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Notes
1. The nine localities are Jagersfontein, Fauresmith, Luckhoff, Philippolis and
Ladybrand in the Free State, and Colesberg, Philipstown, Ritchie and Hopetown in
the Northern Cape (see map on page xii).
2. Corvée services are the exchange of labour time on the lord’s land for the right to
work a parcel of land. In South Africa, this was known as labour tenancy.
3. The use of coercion to secure a cheap labour force in the early capitalist phase of
South African agriculture should not be regarded as unusual. In Canada (Lalibertz
& Satzewich 1999) and California (Walsh 1999), the government resorted to the
withdrawal of farm workers’ resources (in these cases, welfare payments) to force
them to enter the labour market.
4. This refers to Section 10 of the Bantu Laws Amendment Act of 1952.
5. Information about the reasons for changes in employment patterns was not specifically
requested. Rather, farmers volunteered their opinions in unstructured discussion.
6. It is not entirely clear whether the two earlier documents should be considered as
official rural strategies in their own right. The ISRDS explicitly refutes the claim
that South Africa does not have a rural strategy (DPLG 2000: 16). But the ISRDP
then asserts that these earlier strategies were discussion documents and were not
confirmed as the government strategy for rural development.
7. These nodal districts are Kalahari-Kgalagadi (Northern Cape/North West Province),
Central Karoo (Western Cape), Ukhahalamba (Eastern Cape), Chris Hani (Eastern
Cape), OR Tambo (Eastern Cape), Alfred Nzo (Eastern Cape), Ugu (southern KZN),
Umzinyathi (central KZN), Zululand (northern KZN), Umkhanyakude (northern
KZN), Sekhukhune (Mpumalanga/Limpopo) and Eastern Municipality (Limpopo).
8. This information comes from an interview conducted in September 2002 by Anja
Benseler.
9. The work was undertaken by Prof. Retha du Plessis of the University of the Free
State, and Rev. Carin van Schalkwyk of the NG Church in Bergmanshoogte,
Philippolis. Their social work students carried out the project in 2003.
10. The house must have a durable and waterproof roof, glass windows that can be opened,

electricity that is available in the house, water that is available on tap inside the house
and a flush toilet or pit latrine. The house must be no less than 30 square metres in size.
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11. A very useful analysis of the likely consequences of the minimum wage is contained
in Vink and Tregurtha (2003).
12. This section draws on research conducted by Daniel Pienaar of the HSRC. The author
would like to thank informants who worked with the erstwhile Rural Foundation.
These include Mr Henk Vermeulen (former provincial manager of the Free State,
1988 to 1997) and Mr Alwijn Dippenaar (former chief director: operations); Ms
Evelynn Oppelt, National Manager: Childcare; Ms Riana Terre’Blanche, Senior
Community Development Officer: Sport, Education, Gender Issues; Mr Vikus
Scholtz, chairperson of the Rural Foundation Free State Executive Council; Faan de
Kok, provincial manager of the Rural Foundation in the Free State. Information was
drawn from: Beeld, 30/07/91, 22/2/92; Die Burger, 4/12/87, 20/3/89, 3/8/89, 10/5/90,
15/3/91, 19/6/91, 21/9/91; 24/7/92, 2/11/92, 8/12/93, 17/12/95, 23/1/97, 7/5/98; Die
Karet, 18/5/92; Die Transvaler, 28/5/90; Die Volksblad, 5/11/88, 3/6/92; Die Volksblad,
Panorama, 31/5/88; Eastern Province Herald, 31/8/93; Finansies en Tegniek, 22/3/85,
28/5/87, 22/10/89, 29/2/92, 5/7/96; Hansard (A) 6 col 5572, 13/5/85, (A) 8 col 6492,
19/4/88; Landbouweekblad, 8 /6/84, 8/5/87, 22/5/87, 2/5/88, 5/8/88, 24/11/89, 18/5/90,
12/10/90, 1/9/92; Oosterlig, 31/10/89; Rapport, 5/10/87, 14/2/88, 6/10/90, 31/5/96;
The Argus, 25/10/89; Weekend Argus, 17/12/95.
13. This study was conducted by Anja Benseler. The civil society organisations were
identified by consulting the Department of Social Development’s register of
NPOs. The HSRC sent letters to all the NPOs that appeared to provide services
to farm workers. Those NPOs that responded to the letters were then interviewed
telephonically.
14. Some TRCs consisted of African or coloured settlements such as Masizakhe TRC

