Sexuality Issues and Gynecologic Care of Adolescents with Developmental Disabilities potx

Sexuality Issues
and Gynecologic
Care of Adolescents
with Developmental
Disabilities
Donald E. Greydanus, MD
a,
*
, Hatim A. Omar,
MD
b
Sexuality is a complex phenomenon that involves intricate interactions between the
individual’s biologic gender; core identity (sense of maleness or femaleness); and
gender role behavior (nonsexual and sexual).
1–3
Sexuality continues to be a core
and profound component of humanity in which human beings need other humans.
This capacity for giving and receiving love and affection remains throughout life.
The success or failure encountered by children and youth with regard to their sexual
system development significantly contributes to the potential success or failure of their
appropriate transition to adult life.
A common myth among parents and society in general about youth with disabilities
or even chronic illness is that these children and adolescents are asexual, that they
suppress their sexual needs because of their disability, are not subject to sexual
abuse, and do not require any type of sexuality education.
4–11
Parents and primary
care clinicians must be educated that such concepts are not true and that all
adolescents, whether healthy or not, are sexual human beings and need comprehen-
sive sexuality education.
4,5,11–31

Parents and clinicians must understand that normal
development of adolescence implies that youth must learn to emancipate from
parents and develop a normal sense of self-identify within the reality of their cognitive
abilities. Youth must learn to understand who they are as functional and sexual human
beings.
a
Pediatrics and Human Development, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine,
Michigan State University/Kalamazoo Center for Medical Studies, 1000 Oakland Drive, Kalama -
zoo, MI 49008–1284, USA
b
Adolescent Medicine and Young Parent Programs, J422, Kentucky Clinic, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: (D.E. Greydanus).
KEYWORDS

Developmental disabilities

Sexuality

Gynecology

Sexuality education
Pediatr Clin N Am 55 (2008) 1315–1335
doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2008.08.002 pediatric.theclinics.com
0031-3955/08/$ – see front matter ª 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
Mild Intellectual Disability
Youth with intellectual disability represent a subgroup of developmental disabilities
complicating health care issues in these youth.

32
About 3% of the general population
has significant intellectual deficit and are classified as having mental subnormality.
This includes over 1.2 million adolescents with about 100,000 individuals being born
annually. Intellectual disability can be associated with various disorders, including
those listed next. There is usually no identifiable cause for intellectual disability.
33–35
Down syndrome
Cerebral palsy
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Fragile X syndrome
Prader-Willi syndrome
Neurofibromatosis
Meningomyelocele
Autism
Velocardiofacial syndrome
Williams syndrome
Others
Approximately 80% of youth with intellectual disability are classified as mild intellec-
tual disability, with an intelligence quotient in the 50 to 75 range. These youth are
trainable and potentially literate and employable with unskilled or semiskilled jobs.
Although often limited to preoperational or concrete operational piagetian thinking
levels, they go through the main psychologic stages their normal intelligence quotient
peers go through. Youth diagnosed with mild intellectual disability are often painfully
aware of their intellectual limitations and may have considerable difficulty emancipat-
ing from parents and establishing a secure self-image.
Youth with mild intellectual disability have the same needs for sexual development
as their ‘‘normal’’ peers, but society (including parents and clinicians) is often unwilling
and unable to accept such a concept. These youth have normal sex drives and desire
for coital behavior that is comparable with their nondisabled peers.

11,26,36–38
It is im-
portant that health care professionals address sexuality and vocational needs of their
adolescent patients with intellectual disability to allow them normal eriksonian devel-
opment.
1,28,33,39–44
Indeed, these youth need to learn appropriate sexual behavior, in-
cluding what is and what is not acceptable touching. The continuing development of
sexuality in youth with intellectual disability often worries and frightens parents, who
become concerned about the consequences of such issues as dating, sexual abuse,
pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
20,29,45–48
These youth must re-
ceive education to help avoid unwanted sexual exploitation, pregnancy, and STDs.
49
Parents must be educated that mentally retarded youth have legal rights to such infor-
mation and can be judged competent to handle sexual intimacy.
47–50
Moderate-Profound Intellectual Disability
About 12% of youth with intellectual disability are in the moderate range with intelli-
gence quotient scores between 25 and 50.
1,32
They are called ‘‘trainable individuals’’
who can be instructed in basic self-care, appropriate socialization, and basic verbal
communication. They can perform simple chores and typically remain with the family
or stay in a residential facility. Family members who keep these youth at home usually
need guidance in maximizing their child’s or youth’s potential without negatively
Greydanus & Omar
1316
impacting others in the home. These youth must be protected from sexual exploita-

