported"that"ai r"pol lution"was"a"constant"
irritant." " He" worries" about" his" little" girl:"
“W e’re " very" concerned" about" her" h ealth‐"
she"has"a"c onstant"cough‐"and"we"lim it"the"
am ount" of" time" she" spends" outside.”" he"
said." R emarking" that" he" had" cleaned" the"
television" the" day" before," he" took" a"clean"
white"paper"towel"and"wiped"it"across"the"

screen"in"order"to"dem onstrate"how"it "was"
again" dirty ." “We’re" constantly" breathing"
this"in, ”"he"said"with"an"exasperated"tone."
"
A"divorced,"middle‐aged"man"who"grew" up"
on"h eavy"street,"and"moved"back"into"the "
house" when" his" parents" died," has" notic ed"

20" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
"
a" huge" increas e" in" traffic." “The" air"
polluti on" is" really" very" bad" ‐" it’s" annoying"
when" the" dirt" builds" up" in" the" ki tchen."
There’s"just"alw ays"so"much"dirt,"grit,"and"
grime" around."I’v e"consi dered"moving" out"
because"of"this.”"
"
Residents" on" he avy" street" variou sly"
adapted"to"the"impacts"of"traffic"pollution"
by" choosing" black" curtains" and" painting"
their"front"door"black"to"hide"the"b uild"up"
of" soot," frequently" washing" the" car," the"
front" of" the " house," and" indoor" surfaces,"
and"keeping"the"front"windows"shut."
"
The" prevalence" of" v ehicle" collision s," and"
lack" of" sa fety" was" anot her" major" area" of"
concer n" for" resi dents" on" heavy" street."

According" to" sever al" residents," traffic "
collisions" on" the" s treet" a re" a" frequent"
occurrence." A" mid dle‐age d" man" who" has"
lived" there" for" 2 7" years" reporte d" that" “a"
cyc list" who" lives" on" this" block" got" hit"
cro ssing"the"road,"and "his"leg"was"broken."
A" pedestrian" was" killed" crossing" at" the"
lights." There" have" been" many" deat hs" and"
cas ualties" on"the"road.”"""
"
Residents"attempted"to"limit"the"e xpo sure"
of" those" deemed" to" be" the" most"
unpredictable" and" vulnerable" groups" ‐"
young" children" and" pets" ‐" to " the" danger"
posed" by" pass ing" traffic." "On" heav y" stre et"
some" inte rvie wees" reported" no" long er"
keepin g" pets," in" order" to" avoid" re‐living"
the" emotional" pain" they" had" fe lt" wh en"
their" animals" had" bee n" killed" on" the" bus y"
street."Children"were"frequentl y"forb idden"
from" playing" in" front" gardens," on "
pavem ents,"or"in"the"street.""
"
Hence" one" consequence" of" the" danger"
posed" by " cars" is" that" children" tend" to"
become" ‘invisible’." Res idents" from" all"
three"str eets"made"similar"o bservat ions"to"
that"of"a"female"interviewee"who"s aid"that"
“th ere" are" only" about" three" children " on"
the" stree t”." Yet" in" g oing" door‐to‐door" to"

conduct" the" research" it" turned" out" that"
there"were"at"least"13" children"just"in" the"
twenty"households"interviewed"in"each"of"
the" three" st reets" (so" there" were" likely"
ma ny" more" in" households" not"
interviewed)." A" mother" of" two" young"
children" who" had" lived" on" the" medium"
traffic" street" for" two" years" expressed" the"
view"that"“there"will"never"be"a"time"when"
kids"ca n"play"unsupervised.”"
"
Althou gh"decisions"to"accompany"chi ldren"
to" sc hool" reflect" a" n umber" of" factors"
including" concern s" about" traffic," such" as"
personal" security" and" practical"
motivations," it"is" notable " that"w hile"every "
interviewed" parent" who" lived" along" the"
me dium" and" heavy" streets" reported"
accompanying" their" child ren" to" school"
(mostly" by"car),"only"eight"out"of"twenty"of"
those"on"light"street"did"so."Parents"in"the"
UK" can" exercise" some " choice " over" where"
their" children" attend" school," although"
ma ny" children" attend" the" nearest" sc hool."
A" jun ior" school" ( for" ag es" 7‐1 0)" is" loc ated"
near"to"medium"street;"otherwise"s cho ols"
are "not"located"close"to"the"study"streets."
Detailed"analyses"of" route s"to " the"scho ols"
attended" by" members" of" par ticipant"
households" were" not" conducted ," but"