near Colesberg, or the settlements along the Orange River in the Upington region.
These TRCs often voted for the ANC. Another exception is Tweespruit TRC in the
eastern Free State, where a white farmer councillor joined the ANC and built up a
strong ANC base in the farm worker community.
15. Platteland is an Afrikaans term for rural areas; more literally translated, it means ‘flat
lands’ or ‘low lands’.
16. District Councils’ revenue base consisted of levies on commercial enterprises. These
levies were based on the number of workers employed and on turnover.
17. The exceptions are farms that fall within District Management Areas (DMAs), which
are administered directly by district municipalities.
18. Research for this section was conducted during 2002 by Nhlanhla Ndebele, as part of
an HSRC study on rural representation on municipal councils.
N O T E S
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19. The term micro-welfare system was introduced by Ashira Consulting in an
unpublished paper.
20. No PGDS could be obtained for KwaZulu-Natal.
21. Other developmental gatekeepers are ‘shacklords’ and traditional leaders.
22. The only other notable category of single-tier municipal government contains the
metropolitan municipalities, which function without being overseen by District
Municipalities.
23. Research for this section was undertaken during 2002 by Monyake Motheke of the
Centre for Development Support, University of the Free State.
24. For example, in 2003, the Kareeberg Local Municipality in the Northern Cape
budgeted – and actually spent – a sum of R500 000 for a rural needs assessment. The
municipality has made available a series of farm worker subsidies (R500 per farm

worker house for water; R500 for sanitation; R1 000 for electricity) (Ingle & Van
Schalkwyk 2004). The municipality has retained the services of a consultant to liaise
with the Vroue Landbou Unie (VLU), to initiate literacy and needlework courses on
the farms. However, it should be noted that the Kareeberg Municipality is dominated
by the opposition party (the Democratic Alliance), which no doubt explains its
willingness to support farming interests.
25. The Constitution refers to spheres of government rather than tiers of government. The
term ‘spheres’ is intended to convey the idea that national, provincial and municipal
governments are equal in importance and constitutional status.
26. Some municipalities’ IDPs are more consultant-driven than others. For some
municipalities, IDPs are a formalistic requirement that languish on dusty shelves.
But new participatory approaches such as community-based planning are being
developed to ensure that IDPs are rooted in community needs and realistic
community-level development strategies (see, for example, www.khanya-aicdd.org).
27. The 16 municipalities are listed here. North West Province: Bojanala District
Municipality (Rustenburg area), Madibeng Local Municipality (Brits area), Moses
Kotane Local Municipality (Madikwe area). Free State Province: Matjhabeng Local
Municipality (Welkom area), Nala Local Municipality (Bothaville area), Maluti-
a-Phofung Local Municipality (Harrismith area), Nketoana Local Municipality
(Reitz area), Tswelopele Local Municipality (Bultfontein area), Lejweleputswa
District Municipality (Welkom area). Gauteng: Ekhurhuleni Metro, Lesedi Local
Municipality (Heidelberg area). Northern Cape: Frances Baard District Municipality
(Kimberley area), Kgalagadi District Municipality (Kuruman area). Limpopo:
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Fetakgomo Local Municipality (Ga-Mankopane area), Mogalakwena Local
Municipality (Makopane area). Mpumalanga: Greater Tubatse Local Municipality
(Burgersfort area), Ehlanzeni District Municipality (Nelspruit area).

28. The same caveats should apply to provincial development strategies as apply
to municipal IDPs. Many of these documents were compiled or facilitated by
consultants, so it is not always clear whether the relevant government departments
have bought into these proposals.
29. There are, however, some glaring differences between the two situations. For
example, the commercial farming lobby is inordinately powerful in the US, in
contrast to the South African commercial farming sector; the US fiscus is capable
of much more generous grants and subsidies; and the US farmers do not live in the
shadow of land redistribution. US farmers are doubly protected – firstly, by high
levels of direct subsidies and, secondly, by the fact that the US government picks up
the tab for extensive farm worker services (housing, health, education etc.), which
translate into indirect subsidies for US farmers.
30. AgriSETA was previously called the Primary Agriculture Education and Training
Authority (PAETA).
31. Farmers were asked a totally open-ended question on their views of what training
should be provided to farm workers.
32. Interview, Machiel van Niekerk, AgriSETA.
33. Interview, Nkuzi Development Association, September 2005.
34. Hans van der Merwe, AgriSA CEO,
Farmers Weekly, 12 August 2005.
N O T E S
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Index
Acts
Agricultural Labour Act (1994) 66
Bantu Education Act (1953) 229
Bantu Laws Amendment Act (1952) 28
Basic Conditions of Employment Act (1983)
66
Basic Conditions of Employment Act (1997)
37–38, 84–85, 121, 165, 204
Education and Training Act (1979) 38, 229
Education Laws Amendment Act (1988) 232
Extension of Security of Tenure Act (1977) 66
Extension of Security of Tenure Act (ESTA)
(1997) 79, 95, 133
Illegal Squatters Act (1951) 38
Labour Relations Act (1995) 37, 85, 121, 165,
204, 219
Local Government Transition Act (LGTA)
(1993) 152, 283
Local Government: Municipal Systems Act
(2000) 158, 159, 161
Local Municipal Structures Act (1998) 159,
161

