QUALITY AND SAFETY OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS pdf
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Nr. 4 May 2006
1
st
edition
FiBLDOSSIER
Quality and Safety
of Organic Products
Food systems
compared
Coop supports the «Innate Quality
of Organic Food» project with money
from the Coop Naturaplan Fund.
Dossier
“No pesticide residues; better taste;
healthier for us and better for the en-
vironment”. ese are the expectations
stated most oen by consumers regard-
ing organically produced food. Instead
of synthetic chemical sprays and quick-
acting mineral fertilizers, organic
farmers use natural methods of plant
protection and organic fertilizers. Be-
cause of the dierent methods of pro-
duction and processing, one can expect
that there will be a dierence in quality
compared to conventionally produced
foods (see opposite page).
We will not become healthier just by
eating organic. However, eating or-
ganic is an important component of a
sustainable and healthy diet. Dierent
dietary habits have dierent impacts
on our health and the environment, as
well as dierent economic and social
impacts. Choosing a healthy and sus-
tainable diet also includes paying atten-
tion to regional, seasonal foods, proc-
essed so as to retain their nutritional
value, packaged in an environmentally
Eating organic is not sufficient in itself to make us healthier. But or-
ganic products are an important part of a sustainable and healthy
diet. This dossier sets out the facts about the quality of organic
products and shows how organic products differ from non-organic
products in terms of quality and safety.
friendly way – and let us not forget an
enjoyable eating experience.
Numerous studies have analysed the
impact of organic production methods
on product quality and drawn compar-
isons with products from conventional
farming. It is dicult to generalize,
however, on the basis of the results of
individual studies on quality. is is
because food quality is not just deter-
mined by the method of production,
but also by the variety chosen, the lo-
cation, the climate and post-harvest
factors. Studies that summarize and
evaluate the results of several indi-
vidual research studies are therefore
of particular value. As the importance
of organic farming has increased, such
literature reviews have been carried out
in many European countries in recent
years.
is dossier examines the various as-
pects of food quality and presents a
summary of current knowledge on the
subject. e primary focus is on prod-
uct quality.
2 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Sustainable food
Organic is the best basis
Content
Sustainable food 2
Organic quality: the benefits 3
Food quality: a many-sided concept 4
Literature reviews 6
Nutritionally desirable substances 8
Proteins 8
Carbohydrates 8
Fats 8
Vitamins 8
Minerals 9
Secondary metabolites 9
Antioxidant potential 10
Dry matter content 10
Nutritionally undesirable substances 11
Pesticide residues 11
Mycotoxins 11
Heavy metals and environmental conta-
minants 12
Nitrate 12
Drug residues 12
Pathogenic microorganisms
and parasites 12
Organic food and health 13
Enjoyment 14
Functional suitability 15
Holistic methods 16
Imaging techniques 17
Fluorescence excitation spectroscopy 17
Electrochemical analysis 17
Processing 18
Process quality 20
Summary 22
References 23
Publication details 24
Organic quality
The benefits
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products 3
Crop fertilization: the natural way
In organic farming, nitrogen-xing leguminous crops are grown, and farmers fer-
tilize crops using manure and slurry from their own farm. In addition, farmers are
allowed to purchase a limited amount of other organic fertilizers. Using organic
material from green manure and crop residues ensures that the soil has a balanced
supply of organic matter and nutrients.
Plant protection: specific and far-sighted
No synthetic chemical substances are used for plant protection in organic farm-
ing. e key principle is prevention: by selecting plant species and varieties that
are suited to the location and ensuring that that there is adequate organic matter
in the soil, organic crops are less vulnerable to disease. A well-managed crop rota-
tion system also helps to protect plants from soil-borne pathogens and pests and
reduce weeds. e use of benecial organisms is purposefully promoted for pest
management.
Processing: as natural as possible and without the use of genetic
engineering
‘Less is more’ is the motto underlying the processing of organic foods. e use of
synthetic chemical processing aids is prohibited, as is the use of genetically modi-
ed organisms (GMO) or GMO products (e.g. enzymes). A large number of ad-
ditives, including ‘nature-identical’ or articial avourings or avour-enhancers,
are prohibited.
Livestock management: species-appropriate – for welfare and
health
e welfare of the animals is a central concern, so the natural habits and needs of
the animals are taken into account. Animals have access to an open-air free-range
area and, depending on the species, to pasture. Animal health is promoted by en-
suring that livestock keeping and feeding is geared towards optimizing conditions
for their development and welfare.
The quality of organically produced foods is a result of the way in
which they are produced – in other words without the use of arti-
ficial substances, and in a welfare-oriented, resource-saving and
environmentally friendly way. Quality is determined not by individ-
ual product characteristics but by the whole process of production
and processing. Unnecessary impacts are avoided at every stage of
production and processing.