tion. Those with intelligence quotients below 25 (severe or profound intellectual dis-
ability) are usually totally dependent on others and may be institutionalized in some
states. They need to be cared for with dignity; often have severe health care needs;
and must also be protected from being abused (sexually and physically).
ISSUES FOR PARENTS
Parents’ reactions to their developmentally disabled youth’s problems are very impor-
tant to the overall psychologic health of the parents and their youth.
1,5,8,11,26,31,33,51–61
The birth of a baby can give parents considerable joy and start them off on a journey of
fantasy about the wonderful things their child may do that will make the parents very
proud and happy. It is a normal desire on the part of parents to want to produce a per-
fect child, one that is the best at some or all of the qualities these parents desire. Some
parents even live their lives and dreams through their children. Unfortunately, children
may not live up to such expectations. Many parents learn to accept such a reality and
learn to love their children in a realistic manner, usually understanding that their chil-
dren are simply reflections of themselves, negating the potential of perfection. Chil-
dren with disabilities also can be in this category, whether dealing with a child with
Down syndrome, intellectual disability, chronic illness, or other.
Parents may mourn the loss of their ‘‘perfect’’ child when confronted with a child
with developmental disability. The sense of loss may be complicated as the child
spends more time away from home in school or other facilities. Many adolescents
with or without developmental disabilities can become moody and irritable with
wide mood swings, transient school problems, and even suicidal thoughts as they pro-
ceed through adolescence. Youth may begin to question previously taught moral, eth-
ical, and religious views of parents as these youth seek to understand concepts and
perform tasks ‘‘their way’’ consistent with their abilities. Much of this is normal adoles-
cent behavior and parents can be taught what is normal and what is abnormal in these
areas.
Some parents develop guilt over producing a disabled child and seek to protect
their child from life’s many potential difficulties and impasses.

62
Such overprotection
can force these youth to become too dependent on parents and not go through normal
adolescent stages of emancipation and identity formation.
32,51
Developmental disabil-
ity with or without chronic illness or physical handicaps can limit the emancipation pro-
cess in these youth and overprotective parents can worsen this negative trend. It is
especially difficult for these parents to allow medically noncompliant youth normal
or any autonomy. The parent can be torn between fears of injury and even death for
their adolescent and the need to allow freedom and personal choice in various mat-
ters. Parents may interpret their adolescent’s noncompliance with medical recom-
mendations as their being irresponsible, convincing these parents that autonomy is
not a wise choice for their youth. Parents can even consciously or unconsciously
seek to prevent their youth from appropriately growing up, especially if this is the
last child in the home and the parents have no other interests.
PSYCHOLOGIC EFFECTS OF DISABILITY ON SEXUALITY
Disability may constitute a major block to adolescent growth and development by lim-
iting the youth’s developing self-image and removing or impacting a normal emanci-
pation process.
1,4,5,32,54,63–66
The presence of developmental disability or chronic
illness may induce major life changes that may impact sexuality development. Health
care professionals need to be aware that successful maturation may be made more
Developmental Disabilities
1317
difficult by disability, impacting the development of normal sexuality, and healthy sex-
ual functioning. Stresses produced by the youth’s attempts to negotiate sexual devel-
opment successfully may in turn exacerbate effects of the disability or worsen the
chronic illness that is present.