Masters and Servants Act (1873) 35
Municipal Property Rates Act (2004) 210,
214, 285
Native (Urban Areas) Act (1923) 33, 37
Native Administration Act (1927) 33
Native Affairs Act (1920) 33
Native Laws Amendment Act (1952) 37
Native Regulation Act (1911) 35
Native Service Contract Act (1932) 35
Native Trust and Land Act (1936) 33, 37
Natives Land Act (1913) Act 32–34, 48
Skills Development Act (1998) 240
South African Schools Act (1996) 175, 234
Subdivision of Agricultural Land Act (1970)
267
Trespass Act (1955) 38
Unemployment Insurance Act (2001) 37, 121
Wage Act (1957) 37
Water Services Act (1997) 157, 178
Workmen’s Compensation Act (1941) 38
Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET)
146, 175
African National Congress (ANC) 83, 89, 155,
160, 168, 233, 284
Agri-BEE 251, 264
agricultural colleges 247
Agricultural Sector Education and Training
Authority (AgriSETA) 240, 248, 285–286
agricultural union(s) 135, 139, 161, 211,258
agriculture 3, 7, 18–19, 23, 27, 29, 33, 39, 42, 50,

52–54, 59, 61, 65, 67, 71, 73–74, 77–79,
83, 88, 95, 118, 120–121, 126–127, 135–
136, 153, 162, 170, 172, 195, 197, 199, 211,
213–214, 228, 230, 236, 238, 241–242,
245, 249–251, 253–255, 257, 262, 265,
267, 269, 271–272, 274, 276–277, 279, 281
capitalist 39, 42
commercial 3, 7, 23, 27, 42, 53–54, 59, 61,
77–79, 135, 171, 195, 279
subsistence 23, 88
AgriSA 148, 257, 258
agri-villages 197–198, 259
AIDS 93, 138, 148, 194
orphans 148
programmes 194
workshop 93
alcohol abuse 103, 105, 147–148, 204, 218
apartheid 4, 8, 16, 18, 42–44, 53, 56, 59, 62,
69–70, 149, 151, 229
bantustans (homelands) 12, 22, 41–42, 56, 62,
68–70
black economic empowerment (BEE) 196, 241,
251, 258, 264, 273–274
capitalism 18, 20, 22, 27
child abuse 143, 176
child grants 93, 128, 165, 274
child labour 12–13, 38, 122, 148
civil society organisations 133, 142, 144
Colesberg 64, 67, 155
commercial agriculture 3, 7, 23, 27, 53–54, 59,

61, 77–79, 170, 195, 279
commonage (land) 6, 10, 21, 49, 266, 268–269,
272, 274
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I N D E X
Conservative Party (CP) 232
Constitution 79, 108, 158–159, 174, 285
Demarcation Board 160, 184
democracy 154, 161
Democratic Alliance (DA) 160, 241
Department of Agriculture (DoA) 93, 173, 199,
241, 247, 250, 258, 274, 277–278
Department of Housing (DoH) 174, 176, 227,
265, 278
Department of Land Affairs (DLA) 7, 256, 259,
266, 272
Department of Native Affairs 41
Department of Provincial and Local
Government (DPLG) 183, 192
disaster management 164–165, 195, 209
district council (DC) 150–157, 167, 174, 183,
202, 284
district management areas (DMAs) 159, 284
domestic violence 143, 148, 203, 207
dop (alcohol) system 103
drought 33, 39, 50, 58, 121, 195, 266

drug abuse 106
Eastern Cape 23, 46, 49, 54, 57, 112, 120, 127,
140, 144, 147, 156, 164, 173, 185, 187,
268, 282
economic depression 39–40, 50, 148
economy 1, 3–5, 7, 15, 18, 20–22, 27–28, 30, 32,
38, 42, 49–50, 52, 59–60, 62, 65, 75–79,
89–90, 110, 114, 119, 162, 167, 169, 203,
214, 228, 242, 250, 262, 265, 268, 271, 275,
277, 279
agricultural 59, 228
black sharecropper 30
capitalist 18, 20, 42
colonial 22, 28
formal 1
mining 27
peasant 21–22
rural 52, 75, 90, 169, 271
sharecropping 30, 32
ecotourism 69, 170
education 1, 5, 9, 15, 24, 44, 59, 71, 73, 103, 106,
113–114, 118–119, 130–131, 143, 146,
169–171, 173, 175, 177, 204, 215–216,
226, 228–237, 239, 272, 285
efflux control 41
electricity 46, 115, 118, 122, 128, 151–152,
156, 164, 175, 177–178, 182, 190–191,
193–194, 196, 204, 206, 208, 216, 230,
261, 283–284
employment 2–3, 5, 11–12, 30, 35–36, 38, 40–41,