Food quality
A many-sided concept
Many different people are concerned with the issue of food quality: farmers, food
processors and traders, consumers, researchers, nutrition experts, legislators and
regulatory authorities. Correspondingly, the term ‘food quality’ covers a range of
aspects.
Functional suitability
Functional suitability determines whether a
product is technically/physically appropriate
for household, commercial or industrial use.
Important criteria are:
boiling, frying, baking attributes
yield
length of time a product will keep, its
price, and time required for preparation
Enjoyment
Enjoyment and sensory quality of a
product are determined by
appearance (colour and shape)
smell, taste, aroma
consistency
Physiological nutritional value
Here, a distinction is made between characteristics that
enhance or impair nutritional value.*
Nutritionally desirable substances:
primary nutrients: protein, carbohydrates and fats
vitamins
minerals
plant secondary metabolites (e.g. antioxidants)
dry matter, dietary bre
Nutritionally undesirable substances:
pesticide residues
nitrate content
heavy metal content
mycotoxins
drug residues
pathogenic organisms and parasites
allergens
* e above division is based on current knowledge within food science. e categorization of substances as
nutritionally desirable or undesirable may be subject to change as new knowledge emerges.
4 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Process quality
e process quality of a food assesses the impact that
producing the food has on the environment. It takes
into account the whole process, from agricultural pro-
duction to processing. Important components of proc-
ess quality include:
resource use (e.g. energy, phosphorus)
soil functions
water quality
eutrophication
acidi cation
emissions and global warming
animal protection and
livestock management
eco-toxicity
toxicity to humans
species and biotope diversity
landscape amenity
ethical issues such as child labour
Inner quality
Inner quality or ‘vital quality’ describes food attributes that cannot be
measured using conventional research methods alone. Holistic research
methods do justice to the phenomenon of life in ‘whole’ foods, in other
words, without chemically reducing them to their in-
dividual component substances, and to recognize the
living, functional whole that is more than the sum of
its parts.
7
Methods such as these are used to assess the
capacity of a food to maintain its order and structure.
5
In holistic concepts, foods that retain their order and
structure are associated with higher quality.
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products 5
Processing quality
e processing of organic foods
is guided by the principle that it
must remain authentic and retain
as much of its nutritional value as
possible. Processing requirements,
restrictions and prohibitions are
set out in law concerning the use
of:
additives
processing aids
enzymes and microorganisms
genetically modi ed organisms (GMO)
ionizing radiation
Legal quality
e quality standards that
foods must meet in legal
terms are determined by the
legislative provisions current-
ly in force. Laws and regulations at na-
tional level
1
and EU regulations
2
have
been put in place to guarantee food
safety and protect consumers from
deception. e Codex Alimentarius
3
established by the international or-
ganizations FAO and WHO contains
a set of standards relating to food and
food safety, providing a point of refer-
ence that is used internationally.
6 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Woese et al. 1995
30/31
Worthington 1998
32
Heaton 2001
13
Bourn & Prescott 2002
34
Quality in terms of nutritional physiology
Minerals
Protein content
Protein quality
Vitamins
Plant secondary
metabolites
Nitrate
Pesticide
residues
Pathogenic
microorganisms
Heavy metals
Suitability
Suitability for
baking – wheat
Sensory quality
Enjoyment
Woese et al. 1995
Study by the Berlin-based German
Federal Institute for Consumer Health
Protection and Veterinary Medicine
(Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen
Verbraucherschutz und Veterinär-
medizin (BgVV))
Quality comparison based on highly
heterogeneous research studies
Only in some cases is there an indica-
tion of the scientific rigour of the stud-
ies cited
Primarily results of chemical/physical
analysis
Holistic methods given only incidental
consideration.
Worthington 1998
Study by the NutriKinetics institute for
alternative medicine, Washington DC
Few indications of the scientific rigour
of the studies cited
Food safety issues only partially con-
sidered
Holistic methods not considered.
Heaton 2001
Study commissioned by the British or-
ganic organization, the Soil Association
Critical appraisal of the studies cited
Studies chosen on the basis of clear
selection criteria
Summary of the key results of all the
quality studies
Holistic methods not comprehensively
considered
Further research requirements indi-
cated.
Bourn & Prescott 2002
Study produced by the Department
of Food Science, University of Otago,
New Zealand;
Highly critical appraisal of the scientific
quality of the studies cited
Brief description of each study, cover-
ing products, research design, constitu-
ents analysed, key results
Holistic methods given only incidental
consideration
Further research requirements indi-
cated.