Rejection by peers because of being ‘‘different’’ can pose major hurdles for some
youth, especially those with mental or physical handicaps.
1,54
The youth with disability
who has a poor self-image becomes easy prey for peers seeking to criticize and taunt
others to deflect damaging criticism on them. Few if any can happily receive constant
rejection or harsh criticism from their peers. All people are in various groups as chil-
dren, adolescents, or adults. General acceptance by peers is vital to inner stability.
The adolescent with developmental disability may conclude that she or he does not
have access to this general acceptance.
As growth patterns begin to accelerate rapidly, and as body contours change dra-
matically with the development of secondary sex characteristics, adolescents be-
come preoccupied with body image issues; they worry and wonder over the
adequacy of this new body (Box 1; Tables 1 and 2). Adolescents with developmental
disabilities have the added burden of attempting to tolerate real abnormalities and de-
viations from their idealized body image. Specific problems encountered with the dis-
abled youth involve lowered self-esteem, unsatisfactory body image, and doubts
involving future self-sufficiency and the ability to reproduce and parent. Even mildly
disabled adolescents may have significant problems with identify consolidation, par-
ticularly if periodic or prolonged hospitalization and medical care become necessary.
Sexual adequacy and sexual activity are often altered by disability and physical ill-
ness.
1,32,66
The timing of pubertal changes can normally vary considerably (Table 3)
and such timing can impact youth considerably in terms of their developing a sense
of sexual intimacy.
11,60
Some problems can also cause delay in maturation, whether
from an actual disorder (eg, in the Prader-Willi syndrome with development of a small
penis and cryptorchidism in males or delayed puberty in females) or medications (eg,

corticosteroids) used in treatment of medical conditions. The development of hypogo-
nadism (as noted in some with Down syndrome or Prader-Willi syndrome) has major
effects on these specific youth. Puberty may be early, however, in a number of condi-
tions as follows:
11,35
Cerebral palsy
Hydrocephalus
Obesity
Intellectual disability
Box1
Major physical changes of puberty
Major increase in genital system (primary and secondary sex characteristics)
Gaining of 25% of final height (distal growth [eg, of feet] may precede that of proximal parts
[eg, the tibia] by 3–4 months)
Doubling of lean and nonlean body mass (gaining by 50% of the ideal body weight)
Doubling of the weight of the major organs
Central nervous system maturation (without increase in size)
Maturation of facial bones
Marked decrease in lymphoid tissue
Greydanus & Omar
1318
Williams syndrome
Meningomyelocele
Neurofibromatosis
Early puberty that is a variant of normal or caused by disability or disorder may
thrust the precocious child into issues of middle adolescence and beyond before
she or he and parents are prepared. For example, sexuality issues become more de-
veloped in middle adolescence often with sexual experimentation taking place.
Sexual adequacy for adolescent girls may be measured in terms of physical attrac-
tiveness.

1
Unattractive physical features caused by a disease process or required
Table 1
Sexual maturity rating or Tanner staging in females
Stage Breasts Pubic Hair Range
I None None Birth to 15 y
II Breast bud (thelarche):
areolar hyperplasia with
small amount of breast
tissue
Long downy pubic hair
near the labia; may occur
with breast budding or
several weeks to months
later (pubarche)
8.5–15 y (some use 8 y)
III Further enlargement of
breast tissue and areola
Increase in amount of hair
with more pigmentation
10–15 y
IV Double contour form:
areola and nipple form
secondary mound on top
of breast tissue
Adult type but not
distribution
10–17 y
V Larger breast with single
contour form

Adult distribution 12.5–18 y
Table 2
Sexual maturity rating or Tanner staging in males
Stage Testes Penis Pubic Hair Range
I No change, testes
2.5 cm or less
Prepubertal None Birth to 15 y
II Enlargement of
testes, increased
stippling and
pigmentation
of scrotal sac
Minimal or no
enlargement
Long downy hair
often occurring
several months
after testicular
growth; variable
pattern noted
with pubarche
10–15 y
III Further
enlargement
Significant penile
enlargement,
especially in length
Increase in
amount, now
curling