based" on" the" authors’" knowledge" of" the"
nei ghb ourhood," it" is" likely" that" the"
children" from" all" thre e" streets" would" face"
similar"traffic"hazards"on"their"journeys"to"
school." However," it" has" been " argued " tha t"
threats" immediately" outside" th e" front"
door"are"of"partic ular"salience"(Timp erio"et"
al.,"2004)"and"this"may"explain"the"finding"
that" the" parents" o n" light" stre et" were " less"
restrictive."
"
During " the" interviews," resident s" were"
ask ed" to" draw" their" ‘home" territories.’"
Home" territory" was" defined" as" the" “ar ea"
over" which" you" feel" you" have" a" sens e" of"
personal" responsi bility" or" stewar dship”"
(Appleyard," 1981) ." The" result s" confirmed"
Appleyard’s" findings" about" the"

21" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
"
relationship" between" traffic" level" and" the"
range" of" home" territories," as" is" evident"
from" the" extent" o f" the" ranges" in" Figure" 3"
(p."26)."
!
Social!Connec tions!
Residents" were" asked" to" identify" the"

locations" of" friends," acquaintances," and"
family" members" living" on" their " street" and"
to" indi cate" thei r" ‘home" territory’" using " an"
aer ial"p hotograph"provide d."Fi gures"3"and"
4"(pp."26,"27)"demonstrate"the"outcome"of"
this"exercis e,"in"the"format"of"Appley ard’s"
original" social" diagr ams," with" the" clear"
indication"bei ng"that"motor"traffic"through"
a"neighbourhood"has"an"inverse""
relationship" with" the"
number" of" social"
relationships" in" that"
nei ghb ourhood." The"
me chanisms" for" this"
finding" can" be" assumed"
to"draw"on"the"evidence"presented"in"the"
previous" sectio n." " In" add ition," acti vities"
that"len d"themselves"to"social"interaction,"
such" as" gardening" and" sitting" outside," are"
especially" vulnerable" to" traffic‐related"
environmental" impacts," particularl y" noise"
and" air" pollution." Second," as" traffic"
increases," so" doe s" the" barrier" effect"
between" opposite" sides " of" the" street."
Residents" on" heavy" street"
reported" often" having" to"
wait" as" long" as" five"
minutes"for"a"gap"in"traffic"
just" to" cross" to" the" other"
side." Finally, " the" threat" of"

bei ng" hit" and" injured" or"
killed"by"a"car"in"the"street"
environment" not" only"
discourages" people" from"
spendi ng" time" there," but"
those"who"do"may"be"more"
likely" to" be" on" the" defensive," and" less"
inclined" to" engage" in" a" spontaneous" chat"
wit h"a"stra nger."
"
Table" 2" summari ses" the " mean" number" of"
acquai ntances" and" friends" ide ntified" in"
Appleyard’s" original" San " Francisco" study,"
and" in" Bristol." " The" average" number" of"
friends"reporte d"on"light"street"(5. 35)"was"
greater" in" the" Bristol" study" than" in" the"
original" San" Francisco" study" (3.0)." This"
differe nce" may" resu lt" from" the" muc h"
lower" traffic " volume" of" the" light" street"
selected" f or" the" current" research "
compared" with" Appleyard’s" study" ( 140" vs"
2,000" vehicles/day)," or" may" be" du e" to"
other" differences" b etw een " the" s treets,"
such"as"ethnicity"or"cultural" differences."
"
Table"2"Comparison"of"Bristol"findings"with"
Appleyard’s"1969" San "Fra ncisco"study"
"
Table" 3" reports" the" results" of" chi‐square"
tests" conducted" for" all" three" streets" and"

for" pairings" of" streets" with" respect" t o"
numbers"of"friends,"acquaintances,"and"all"
social"contact s"reported. ""
Table" 3:" R esults" of" Chi‐squa red" tests" of"
differe nce"in"reported"social"connectio ns"
"
Significant"departures"(p<.001)"were"found"
from"the"nul l"hyp othesis"( that"residen ts"of "
all" t hree" streets" would" have" similar"
!
Light!Street!
Medium!S treet!
Heavy!Street!
Study"Location"
SF"
Bristol"
SF"
Bristol"
SF"
Bristol"
Tra ffic"volume"
2,000"
140"
8,000"
8,420"
16,000 "
21,130 "
Avg."no"friend s"
3"
5.35"