Literature reviews
Putting organic and conventional
Organic products score better than conventional products
Organic products have a slight advantage
Organic products score less well than conventional products
Organic products have a slight disadvantage
The overview table below summarizes the results of seven literature reviews carried out between 1995
and 2003. The comparison focused primarily on the quality and safety of products of plant origin pro-
duced according to organic and conventional methods. Much less research has been carried out to date
concerning foods of animal origin.
Desirable substancesUndesirable substances
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products
7
Velimirov & Müller 2003
6
Tauscher et al. 2003
4
Afssa, 2003
35
Overall trend
Quality in terms of nutritional physiology
Minerals
Protein content
Protein quality
Vitamins
Plant secondary
metabolites
Nitrate
Pesticide residues
Pathogenic
microorganisms
Heavy metals
Suitability
Suitability for
baking – wheat
Sensory quality
Enjoyment
Department
Otago,
scientific
cover-
constitu-
incidental
indi-
Velimirov & Müller 2003
Study commissioned by the Aus-
trian producers’ association BIO
ERNTE AUSTRIA
Few references to methodology in
the appraisal
No appraisal of scientific quality
Presents primarily results that show
organic products in a favourable
light
Detailed presentation of health risks
associated with residues
Holistic methods considered.
Tauscher et al. 2003
Status report on evaluation of food
produced using different methods,
commissioned by the German Federal
Ministry for Consumer Protection, Food
and Agriculture (BMVEL)
Interdisciplinary working group
Comprehensive appraisal of product
and process quality
Detailed consideration of holistic meth-
ods
Gaps in current knowledge and re-
search requirements highlighted.
Afssa, 2003
Study by the French government’s
Institute for Food Safety
Interdisciplinary working group
Studies chosen according to clear se-
lection criteria
Focus: food safety, health and nutri-
tional value of organic products
Process quality given incidental con-
sideration
Appraisal of herbal medicine and ho-
meopathy in veterinary medicine
Holistic methods not discussed.
and conventional foods to the test
Desirable substances Undesirable substances
Ist Bio wirklich besser?
Bio-Gemüse & Bio-Obst
S.3
Bio-Getreide & Bio-Hülsenfrüchte
S.5
Tierische Bio-Produkte
S.6
Bio-Gemüse & Bio-Obst: Mehr Vitamine,
mehr Mineral stoffe, weniger Schwer-
metalle, höhere Gehalte an sekundären
Pflanz enstoffen, höhere Trockenmass e-
gehalte, bessere Haltbarkei t, wenige r
Nitrat , geringere Pe stizid-Rückstä nde,
kaum Le bensmittelzusatzstoffe, fr ei von
Bestrahlung, schmeckt besser, günstigere
Lichtspeicherkapazität
Bio-Ge treide & Bio-Hü lsenfrüc hte:
Höhere r Ge halt a n es senziellen
Aminos äuren, geringere Pestizid- und
Schwer metall-Rü ckstände, ger ingere
Mykotoxin- Belastung, Tier e bevo rzugen
Bio-Ge treide, güns tigere Lichtspei cher-
kapazität
Tierische Bio-Produkte: Günstigere Fett-
säurezusammensetzungen, höhere ernäh-
rungsphysi ologische Qualität bei Eiern,
höhere s Eigewicht, geringere Pest izid-
und Antibio tikarückstände, geri ngere
Aflatoxin-Belastung, gentechnikfrei, günsti-
gere Lichtspe icherkapazität , günst igere
P-Werte
Fakten zur Qualität biologisch erzeugter Lebensmittel
Ergebnisse einer Studie von Dr. Alberta Velimirov und Dr. Werner Müller
No difference
No comment made or no general conclusions drawn
Organic products of plant origin
contain markedly fewer value-reducing constituents
(pesticides, nitrate); this enhances their physiological
nutritional value
are just as safe as conventional products as regards
pathogenic microorganisms (mycotoxins, coli bacteria)
tend to have a higher Vitamin C content
tend to have higher than average scores for taste
have a higher content of health-promoting secondary
plant compounds
have a lower protein content; this can mean that grain
produced for bread is less suitable for baking
8 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Proteins
Proteins, like fats and carbohydrates, count among the primary nutrients. Due
to the fact that only organic nitrogen is used as fertilizer, organic grain tends to
have a lower protein content. is alters its attributes as a baking product. On the
other hand, organic grain has a more balanced pro le in terms of essential amino
acids.
35
Little research has been carried out on the protein quality of other plant
products.