10.5–16.5 y
IV Further
enlargement
Further enlargement,
especially in diameter
Adult type
but not distribution
Variable;
12–17 y
V Adult size Adult size Adult distribution
(medial aspects of
thighs, linea alba)
13–18 y
Developmental Disabilities
1319
medical treatment often pose a severe threat to self-esteem, sometimes resulting in
promiscuous attempts to prove one’s femininity and normalcy, leading to unwanted
pregnancy and STDs. To reduce undesirable physical manifestations of the disease
process or treatment sequelae, the clinician may need to schedule additional appoint-
ments to control medication, and when possible, explore alternative means of treat-
ment. Cosmetic surgery may be a viable and important option in this regard for
adolescents with orthopedic and other defects.
In adolescent girls, serious chronic illness (eg, diabetes mellitus, systemic lupus er-
ythematosus, or rheumatic heart disease) or disability (eg, intellectual disability) can
predispose the adolescent to a greater risk of pregnancy than others with less serious
illness or disability. Pregnancy may be consciously or unconsciously viewed by these
youth as necessary to prove that they are normal and may be part of a mourning pro-
cess seen with acceptance of illness or disabilities.
4,13,15
Adolescents with disability or chronic illness do not inevitably exhibit psychopathol-

ogy, increased anxiety, or lowered self-esteem, however, compared with their healthy
peers.
66
Sexual interest and sexual activity in developmentally disabled youth should
be assumed to parallel such interest and behavior seen in healthy peers, for often such
is the case.
33
These youth may become involved in such behavior as masturbation,
oral sex, vaginal sex, same-sex behavior, and others.
Research notes that youth with disabilities and chronic illness are also sexual human
beings and are involved to varying extents in coital behavior, sometimes at rates sim-
ilar to or even greater than that seen in healthy peers.
4,27,36,54
Those with disabilities or
chronic illness that is not easily ‘‘visible’’ may have coital rates higher than seen in
those with ‘‘visible’’ defects or illness.
1,27
In any event, the normal need of all adoles-
cents for sexual intimacy should not be ignored by clinicians or parents. Appropriate
sexuality education is vital for these youth. Consequences of limited sexuality educa-
tion may include sexual abuse, STDs, unwanted pregnancy, and sexual dysfunction.
Appropriate gynecologic care for adolescent girls with disabilities is also important, as
considered later in this article.
SEXUAL ABUSE
Sexual abuse is an unfortunate but common situation noted with many children, youth,
and adults. Adolescents with intellectual disability and other developmental disabilities
are at increased risk for being involved with violence including abuse, both physical and
sexual.
15,45,47,67–87
Three million cases of abuse are reported annually in individuals un-

der age 18 whether disabled or not, and abuse cases are typically divided into neglect
Table 3
Variations in pubertal changes
Pubertal Changes Age Range of Appearance (y)
Thelarche 8–14.8
Pubarche 9–14
Menarche 10–17
Testicular enlargem ent 9–14.8
Peak height velocity (male) 10–16.6
Peak height velocity (female) 10–14
Adult breast stage (V) 12–19
Adult genitalia (male V) 13–18
Greydanus & Omar
1320
(53%); physical abuse (26%); sexual abuse (14%); and emotional abuse (5%).
1
Sexual
abuse has been identified in 13% of girls and 7% of boys in the eighth and tenth grades,
whereas a history of sexual abuse is reported in 27% of adult women and 16% of adult
men.
1
The 2007 Centers for Disease and Prevention Youth Risk Surveillance Survey
noted that 9.9% of 15 to 19 year olds have been hit, slapped, or physically hurt by their
boyfriends or girlfriends with a prevalence as high as 15.7%; 7.8% were forced to have
sex.
87
The incidence of sexual abuse is especially increased in females with mild intel-
lectual disability or physical disabilities versus normal peers.
1,15
Rape has become one of the fastest growing crimes of violence in the United States