1.3 "
2.45"
0.9 "
1.15"
Avg."no"acqua intances"
6.3 "
6.1 "
4.1 "
3.65"
3.1 "
2.8 "
"
"
""
Social"relationshi ps"
Tra ffic" levels" (degrees " of"
freedom)"
Friends"
Acquaintances"
Combined"
All" (2)"
x2"
61.99"
28.07"
83.25"
"
p<"
.001"
.001"
.001"

light"vs"medium"(1)"
x2"
21.57"
12.32"
32.62"
"
p<"
.001"
.001"
.001"
me dium"vs"he avy"(1)"
x2"
9.40"
2.25"
9.20"
"
p<"
.01 "
not"significant"
.01 "
light"vs"heavy" (1)"
x2"
54.28"
24.48"
73.06"
"
p<"
.001"
.001"
.001"

22" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
"
numbers" of" friends" plus" acquaintances)."
Thi s" was" the" case" consi dering" all" three"
streets" together," for" the" comparison" of"
light" street" with" medium" street" and" for"
light" street" contrasted" with" heavy" street."
The"comparison"of"medium"and"heavy"was"
also"significant," but" at"a"lower"confidence"
level"(p<.01)."
"
Similar" findings" occurred" considering"
friends" only." How ever," considering "
acquai ntances" only," there" was" no"
significant" difference" between" the"
me dium"and"heavy"streets.""
"
These" findings" suggest" that" the" high" level"
of"t raffic"is"more"implicated"in"limiting"th e"
develo pment" of" friendships" than" it" is" in"
preventing" the" form ation" of" less" socia lly‐
involved" acquaintances." This" can" be"
explained" by" high" traffic" levels" not"
deterri ng" visual" recognition," non‐verbal"
communication" and" brief" discussion" as"
much"as"they"would"prevent"the"k ind"of"in‐
depth" discussions" that" could" enable" the"

develo pment" or" sustena nce" of" a"
friendship ."
"
Discussion:!Reversing!the!Tide!of!
Motorisation!in!Residential!
Neighbourhoods!
Thi s" study" has" replicated" the" primary"
findings" of" Appleyard ’s" original" research"
for" a" UK" neighbourhood" in" 2008:" higher"
levels" of" motor " vehicle" traffic" were" found"
to"have"a"considerable"negative"impact"on"
the" social" and" physical" environment,"
whilst" residents" identifie d" numerous"
impacts" on" psychological" and" practical"
quality" of" life." Specifi cally," fewer" friends"
and" acquaintances" from" the" same" street"
were" found" in" the" med ium" and" heav y"
traffic" streets," and" for" the" extent" of"
friendship s," even" the " difference" in"
incidence"bet ween"the"medium"and"higher"
level"traffi c"street s"was"significant.""
"
Given" that" the" three" study" streets" had"
been" selected" prima rily" for" being"
unremarkable" as" examples" of" UK"
traditional" urban" r esidential"
environments ,"the"severity " of"the" impacts"
document ed" presents" a" bleak" picture" o f"
the" quali ty" of" life" in" densely" populated"
are as" of" c ities" and" towns," particularly"

alo ng" major" roa ds." T here" is" no" reason" to"
suppose"that"si milar"findings"would"not"be"
found" in" many" other" streets" in" Bristol,"
elsewhere"in"the"UK,"and "arguably"beyond."
"
Given" the" strength" and"depth"of"evidence"
that" emerged" from" the" interviewees, "
perhaps" the" m ost" surprising" finding" from"
the" stu dy" was" that" popular" concern" has"
not" been" expressed" more" loudly" and"
clearly" in" nati onal" and" local" transport"
debates."This"may"arise"from "the"dilemma "
that" those" that" s uffer" from" the" effects" of"
motor" traffic" are" often" the" same" people"
who" create" motor" traffic" in" others’"
nei ghb ourhoods."The"ubiquity"of"motoring "
ma y" suggest" to" so me" that" there" is" no"
alternative" to" the" st atus" quo; " leading" to"
the" conclusion" that" the" current" urban"
environment" is" the" best" (a nd" only)"
possible" one." Some" residents" no" doubt"
move" on" from" the" most" trafficked"
localities"(and"were"therefor e"no"longer"in"
situ" to" be" int ervi ewed" for" this" study), " but"
not" all" have" this" option," due" to" econo mic "
me ans,"family "ties,"or "stage"of"life."
"
The" li mitations" to" adapting " streets" like"
those" studied" to" insulate" residen ts" from"
traffic" are" overwhelming." Demolition" and "