Desirable substances
The more, the better
Constituent Product Content compared with conventionally produced product
Proteins Grain 10–20% lower
4
Amino acids Grain More balanced profi le
35
Carbohydrates
For carbohydrates, the available data show no di erence between organic and con-
ventional products. Intensive research is currently under way into the dietary bre
group, but there are no studies comparing organic and conventional products.
Fats
e di erences in animal feed used in organic and conventional production can
in uence the nutritional value of milk and meat.
45/46/47/48/80
Some studies have
shown that milk and meat from organically farmed livestock has a better fatty
acid pro le in terms of its physiological nutritional value. e ratio of essential
Omega-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, for example, tends to be higher
in organic milk. A diet containing the optimum range of fatty acids is particularly
important for preventing cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Constituent Product Content compared with conventionally produced product
Benefi cial fatty acids Milk, cheese, meat 10–60% higher
45/46/47/48/80
Vitamins
ere is little data available, other than for vitamin C and pro-vitamin A (as beta-
carotene). For beta-carotene, no signi cant di erence between the two produc-
tion systems was found. A slightly higher vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content was
observed in the case of various organically produced fruits and vegetables. is
trend may have been due to physiological factors. Again, a direct relationship was
observed between nitrogen fertilizer use and the water, protein, vitamin C and
nitrate content of the harvested product. For example, a plant produces more anti-
oxidant ascorbic acid when it is subjected to oxidative stress.
51
Constituent Product Content compared with conventionally produced product
Vitamin C Milk, vegetables, fruit 5–90% higher
13/33/49/50/81/97
Milk
Org
Conv
Linoleic acid in mg/g milk fat
8,7
2,8
Potatoes
Org
Conv
Ascorbic acid mg/100 g dry matter
1
102,6
90,9
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) con-
tent in the milk fat of cows, based on
the example of one organic (= org)
and one conventional (= conv) hold-
ing in Thuringia, Germany (average
over two years).
80
Ascorbic acid content of potatoes
based on a long-term research project
in the fi eld with organic (= org) and
mineral (= conv) fertilizer (average
levels at harvest over two years).
81
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products 9
Minerals
In the case of vegetables and fruit, the research ndings reveal no di erences in
mineral content that can be speci cally related to production methods. e same
applies to grain for bread-making, given comparable levels of minerals and trace
elements with conventional and organic fertilizer.
4
In the case of some types of
fruit, the results to date show that organic products tend to have a slightly higher
magnesium and iron content.
4
Plant secondary metabolites
Many substances synthesized in the secondary metabolism of plants are regarded
as having health-promoting properties, due to the fact that they exert an antioxi-
dant, anti-microbial, immunomodulating, anti-in ammatory or carcinoprotective
action in the concentrations in which they occur naturally.
52/53
. Some of these sub-
stances are synthesized by the plant as a defence against pests and diseases.
e secondary metabolite content of organic vegetables is estimated to be 10 to
50 per cent higher than in the equivalent conventionally produced foods.
51
One
reason for this may be that the use of plant protection products is limited in the
case of organically produced plants. e plants thus have to work harder to defend
themselves against external in uences and as a result produce larger quantities of
particular secondary metabolites. ere are many questions that remain unan-
swered in this regard, and further research is required.
Of the few studies that have so far been carried out to examine plant second-
ary metabolites in organic and conventional foods, the majority have focused on
the antioxidant polyphenols (see illustration on page 10). Organically produced
fruit and vegetables tend to have a higher polyphenol content than conventional
equivalents.
35/54/78
A study conducted by FiBL and the Université de Bourgogne in
Dijon
55
has shown that wines from organic holdings also have higher average lev-
els of the phytochemical resveratrol, a polyphenol that occurs particularly in grape
skins and which, due to the production process, is found primarily in red wines
(see diagram below).
Comparison of resveratrol content of Swiss wines from organic and integrated viticulture (1997 grape harvest).
55
14,9
12,7
0,3
0,8
5,3
0,1
8,0
13,9
0,2
0,9
0,1
0,0
5
Morges
Peissy
Neuenburg
Sierre
Aubonne
Resveratrol content in ppm
biologisch
konventionell
biologisch
konventionell
biologisch
konventionell
organic
conventional
8,0
11,0
13,5
17,6
23,6
32,8
0
10
15
20
25
30 35
Neuenburg
Neuenburg
Morges
Ligerz
Location (paired holdings)
White wines
Red wines
Apples
Org
Conv
Flavanol in mg/100 g dry matter
2,75
2,37
Flavanol content of apples from hold-
ings under organic and conventional
management. Averages for ten hold-
ings over three years.
70
Antioxidant potential
The antioxidant potential of a par-
ticular food – assessed using various
scientifi cally recognized methods
– is determined by the sum total of
all of the antioxidant compounds it
contains. Antioxidants in food are
involved in cell damage and cell
ageing, and therefore have a role in
the prevention of disease.