and most cases remain unreported. Although 50,000 to 70,000 cases of rape are re-
ported each year, the actual number is estimated to be over 500,000.
76
In 2006 there
were 272,350 victims of rape, attempted rape, or sexual assault identified with
191,670 victims noted in 2005; over 40% of rape victims are under age 18 years
with an estimated one sixth being under 12 years.
81,82
Date rape is a well-known phe-
nomenon of violence that can involve all youth and adult.
83–87
Incest represents approximately 40% of reported sexual assaults and can involve
parents, siblings, and other relatives. One survey noted that 5 of every 1000 college
females reported being victims of incest by their father.
88
In the classic Weinberg
89
study of 103 incest victims, 78% involved father-daughter assault, 18% involved
brother-sister sexual behavior, 1% was mother-son assault, and 3% involved victim-
ization by more than one person. The high divorce rates noted in contemporary society
leads to a changing scene of step-parents, live-in-lovers of divorced parents, and
changing sex partners, fueling the incidence of sexual assault on the children and ad-
olescents in the home.
90
Those with developmental disabilities are at increased risk in
some families for incest. The consequences of such sexual assault are many including
the following:
68,69,74,75,90–93
Chronic drug abuse
Chronic syncope

Depression and other mental health disorders
Eating disorders
Enuresis
Excessive masturbation
Juvenile delinquency and other youth violence
Juvenile prostitution
Psychosomatic disturbances (chronic headaches or abdominal pain)
Persistent hyperventilation syndrome
Pregnancy
Refractory seizure disorders
Runaway behavior
Severe parent-child or youth conflicts
School failure and drop-out behavior
Sexually transmitted diseases
Sexual dysfunction
Sleep disturbances
Suicide attempts and completions
SEXUALITY EDUCATION
Comprehensive sexuality education is the key, as noted, which is directed at the spe-
cific patient.
1,3,19,22,37,39–42,47,49,66,76,84
For example, discussion of masturbation can
Developmental Disabilities
1321
be directed by the clinician to the parents of young children, children, and youth. For
example, it can be noted that masturbation is a very common aspect of normal human
sexuality and genital self-stimulation for pleasure is practiced by most adults in some
manner. Parents can be reassured about the normalcy of masturbation and that harm-
ful effects do not occur.
Genital self-stimulation in children or youth with developmental disabilities may also

result from diaper dermatitis in infancy, pinworm infection, tight clothes, nonspecific
pruritus, phimosis, or other medical conditions. Masturbation has been recommended
by some therapists to help relieve sexual tension in adults. Youth should be warned,
however, about the sexual asphyxia syndrome in which an adolescent or young adult
seeks an intense orgasm by partially hanging while masturbating; this practice can
lead to considerable harm including death.
Clinicians must realize that all children and adolescents, including those with devel-
opmental disabilities, are potentially subject to sexual assault and harassment,
whether they are healthy, have developmental disabilities, or have chronic ill-
nesses.
11,20,22,29,33,36,45,51,94–113
The emotional and psychologic reactions to sexual
assault should be understood and comprehensive management provided for these
victims.
1,114–118
Prevention of sexual abuse is important and measures include educa-
tion about sexuality that includes teaching all children and youth about appropriate
touching and self-protection skills.
101
If preventative measures are to have a lasting effect, comprehensive sexual health
education for all children and adolescents is crucial to this goal of prevention.
47,119–121
All adolescents including those with developmental disabilities should have access to
accurate information about sexuality, contraception, STDs, substance abuse, and the
myriad of topics relating to healthy behavior. Information about sexuality should be
directed to the comprehension and specific needs of the adolescent pa-
tient.
4,28,29,40,49,51,119,122–141
Youth often have questions about their sexual behavior and clinicians can inquire
about these questions while providing accurate, unbiased information without