redeve lopment" is" theoretically" possible"
but" would" be" unaffordable," practically"
complex," and" urban" redevelop ment"
schemes"are"very"rarely"welcomed"by"‐"or"
carried"out"in"the"interests"of"–"incumbent"
residents" (e .g." Gans," 1962)." Hence," the"
crisis" can" only" be" address ed" by" seeking"
ma jor" r edu ctions" in" traffic " in" such"
localities." " Here" it" is" w orth" remembering"
that"the"automobile"was"introdu ced"at"the"

23" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
"
turn" of" the" 20
th
" Century" and" has" only"
dominated" cities" and" achieved" public"
acceptance"for"a"few"decades"(Southworth"
&" Ben‐Joseph ," 19 97)." " Therefore" the"
dominance" of" mot or" vehic les" over" pub lic"
space" may" not" be" as" immovable" or"
ine vita ble" as"one"might"first"assume."
"
Overall" po licy" to" reduce" the" effects" of"
motor" traffic" in" residential"
nei ghb ourhoods" must" first" reduce" the"
volume" of" th at" traffic." Subsequently, "
regulatory" measures " must" be" applied" to"

ma nage" rema ining" traffic" and" parking "
more" effectively ," includin g" that" resulting"
from"resid ents"themselves.""
"
Specific" policies" must" be" enacted" that"
ensure " a" shift" from" car" use" to" walking,"
cyc ling ,"and"public"trans port"use ,"applying"
economic" incentives" and" shifting" priority"
to" non‐motorised" modes" and" public"
transport" and" away" from" private" motor"
traffic. "Gr eater"coor dinatio n"in"planning"to"
provide" high‐quality," accessible" networks"
and" flexible" interchanges" between" active"
travel" modes" and" public" transport" is"
ide ntified" as" an" essential" part" of" this"
strateg y"(Parkhurst"et"al.,"2011).""
"
Improved"information"provision"ab out"th e"
social" a nd" environmental" c osts" of" car" use"
ma y"have"a"role"to"play"(Steg"and"Gifford,"
2005),"alth oug h"it"is"debatable"who"shou ld"
be" the" ident ified" communicator" of" this"
information" given" t hat" t rust" in" the" public"
author ities" has" been" identified" as" a" key"
lacuna " in" contemporary" politics" (Pew"
Research" Center" f or" the" People" and" the"
Pre ss," 2010)." While" smoking‐reduction"
campa igns"may"provide"a"mod el,"cognitive"
dissonance" ph enomena" may" be" stronger"
wit h" respe ct" to" ca r" dependence," as"

smoking," although" addicti ve," is" ultimately"
a" discreti onary" consumption" cho ice,"
whereas" many" people" currently" do" not"
have"viable"opti ons"besides"t he"car,"due"to"
spatial " location" and" other" fundamental"
lifestyl e" constraints." For" o thers" though"
(and"for"the"currently"car"d epe ndent"in"the"
longer‐run)," t ravel" choices" are" open" to"
influence" by" social" norms" and" emotions,"
wit h" needs" and" constraints" being"
overstated" in " many" individuals’" tr avel"
choice" discourses" (Steg," 2005)." Indeed,"
analysis"of"la rge"trave l"beh aviour"datasets"
shows" that" in" any" given" period," a" port ion"
of" citizens" make" choices" tow ards" car"
ownership" and" use" and" a" portion" make"
changes" in" the" other" direction." In" recent"
decades" the" net" direction" of" this"
‘asymmetric"churn’"has"resulted"in"heavier"
motor" traffic," but" the" presence" of" the"
counter‐movements" sugg ests" there" ar e"
me chanisms" which" policy" can" seek" to"
exploit" to" reve rse" this" balance" (Good win ,"
cited"in"Chatterjee,"2001).""
"
Copenhagen" provides" one" successful"
examp le" of" how" to" push" ‘churn’" in" a"
positiv e"direction:"a"city"ce ntre"strategy"to"
limit" parking " suppl y" gradual ly" was "
implemen ted" fro m" 1962," with" 2‐3%" of"