Constituent Product Content compared with conventionally produced product
Plant secondary metabolites Vegetables, fruit, maize, wine 10–50% higher
51/54/78/79/71
10 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Dry matter content
e dry matter content of organically produced leaf, root and bulb vegetables
tends to be higher (by up to 20 %) than in conventionally produced equivalents.
13
Research results for fruit vegetables and fruit, on the other hand, o en show no
signi cant di erence.
13/34/35
Reduced water content means that the product has a
higher nutrient density, and this can be considered a positive attribute.
Polyphenols
62
64
56
69
Carotenoids
Glycoalkaloids
Glucosinolates
65
63, 71, 97
Secondary metabolite content of organic and conventional products: overview of results of available
studies
= organic has lower content than conventional
= no difference
= organic has higher content than conventional
89
= see references
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products
11
Undesirable substances
Even a little is too much
Pesticide residues
Numerous studies have demonstrated that organic products contain considerably
less pesticide residues than conventional products – if indeed any at all.
44/86/87
However, organic products can only be as good as the environment in which they
are produced. Even organic products may contain small amounts of pesticide resi-
dues. One reason may be dri from neighbouring conventionally managed elds.
But contamination resulting from previous conventional production and inad-
equate separation during transport, storage, processing and trade are also possible.
In a few rare cases, residues have also been found due to the use of prohibited
pesticides.
Mycotoxins
Because organic farming does not involve the use of fungicidal agents, organic
products are assumed to contain higher levels of mycotoxins. Numerous studies
have refuted this assumption.
37/38/39/40/41/42/43/93
Problems may arise due to mistakes
made in storage or transport (e.g. moisture level too high); such mistakes are unre-
lated to the cultivation system. Inspection of processing and storage processes, as
is usually carried out for products from organic production, helps to ensure early
detection and elimination of risks.
Heavy metals and other environmental contaminants
Contamination of foods with heavy metals and other environmental contaminants
may occur irrespective of production method.
4/35
Some heavy metals are toxic
even in very small quantities. ese include lead, cadmium and mercury. Heavy
metals may reach agricultural areas via gas emissions and deposits from trac
and industry. Another source of heavy metal contamination is sewage sludge. is
is why the use of sewage sludge is prohibited in organic farming. Copper can ac-
cumulate in the soil and damage soil ecology. For this reason, the use of copper
as a treatment for fungal diseases is tightly restricted, both under the EU organic
farming regulation 2092/91 and under national provisions. In Switzerland, the use
of copper for conventional and organic farming is restricted to between 1.5 and
4 kg pure copper per hectare per year, depending on the crop.
Pestizidrückstände Fruit, vegetables Fruit: on average 550 times lower than conventional
87
Vegetables: on average 700 times lower
87
Mycotoxins Wheat, barley, maize, rice, baby
food, apples, cocoa
Cultivation system does not influence mycotoxin
content
37/38/39/40/41/42/43
Average pesticide content of foods
from organic and conventional pro-
duction.
87
Cereal grains with mould fungus on an artificial culture
medium. In a suitable environment, fungi like these can
produce mycotoxins.
Average pesticide
content
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45
mg/kg
0,002
0,4
Org
Conv
The regulations and directives on organic farming view the agricultural holding as
an integrated system, promote the precautionary principle and expressly prohibit
the use of non-natural substances in production and processing. As a result, po-
tential food safety risks are often reduced in organic farming.
12 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Nitrate
Organic vegetables, especially green leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach or
chard, have a markedly lower nitrate content than conventionally produced veg-
etables.
33/87
ere are two explanations for this: the nitrogen in organic fertilizer is
organically xed and only becomes available to the plant via the microorganisms
in the soil. As a result, the plants absorb the nitrogen more slowly and more in
keeping with their needs than when synthetic nitrogen fertilizer is used. In addi-
tion, the amount of nitrogen used on organic holdings is generally lower, because
the number of head of livestock that can be kept on a given area is restricted.
Drug residues
Under organic production methods, the use of antibiotics is only permitted if an
animal becomes sick. Prophylactic use is prohibited. e time that must elapse
before milk, for example, may be sold again following antibiotic treatment is twice
as long as under conventional livestock management.
Pathogenic microorganisms and parasites
Organically produced foods of plant origin are at no greater risk of being con-
taminated by pathogenic microorganisms than conventional foods.
13/34/36
ere are
very few studies investigating the risk of microbial and parasitic infection in foods
of animal origin.
35
Frozen spinach
Org
Con.