embarrassment. Ignoring these needs of adolescents because of the presence of de-
velopmental disabilities is to be avoided on the part of the clinician. The health main-
tenance examination may be the only opportunity for adolescents to ask about issues
related to masturbation, menstruation, sexual activity, reproduction, contraception,
and other topics of interest to them.
6,8,26,33,103,137,138,142–149
It is understandable
that parents often have a difficult time discussing such topics with their children
and adolescents.
Clinicians can also assess the social skills of their patients with developmental dis-
abilities and recommend places where such training can occur.
150,151
The lack of ac-
cess to age-appropriate peers and lack of access to privacy faced by some
handicapped individuals can lead to various difficulties. Such youth need to have
good social skills and understanding about healthy human relationships to avoid being
bullied or victimized at school or even in the home and to be able to avoid unwanted
sexual touching and assault.
8,22,28,51,60,124,125,133,135,138,152–154
It is important to
educate adolescents and parents about the danger of unwanted sexual overtures
and harassment that occurs over the Internet.
152
GYNECOLOGIC CARE IN DEVELOPMENTALLY DELAYED ADOLESCENTS
Proper gynecologic care for all adolescent girls is important, regardless of their levels
of physical, mental, or cognitive abilities; these youth should not receive substandard
gynecologic care because neither clinicians nor parents are aware or appreciate these
Greydanus & Omar
1322
needs.

4,20,26,30,33,70,73,106,146,147,155–162
Lack of training in residency and physician
concern with lack of skills in this area should not compromise patient care.
4
Gynecologic needs are similar for all adolescent girls but such health care may be
more complicated by various factors sometimes seen in those with developmental dif-
ficulties (Box 2):
20,33,73,106,162–171
Gynecologic care should include a complete gynecologic history, physical
examination, and selected laboratory testing.
172
It includes education of the patient
in appropriate developmental language, and the caregiver (when the patient is unable
to physically, cognitively, or mentally deal with these issues). Education should stress
the need for periodic examinations that may include gynecologic evaluations; breast
examinations by the patient (or the caregiver if necessary); and options related to men-
struation and, when appropriate, contraception.
73,106
In adolescent girls, a careful menstrual history should be obtained and should not be
ignored simply because she has a developmental disability. The history includes men-
arche (age of menstrual period onset) and characteristics of the menstrual flow, such
as its frequency, duration, and presence of menstrual cramps.
172
Using a menstrual
calendar is useful in pinpointing normal adolescent variations in menstrual patterns
versus overt menstrual disorders (ie, dysmenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome, or men-
struation-related moodiness or agitation).
33,106,155,171,172
Plotting mood or behavior
changes may even show cyclic behaviors before the onset of menses. The physical

and behavioral changes that are present must be differentiated from a variety of gyne-
cologic and urologic disorders.
168,172
Clinicians can look for clues to discomfort and disease in patients who have diffi-
culty expressing themselves.
73,106,155,163,167
For example, crying on urination with
foul-smelling urine suggests a urinary tract infection, whereas a fever without clear
cause may also represent a urinary tract infection. Excessive vulvar irritation may be
caused by masturbation, whereas a vaginal discharge with history of frequent antibi-
otic use suggests Candida albicans vaginitis. Vaginal discharge in children may have
a variety of causes including nonspecific vulvovaginitis; foreign body vaginitis; allergic
vulvovaginitis; or specific vulvovaginitis (ie, bacteria [Streptococcus, Shigella]), fungus
[C albicans], parasites [Trichomonas vaginalis, Enterobius vermicularis], Phthirius
Box 2
Factors complicating gynecologic care in females with developmental disabilities
Increased communication difficulties in those with developmental difficulties
Cognitive limits that may be found in some with developmental difficulties
Increased neurologic problems in some with developmental difficulties (eg, seizures)
Multiple joint complications in some developmental difficulties patients (ie, deformities,
contractures, spasticity, autonomic dysreflexia)
Increased presence of other orthopedic disorders (eg, kyphoscoliosis)
Impaired sitting position in some with developmental difficulties (eg, decubitus ulcers)
Increased nutritional issues in some with developmental difficulties (eg, feeding tubes
or gastroesophageal reflux)
Others
Lack of knowledge on part of parents or clinicians regarding such care
Parents’ or clinicians’ refusal to provide such care
Developmental Disabilities
1323