parking" capacity" remov ed" each" year," and"
combined" with" investment" in" the" quality "
of" public" spaces," grow th" in" cycling," an d"
public" transport" prov ision." CABE" (2002)"
ide ntified" this" pol icy" as" having" effectively"
improved" urban" liveability" and" widened"
travel" choices," whi lst" avoiding" political"
backlash,"as"the" reduction"in"park ing"pol icy"
was" inc rement al," and" h ardly" noticed,"
whilst" the" cumulative" change" was"
bal anced" by" capacity" increases" for" the"
other" m odes." Here" policy" balance" (rat her"
than" emphasising" provision " of" the" more"
politically"acceptable"policy"measures)"is"a"
key" issue," as" en acti ng" policies" that" affect"
the"pric e"and"availability"of"vehicle"st orage"
can" be" more" effective" than" public"
transport" provision" at" managing" levels" of"
traffic"in"a n"urbanised"ar ea"( DfT,"2001)."
"
Residential"neighbourhoods"do"not"exist"in"
isolation" and" many" journeys" made " by"
residents" will" be" to" travel" o ut" from" them"

24" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
"
to" destinations" rather" than" wit hin" them,"
so"it"is"important"not"to"over‐focus"on"the"

very"local."Nonetheless,"the"site"of"imp act"
and" the" location" where" the" trips " that"
become" ‘traffic’" begin" is" the" residential"
street." ‘Filter ed" permeability’" (Melia,"
2007)" has" been" identified" as" a"key" mea ns"
by"which"bicyclists"and"pede strians"can"be"
afforded" or" retain" fine‐gr ain" access" to" a"
street"network"while"cars"are"restricted"by"
design," phys ical" barriers" and" regulat ions."
The" concept" can" effectively" design" a" non‐
motorised " advant age" into" th e" built"
environment," and" has" been" particularly"
successful" in" cities" like" Gronin gen" in" the"
Nether lands." A" transformation" of"
residential" neighbourhoods" themselves" ‐"
from" polluted," dangerous" thoroughfares"
to" quality" environments" directly" outside"
one’s" fr ont" doo r" can" ‐" in" and" of" itself" ‐"
encourage" w alking" and" cycl ing," and"
discourage" driving" (Killingsworth " et" al.,"
2003).""
"
A" number" of" theorists" have" placed" the"
bla me"for"our"hostile"streets"on"a"planning"
code" that" fails"to" dist inguish " bet ween" the"
necessarily"highly‐predictable"world"of"the"
high‐speed"highway,"and "the"urban"places"
where" people" live," work," and" play" (CABE,"
2002)." The" philosophy" of" ‘shared" space’"
provides" an" alternativ e," following" a" logic"

which" was" initially" heretical" for" traffi c"
engine ers" steeped" in" the" doctrine" of"
seg regation" of" different" flow s" a nd" clarity"
of" carriageway" priority" for" greater" safety."
Yet " t he" available" rese arch" would" seem" to"
indicate" that" in" some" circumstances," as" a"
result" of" reducing" priorities" the" degree" of"
perceived"saf ety"reduces"but"actual"safety"
increases," as" a" greater" deg ree" of" care" is"
taken" by" road " user s" (Hamilton‐Bailli e,"
2004)." Shared" space" in" residential" streets"
has"been"embodied"in"the"development"of"
‘woonerven’" or" home" zones," although"
they" are" potentia lly" complex" and"
expensive" to" deliver" as" retrofit" schemes,"
and" can" have" negative" as" well" as" positive"
community" cohesio n" outcom es" if" a" full"
consensus "around"the"specific "remodelling"
is" not" achieved." (Sherwin," Pa rkhurst," and"
Chatterjee,"20 06)."
"
Legal" and" regulato ry" measures" also" have"
an" important" part" to" play," given" the"
political" limits" to" introducing" economic"
restraints"and"the"relatively"weak"effect"of"
voluntary" measures." Since" 2006," local"
author ities" in" the" UK" have" had" the" ability"
to" declare" a" 20mph" (approximately" 32"
km/h)" speed" limit" on" built" up" roads" ( DfT,"
2006)" and" a" former" (impractical)"