Nitrate in mg/kg
659
1011
Nitrate Vegetables, lettuce As a rule, products from conventional farming contain
10–40% more nitrate than organic vegetables
33/87/43
Nitrate content of organic
(14 samples) and conventionally
produced (39) spinach.
87
Risks posed to humans by pesticide use in developing countries
Developing countries have become major
growth markets for pesticides. is is be-
cause many export products such as ba-
nanas, pineapples or palm oil are grown
as monocultures and are thus highly
susceptible to disease and infestation by
pests. Millions of people are poisoned by
this sort of pesticide use every year.
82
14%
of all occupational accidents and 10% of
fatalities among agricultural workers can
be attributed to pesticide poisoning.
83
In-
dustrial countries too, such as Japan, for
example, have also reported 43 deaths as
a result of the herbicide Paraquat.
84
e
main reason for such incidents is that
plantation workers are given inadequate
training in the use and storage of pesti-
cides, and many workers are illiterate
and cannot read the instructions for use
themselves. Moreover, washing facilities
and medical care are o en lacking. In
addition, at least 100,000 tonnes of pes-
ticide stocks in developing countries pose
a threat to the environment and to public
health.
85
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products
13
Experiments involving animal
feed
24/25
In experiments involving animal
feed, a comparison is made of two
groups of animals kept in identical
conditions fed with organic and
conventionally produced foods
respectively. The impact on vari-
ous physiological parameters (e.g.
fertility) is then investigated.
Organically produced foods frequently contain higher levels of plant secondary
metabolites such as polyphenols, avonoids and fatty acids.
15/78
From risk studies
relating to cancer, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, we know that some of
these secondary plant compounds have health-promoting properties. According
to current knowledge, it is particularly due to their buering eect against free
radicals – highly reactive intermediate compounds generated in the process of en-
ergy metabolism – that plant secondary metabolites are able to reduce cell damage
and ageing. However, much more research is needed in this area.
Organic products a safer option
Conventional fruit and vegetables are increasingly exceeding legal threshold levels
and the majority of contaminated fresh foods contain residues of several pesti-
cides.
90/91
In view of this, organic products oer consumers a safer option. Various
studies have shown the direct impact of individual substances on health, such as
the higher rate of miscarriage associated with pesticide application around women
in the third to eighth week of pregnancy,
88
reduced fertility among a group of fruit
farmers and wine-growers in Austria,
89
and the innumerable cases of poisoning
among agricultural workers in developing countries. Since 1999, the incidence of
contamination with multiple pesticides has risen sharply.
91
Research is urgently
needed to examine whether and which health risks are associated with multiple
residues.
Few food studies available
Food studies involving people with dened organic and non-organic diets are very
costly and are therefore rarely conducted. An eight-week pilot study involving a
group of nuns in a convent who were given foods produced according to biody-
namic and conventional methods during the study period provided interesting
indications that an organic diet resulted in an improvement – in some cases signif-
icant improvement – in participants’ physical and spiritual well-being and disease
resistance potential.
77
Another interesting study reports on a group of post-natal
women who ate mainly organic food for a period of ve months; at the end of this
period there was a marked increase in unsaturated fatty acids (especially Omega-
3s and CLA) in their breastmilk.
92
As a substitute for food studies involving peo-
ple, animal studies are oen conducted where the animals are given dierent types
of feed or a choice of feed (see diagram below).
Organic food and health
Much more research needed
Twelve of the animal feed studies reviewed showed
that there were health benefits for animals fed with
organic products (green). Eight studies were unable
to identify any difference (blue); in one study, the
group that was fed organic products scored worse
(red).
Systematic review:
Animal health* with organic and conventional feed
Worse health
with organic feed,
shorter lifespan
1
8
12
No difference
in fertility
parameters
Higher fertility,
fewer stillbirths
and miscarriages
Reduced susceptibility
to illness
Reduced semen motility
with conventional feed
Reduced
neonatal mortality
More rapid
weight gain
Number of studies
Sources
13/23
* rats, mice, rabbits, hens and bulls
No difference
in growth parameters
14 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Studies involving a choice of feed
20/24/25
Animals are allowed to choose between equal quantities of the same type
of feed, but originating from different production methods, for example. The
animals’ preferences are recorded. Omnivorous laboratory rats are particularly
well suited to such experiments due to their discriminating eating behaviour.
The rats are initially cautious when tasting the feed newly presented to them;
they then choose whichever they find most palatable and begin to eat more.
Their instinctive eating behaviour is likely to be influenced by external (smell
and taste) and internal factors (psychological state). Even the slightest resi-
dues of pesticides could play a role in experiments involving a choice of feed.