pubis, or viruses [herpes simplex simples, cytomegalovirus, others]. Pruritus ani may
be caused by infection with pin worms (Enterobius vermicularis).
173
If T vaginalis is de-
tected in the urine or on a Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, suspect coital behavior and pos-
sible sexual abuse.
If the adolescent girl is not sexually active (voluntary or involuntary), a pelvic exam-
ination is not necessary unless there is a history of a sexual assault or gynecologic
symptoms.
73,106
A pelvic examination is not needed initially if contraception is re-
quested and the girl is not sexually active. Techniques for a pelvic examination for dif-
ficult patients (ie, those with cognitive limitations, contractures, others) are described
in the literature.
20,33,106,163–174
These techniques include various position adjustments
(as frog-leg position, V-position, M-position, or leg elevation without hip abduction);
use of the Huffman-Graves speculum (long, narrow type) or no speculum; cotton
swab Pap smear; one-finger bimanual examination; or a rectoabdominal examina-
tion.
1,4,20,33,106
An examination under sedation may be needed in some situations.
175
Radiologic evaluation with a pelvic ultrasound, CT, or MRI also may be necessary.
Periodic Pap smears are recommended by 3 years from sexarche (onset of coital
activity) or by age 21 if the patient remains virginal to screen for abnormal cervical cy-
tology that may eventually lead to cervical cancer.
176
Pap smear techniques may be
conventional or liquid-based. In the liquid-based Pap smear one uses a cervical

broom and places the specimen in liquid container; in the convention Pap smear
one uses a spatula and cytobrush or cervical broom and then smears the specimen
on a glass slide after which a spray or liquid fixative is applied.
176
The liquid-based
technique may be helpful in increasing the adequacy of the specimen even when vi-
sualization of the cervix is difficult or impossible. Other advantages of the liquid-based
Pap smear include increased sensitivity (versus the conventional Pap smear); reduced
extraneous material on the smear; and the ability to test for certain STD microbes,
such as Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and the human papillomavi-
rus.
177
Vaccination of girls with the human papillomavirus vaccine is recommended
to reduce their risk for cervical cancer.
Instruction in proper hygiene may be an issue for some of these patients, whereas
various methods are used to control problematic menstruation and related hygiene is-
sues, including behavioral modification training, hormonal management (combined
oral contraceptives, depo-medroxy-progesterone acetate, others), or gynecologic
surgery (endometrial ablation or hysterectomy).
4,20,26,47,103,106,155,165,166,169
In
patients with significant cognitive limitations, education may be confined to hygiene
improvement and prevention of sexual abuse.
Any adolescent girl may have breast and menstrual disorders, such as amenorrhea,
abnormal menstrual bleeding, dysfunctional uterine bleeding, dysmenorrhea,
premenstrual tension syndrome. They should be carefully evaluated and man-
aged.
4,20,26,103,106,155,156,163,166,168–172
Some conditions lead to increased incidence
of menstrual disorders. For example, those with trisomy 21 are often associated

with thyroid disorders that may lead to amenorrhea or dysfunctional uterine bleed-
ing.
155
Turner’s syndrome should always be considered in the differential diagnosis
of the adolescent female with short stature and amenorrhea caused by premature
ovarian failure.
35
Patients with developmental disabilities may be placed on various
medications that lead to menstrual dysfunction; these mediations include anticonvul-
sants and neuroleptics.
178
Contraception
Contraception should be discussed with sexually active youth and those who
are not sexually active but have questions in this regard.
143–145
The risks of having
Greydanus & Omar
1324
multiple partners should be discussed; some youth practice ‘‘serial’’ monogamy’’ in
which they believe that having only one partner at a time and changing over time
protects them from STDs. Those who are sexually active should be screened for
STDs and placed on appropriate contraception if this is desired or ac-
cepted.
4,20,36,73,106,143–149,157,166,167,169,171,174,179–181
Education about emergency
contraception and use of condoms should also be provided.
Barrier contraception and the intravaginal ring may not be the best contraceptive
choice for women with developmental disabilities unless they are motivated to use
such methods and have the cognitive and physical abilities to use barrier contracep-
tion with each coital act or use the ring as directed.