45, 47, 50–51, 53, 55, 57–60, 62–64,
66–67, 74, 77–78, 82, 88–89, 94, 96, 98,
115, 119, 122–125, 127–129, 166, 178–
179, 199, 213, 216–217, 228, 230–231,
236–237, 261, 264–265, 269, 271, 276,
278–279, 282
eviction(s) 31, 33, 38, 40, 47, 65, 68, 70, 79–82,
84–89, 145, 155, 195, 199, 201, 280
exploitation 20, 43, 120
Farmers’ Associations 153, 246–247
farmers’ unions 7, 148–149, 153–155, 163, 188,
210, 256–257, 272, 278
Fauresmith 67, 252
food security 211, 213, 265
fraud 84
Free Basic Electricity (FBE) 165, 204, 206, 227
Free State 5, 13–14, 28, 30, 32–34, 37, 49–50, 57,
64–67, 92, 94, 100–101, 123, 130, 139–
140, 142–146, 150–152, 154, 161–162,
175–178, 185, 187–188, 192–193, 198,
203, 210, 217–219, 240, 243, 257, 260,
262, 268, 283–284
globalisation 7, 77–78, 89, 93, 248, 279, 281
Growth, Employment and Redistribution
(GEAR) 76–78
HIV/AIDS 71, 104–105, 143, 146, 203–205, 244,
264
awareness 146, 204
prevention 104
training 244

homelands (Bantustans) 12, 22, 41–42, 56, 59,
62, 68–70
Hopetown 67
housing 12, 24,44, 46, 82, 85, 87–90, 94, 96,
117–118, 122, 128–129, 132, 138, 148,
151–152, 156, 164, 166–167, 169, 171,
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173–174, 177, 179, 190, 193–194, 198,
202, 204–205, 215–223, 255, 261, 272,
276–278, 285
human rights 7, 28, 133, 142, 149
hut taxes 27
illiteracy 96, 103, 130
immigration 74, 119
influx control 15, 33, 37, 40–41, 43, 56, 58–59, 62
initiation schools 43
Integrated Development Plan (IDP) 159–160,
182, 188–189, 192–199, 201, 217, 220,
281, 285
Integrated Sustainable Rural Development
Programme (ISDRP) 70–71, 73, 277
Jagersfontein 67
Khoisan 23, 25–28
KwaZulu-Natal 68, 210
labour 5, 17, 19–21, 23, 26, 28–31, 37–42, 54, 57–
58, 60, 66, 69–70, 87, 109, 121, 127, 148,
166–167, 218–219, 228, 251, 280–282

bureaux 37, 41
contractors 5
legislation 37, 66, 121, 127, 148, 166–167,
218–219, 280–281
tenancy 30, 39–41, 57, 251, 282
unfree 19, 23, 29, 38, 42, 58, 109, 228
Ladybrand 67, 98
Land Redistribution for Agricultural
Development (LRAD) 256, 272
land redistribution 3, 6, 73, 93, 170, 259, 280, 285
land reform 3, 7, 9–10, 16, 26, 76, 79, 84–86,
93, 124, 172, 189, 192, 199, 201, 217,
250, 253–255, 257, 259–260, 262, 266,
268–269, 277, 281
land tax 153, 166
land tenure 2–3, 6–7, 65, 70, 76, 95, 128–129,
132, 158, 162, 166–167, 178, 218–219,
253, 276, 279, 280–281
claims 129, 219
legislation 7, 65, 95, 128, 132, 218, 253, 276,
280
rights 125
Landless Peoples Movement (LPM) 84, 264
Limpopo 128, 149, 173, 192, 273
literacy 1, 95, 137, 139, 156, 243–245
local economic development (LED) 124, 172
Luckhoff 67
mechanisation 11, 20, 31, 39, 50, 53–57, 59, 62,
65, 96, 128
migrant labour system 12, 33, 63