Research results to date, mainly relating to fruit and vegetables, have shown that
organic products tend to taste more enjoyable. Lower water content may make a
positive contribution to enjoyment of some organic vegetables, because this means
that the plant constituents – including the substances aecting taste – are present
in greater concentrations. e texture of fruit and vegetables is also enhanced by
having a lower water content. However, production conditions in organic and con-
ventional farming systems are not the only factors that inuence this. Enjoyment of
an apple, for example, will depend on its consistency and texture (crisp or oury),
and on the balance between its sugar and acid content. Other constituents, such
as bitter substances, will determine whether or not a carrot is tasty. All these char-
acteristics are inuenced by the variety chosen, the soil quality, the microclimate
(e.g. whether an apple has grown in the shelter of the tree or completely exposed to
the sun), the macroclimate (amount of sunshine, warmth, moisture), and the time
of harvesting (degree of ripeness). Many reviews comparing organic and conven-
tional products fail to take adequate account of these multiple inuencing factors
and are therefore less meaningful from a scientic point of view. Research carried
out under rigorous conditions, however, shows that organic production methods
have considerable potential to generate high sensory quality. is is demonstrated,
for example, in a multi-year study of fruit farming comparing ve conventional
farms with ve organic holdings.
70
Few scientic studies have so far examined the sensory quality of milk products,
meat and eggs. Further well-controlled comparative studies are needed both for
plant and animal foods.
Enjoyment
Taste can be measured
Sensory evaluation
21/22
Evaluators trained in accordance
with DIN standards, with trained
senses and sensory memory, can
achieve results that can be sub-
jected to statistical analysis. The ap-
pearance, smell, taste, consistency,
and overall impression of foods are
assessed using standardized meth-
ods of testing.
Overall sensory evaluation of or-
ganically and conventionally pro-
duced apples
Apples from paired holdings were
subjected to organoleptic evalua-
tion (on a scale of 0 to 100 points)
by trained personnel. The apples
were assessed before and after
storage.
70
58
81
58
68 32
42
19
42
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Quantity eaten in per cent
Red beet (1993)
Wheat (1994)
Apples (1995)
Carrots (1999)
ConvOrg
Prior to storage
After storage
49,4
44,7
48,6
47,4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Overall assessment
Conv
Organic
Conventional
Organic
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products
15
e available information on the processing attributes of organic and convention-
ally produced products relates mainly to cereal products. Due to its higher protein
content and dierent protein quality (higher gluten content) – both of which are a
consequence of intensive nitrogen fertilizer use – conventionally produced wheat
is frequently better at meeting the requirements of customary bakery technology.
Such technical disadvantages can be overcome, however, by using appropriate
methods of bread making (e.g. using a sourdough starter instead of yeast).
Organic potato growing presents considerable challenges. In order to meet the
quality standards for processing, every detail of cultivation, harvesting and storage
must be absolutely right. e advantage of organic potatoes is that they gener-
ally have a higher starch content due to fact that less nitrogen fertilizer is used.
Particular disadvantages include the frequent incidence of certain diseases and
pests (dry core, slugs and wire worm) and the tendency to produce smaller tu-
bers. In addition, long-term storage of organic potatoes is problematic because the
only permitted sprouting inhibitor, caraway oil, is less eective than conventional
products. As a result, the reducing sugar content of the potatoes may be increased.
Processing such potatoes at high temperatures (e.g. roasting, shallow frying or
deep-frying) produces acrylamide. To prevent this, the most appropriate varieties
are grown, storage management is adapted to suit the purpose of the potatoes,
and the sugar content of each individual batch is checked prior to sale or process-
ing. Several studies on post-harvest behaviour have found that organically farmed
products have better storage performance compared to conventionally farmed
products.
16/72/74/75
Advantages included lower storage losses resulting from weight
loss, shrinkage and rot, for example. Some studies showed no dierence between
organic and conventional products.
15/25/76
Testing the storage performance of carrots grown under different fertilizer
regimes.
73
Top left: carrots with high mineral fertilizer input. Bottom right: Carrots with low
inputs of rotted farmyard manure. Studies on post-harvest behaviour measure a
variety of direct parameters such as loss of water and substance, accumulation
of harmful substances and microorganisms, and physiological parameters such
as respiration, and enzymatic, defence and hormonal activity.
Functional suitability
Organic: drawing conclusions
A special challenge for processing:
potatoes and wheat
16 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
In the holistic approach of organic farming and organic food processing, the ques-
tion ‘what is life?’ arises, and, along with it, ‘what attributes does food need to have
to provide optimum support for life processes?’