requirement" that" physical" measures" be"
used"to"reduce"vehicle"speeds"to"the"lega l"
limit" has" been" dropped." Lo wer " speed"
limits" as" well" as" strict" liability" laws" for"
drivers " have" been" su ccessfu lly" adopted" in"
Nether lands" and" Scandinavian" countries"
(Whitelegg," 2007)." Such" measures" are"
seen" as" essential" for" the" promotion" of"
cyc ling "and"walkin g"as"at"lower"speeds"the"
risks" of" fatality" in" the" event" of" a" collision"
are "dramatically"r educed"(Table"4).""
"
Table" 4: " Risk" of" pedestrian" fatality" in" a"
vehicle" collision" by" vehic le" speed" (IIHS"
2000)"
Vehicle"Speed"
Risk"of"Pedestrian"Fatality"
20"mph"
5%"
30"mph"
45%"
40mph"
85%"
"
Whilst" for" most" of" our" residential"
nei ghb ourhoods" retrofitting" is" the" only "
option ,"at"lea st"where"new"development"is"
pla nned" then" there" are" opportun ities" to"
ensure " th at" the" location" is! well" served" by"
public" transport," cycling" and" walking"

routes" so" that " a" car" is" no t" a" routine" daily"
necessity" (Barto n," 2003)." Employment"
centres" should" be" located" within" the"
existing"urban"fabric" and"in"close "proximity"
to"pu blic "transport"stops"or"stations."These"
typ es"of"compact"land "uses"are"associa ted"

25" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " W o r l d " T r a n s p o r t " P o l i c y " a n d " P r a c t i c e " "
V o l u m e " 1 7 . 2 " J u n e " 2 0 1 1 " "
"
"
wit h"lower"levels"of"car"use ,"and"improved"
air" quality"(Frank" et"a l.,"2000)."
"
Fin ally,"we"note"that"whilst"this"article"has"
foc used" on" problems" and" solutions" in" the"
highly" industrialised" countries,"
motorisation" is" developing" rapi dly" in"
industriali sing" states." While" it" is" in" some"
senses" ‘too" late’" at" le ast" for" preventative"
solutions" in" the" industrial ised" world,"
considerable" opportunities" remain" to"
avoid"similar"mistakes"for"those"states"yet "
to" adopt" mass" car" o wnersh ip." In" all"
jurisdictions" interventions" will" need" to" be"
multifaceted,"bespoke"for"the "context,"but"
vigorously" pursued," wit h" consensus‐
building"matched"with"clear"leadership."By"
any" account" this" is" a" considerable"
challenge,"but"perhaps"sufficient"(if "rather"

too" rare)" examples" exist" to" confirm" it" is"
possible" to" halt" and" even" reverse" the"
“mutual"d etriment"and"significant" loss”"of"
car"dependence."(Whitelegg,"1997)."
!
Afterword!
The" authors" gratefully" acknowledge" the"
pioneering" and " visionary" work" of" Donald"
Appleyard," who" was," with " tragic" irony,"
killed" in" 1982" by" a" speeding" motorist" in"
Athens," Greece." A" much" anticipated"2
nd
"
edi tion"of"!"#$%&' ()* +''* ,"is"expected"to"be"
published"by "Routledge"Pres s"in"2011."We"
also" thank" the " 60" hou seholds" of" north"
Bristol"f or"th eir"generosity"with"th eir"time"
and"insigh ts."
"
About! the!Authors!
Joshua" Hart" is" a" freelance" activist" and"
journalist" working" on" issues" related" to"
appropriate" technology:" sustainab le"
energy" and" transportation," an d" health‐
based" wireless"policies ."" He" resides" in" the"
San"Francisco"Bay"Area."
"
Contact"email:""
joshua "
"

"
Graham"Parkhurst"BA"(Hons),"MSc,"DPhil"is "
Professor" of" Sustainable" Mobility" and"
Director" of" the" Centre" for" Transp ort" and"
Society,"University"of"the"West"of"England"
(UWE)."Contact"emai l:""
graham.parkh
""
"
The" article" is" based" on" work" undertake n"
for" a" Masters" dissertatio n" by" Joshua"Hart"
MSc" while" studying" at" UWE’s" Centre" for"
Tra nsport"an d"Society."The"full"d isse rtation"
can" be" do wnl oaded" by" following" the" link"
from" Hart,"J.,"Parkhurst,"G.," (2011 )"on"the"
following"webpage:""
http:// www.trans port.uwe.ac.uk/publicati
ons/publications.asp""
"