migration 1, 3, 6, 11–13, 59, 63, 65, 68, 70–71,
111, 113–116, 118, 126, 128–131, 203,
209, 215, 217, 228, 231, 265–266, 275–276
farm worker 55, 275
rural-urban 3, 6, 59, 118
mining 19–22, 27, 41, 61, 63, 151
Mpumalanga 140, 192
municipal commonage see commonage land
land 6, 10, 49, 262
municipal rates
Natal 30, 57, 112, 120, 127, 140, 231
National African Farmers’ Union (NAFU)
257–258
National Party (NP) 33, 41, 56, 60, 83, 134–135,
142, 151–152, 155, 229, 231, 233, 237
non-governmental organisation (NGO) 6, 86,
107–108, 133, 135, 142–147, 161, 216,
226, 242, 246, 271, 279–281
non-profit organisation (NPO) 142, 283
North West Province 49, 143, 178, 192, 195, 282,
285
Northern Cape 13, 66, 92, 94, 130, 145–146,
150–155, 157, 164, 174, 176, 178, 185,
187–188, 191–192, 203, 217–218, 240,
243, 261, 268, 282
nutrition 204, 271
pass laws 2, 15, 27–28, 36–37, 40–41, 43, 62
paternalism 3, 15, 34–35, 44, 47–48, 52, 91,
93–96, 98–99, 134, 162
peasantry 15, 19, 21, 26, 32, 34, 52

pensions 128, 165, 204, 274
Philippolis 67, 101, 103, 106
Philipstown 67
Plaatje, Sol 30, 33, 35, 44, 48
poll taxes 22
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poverty 1, 5, 21, 23, 49–51, 69–70, 72, 79, 91,
119–120, 124, 130, 172, 199, 213, 250,
260, 263–267, 274–275, 279
PRA (participatory rural appraisal) techniques
101, 106–107
profit-sharing 2, 98, 169, 170, 278
Provincial Growth and Development Strategy
(PGDS) 168–169, 172
racism 18–19
reserves 22, 27
retrenchments 65, 111, 122, 126–128
rights 28
Ritchie 67
Rural Development Framework of 1997 166, 281
Rural Foundation 133–142, 144, 146, 148–149,
164, 181, 202, 225, 238–240, 277, 279
sanitation 1, 118, 132, 145, 148, 151–152, 156–
158, 160, 164, 183, 185, 187, 190, 199, 204,
206, 208, 220, 227, 232, 261, 284
Sectoral Education and Training Authority

(SETA) 240–241, 249
segregation 4, 18, 33
service delivery 2, 4, 8–9, 13, 61, 70, 107–108,
132–133, 135, 141–146, 148, 150, 162,
164–167, 174, 176, 179–184, 186–188,
190–199, 202–203, 205, 207–209, 225,
227, 235, 276
sewerage 194
see also sanitation
share equity schemes 16, 259–260, 278
sharecropping 2, 30–33, 52, 86, 168–170, 251,
259, 278
slavery 19, 21, 25, 28
South African Agricultural Union (SAAU) 60,
135, 230, 238
squatting 21, 24, 26, 29, 37, 40
stokvels (savings clubs) 274
subsidies 284
Sustainable Livelihoods in Agriculture Grant
(SLAG) 78
tenure rights 73, 84
tot system 138
tourism 69, 151, 173, 192, 196
trade union(s) 4, 17–19, 75, 93, 95, 108, 121, 133,
154, 160
training 156, 228, 232
Transitional Local Councils (TLCs) 150–158,
164, 166–167, 174, 176, 187, 210, 284
transport 44, 94
Transvaal 30, 49, 50, 57

trekboers 23, 49
tuberculosis (TB) 106, 264
unemployment insurance 56, 132
unemployment 52, 68, 72, 123–124, 127–128,
160, 168, 199, 220, 263, 266, 274, 279
unfree labour system 29, 38, 42, 58
unionisation 5, 121, 123
United Nations 213
urbanisation 27, 41–42, 52–53, 59, 60–62, 68,
71–73, 111, 128, 131–132, 160, 169,
173, 197–198, 207, 217, 255, 262–264,
275–277, 279
vagrancy (landlopery) 29, 36
violence against women 103
wage labour 20, 40
waste management 158, 160
water 1, 46, 94, 117–118, 122, 128, 132, 151–152,
158–159, 164, 182, 184–185, 190, 193–
196, 199, 204–206, 208, 213, 216, 220,
230, 232, 243, 261, 267, 283–284
Western Cape 16, 23, 98, 100, 103–104, 106, 135,
138, 140, 142, 149–150, 164, 168–171,
174, 185, 187, 211, 218–219, 221, 240,
243, 265–266, 268, 282
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