143,179–181
Concerns with oral con-
traceptive agents may include side effects, such as thromboembolic events noted
with estrogen-containing methods or increased menstrual bleeding or bone mineral
loss noted with progestin-only methods.
143,144,179–181
Concerns of thromboembolism
or bone density loss may be especially noted in those with limited mobility, such as
those who are wheelchair bound.
143,179–181
There are no data on the use of Implanon
for adolescents with developmental disabilities.
The most popular contraceptive method for women with developmental disabilities
is depo-medroxy-progesterone acetate because it is given intramuscularly and can
lead to amenorrhea. Use of depo-medroxy-progesterone acetate must be balanced,
however, with the loss of bone mineral density (with potential increase in fractures) that
is associated both with this contraceptive agent and with developmental disabilities in
some patients.
182,183
Counseling before initiation of contraception with careful follow-
up is important. Finally, sterilization of youth with developmental disabilities remains
a controversial and complex topic.
20,48,55,70,103,155,161,184–188
Sexual Dysfunction
The issue of physical sexual expression and reproductive capacity should be
addressed during the adolescent years by an informed, sensitive therapist, counselor,
or physician. This helps to correct misconceptions about sexuality and provides for
healthy sexual functioning. Sexual dysfunction may arise because of lack of proper
knowledge about sexuality. A variety of sexual dysfunctions, listed below, may
develop in adolescents or adults with disabilities because of the disorder itself; med-

ications needed for management of medical conditions; or complications found in
their lives (eg, sexual abuse).
189–191
Sexual dysfunction may develop in adolescence
that continues into adulthood.
192
Dyspareunia
Orgasmic dysfunction
Erection dysfunction
Ejaculation dysfunction (premature, retrograde, or retarded)
Others
Youth may have visible deformities that may interfere with sexual expression; these
issues include paraplegia, amputations, ostomies, or abnormal genitalia that require
special counseling.
1
These youth may feel inadequate compared with their ‘‘normal’’
peers and develop various sexual dysfunctions. Performance pressure may predis-
pose to sexual dysfunction in any individual. Chronic illness may create a setting in
which actual enjoyment of sexuality is limited although physical functioning is normal.
For example, youth with colostomies can be anxious about the odor coming from the
ostomy; those with arthritis may be in pain; or those with spinal cord lesions may have
painful bed sores or be worried about autonomic dysreflexia (a condition triggered by
Developmental Disabilities
1325
sexual stimulation, constipation, genital examination, and other actions and might lead
to various effects from simple tingling sensation to respiratory arrest). In considering
one with sexual dysfunction, various psychologic and organic factors should be
evaluated.
SUMMARY
Adolescence presents complex challenges for teenagers, parents, clinicians, and

society.
193
Youth with physical disorders and developmental disabilities present
additional complications for parents and clinicians.
194,195
It is important to provide
sexuality education and reproductive care to all adolescents including those with de-
velopmental disabilities. Adolescents are involved in voluntary or involuntary sexual
behavior and the presence of developmental disability does not exclude these youth
from human sexuality and its consequences. Data from the 2002 National Survey of
Family Growth reports that 47% of never-married girls aged 15 to 19 years of age
have been sexually active (versus 46% of 15–19 year old boys).
196
Prevention of sex-
ual abuse in this population is vital to overall healthy development.
197
The 2007 Youth
Risk Behavior Surveillance of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports
that 47.8% of 15 to 19 year olds report being sexually experienced versus 46.2% in
1991.
87
If the girl remains sexually active, contraception education and prescription
that includes education in use of condoms is needed. The 2007 YRBS report notes
that 61.5% of sexually active youth used a condom at last coitus versus 46.2% in
1991.
87
Gynecologic care includes education about hygiene and management of var-
ious gynecologic issues, such as vaginal discharge, breast and menstrual disorders,
and others as considered in this article. Provision of comprehensive care to all youth,
including those with developmental disabilities and chronic illness, is part of the linch-

pin in the pediatric goal of allowing adolescents access to maximum success in adult-
hood by offering optimal care as children and adolescents along with transitioning to
adult life.
198,199
Adolescents with disabilities are just as much at risk, if not more than
their ‘‘normal’’ peers. Those with disability may want to prove that they are ‘‘normal,’’
whereas the ones without disability may not.
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