4
For this reason, alongside the
methods of chemical analysis, ‘complementary’ or ‘holistic’ methods have been
developed that focus less on quantifying individual constituents of food,
4/5
and
more on the ‘vitality’ of the original food with its functional characteristics. e
premise on which this is based is that ‘the living whole is more than the sum of
its parts’.
4
In combination with the customary methods of analysis, these comple-
mentary methods may provide us with additional information that has a bearing
on quality.
Order and structure as parameters for quality
Complementary research methods largely examine whole foods, in other words,
foods that have not been broken down into their chemical or physical compo-
nents.
7
is enables assessment of a food’s capacity to maintain its order and struc-
ture.
5
In holistic concepts, foods that retain their order and structure are associated
with higher quality.
Defining the concept of ‘inner quality’
e Louis Bolk Institute in the Netherlands has dened the term ‘inner quality’.
e concept encompasses all the attributes that together make a (plant) product
typical of its species, ripe, avourful, palatable and ensure that it will keep ade-
quately. ese attributes are generated in the course of an organism’s development
as a result of the interplay (‘integration’) of the continuously ongoing processes
of ‘growth’ and ‘dierentiation’. ese processes can be inuenced signicantly by
cultivation measures (e.g. organic farming methods).
9
Various research institutions have recently been engaged in the study of holistic
methods
12
with a view to standardizing and validating them in accordance with
ISO 17025 standards. Holistic methods are expected to help provide answers to
the following three questions:
1. Can reproducible dierences be ascertained between production management
systems?
2. If such dierences can be identied, what causal factors are responsible for
them?
3. What is the signicance of these dierences in terms of health?
Interpreting the results achieved with holistic methods is oen highly complex.
ere are no generally recognized principles relating to the signicance of dif-
ferences in structure, order, form or dierence in the form-retaining capacity of
foods.
4
Further research is therefore needed.
e three most important holistic methods are explained below.
4/10/11/12
Holistic methods
Food as part of the w hole
Network for food quality research
FQH (International Research As-
sociation for Organic Food Quality
and Health) is a network of Euro-
pean research institutions that have
specialized in research into the re-
lationship between organic food
and human health. The validation
of holistic methods is an important
aspect of this work. The background
for this research is provided by the
need of consumers, organic produc-
ers, industry and trade for scientific
results in this field (www.organ-
icfqhresearch.org).
8
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products
17
Image-forming methods
Image-forming methods5 include copper chloride crystallization (biocrystalliza-
tion), capillary dynamolysis (‘Steigbild’ method) and circular chromatography.
10/14
As their name suggests, these methods produce pictures, either by crystallization
of a copper chloride solution with a dilute extract of a product, or by drying the
dilute extract in a salt solution on chromatographic paper. Interpreting the shapes
and forms of the resulting images, which can provide a kind of illustration of the
inner quality, the life force of a product, is dicult.
72
ese image-forming methods
have hitherto been used primarily for testing plant products. With the aid of such
methods, it has proved possible to dierentiate repeatedly between coded samples
of products from organic and conventional production systems. is has also been
achieved in the context of a research project
12
aimed at developing and validating
holistic methods for wheat from the DOK trial. In another FiBL study,
15/70
samples
of apples of the Golden Delicious variety from dierent production systems were
identied using copper chloride crystallization. Moreover, the results correlated
closely with those of the standard quality and sensory evaluation tests.
Of all the holistic methods, this is the one most frequently used. In ten out of
eleven tests it was possible to distinguish between production methods.
Fluorescence excitation spectroscopy
17/18
Following excitation with light of one or several colours, food samples produce
measurable, ultra-weak photon emissions (also called ‘biophotons’) of varying
intensities. With the aid of uorescence excitation spectroscopy, is it possible to
ascertain the species-typical stage of development of the plant or product.
12
After the image-forming methods, this is the second most frequently used
complementary method. Seven out of eight studies identified differences be-
tween production systems.
Electrochemical analysis
19/20
Electrochemical attributes such as pH, redox potential and electrical conductivity
are measured in a watery medium. ese three parameters are used to calculate
a so-called P-value. From the results of the analysis it can be concluded that the
less ‘stressful’ the product’s development, the more reduced the product (in other
words, it is more electron-rich and thus of greater nutritional value in physiologi-
cal terms).
The use of this method has yielded varying results. The technique is susceptible
to interference. Three studies enabled a distinction to be drawn between the
different production methods. Four studies failed to show any differences.
the w hole
Copper chloride crystallography.
Measuring fluorescence emissions.
Equipment for determining P-value
Dossier
Alongside fresh products such as fruit, vegetables and fresh meat, organic products
naturally also end up on the consumer’s plate in processed form. e products that
come into this category range from yoghurt, bread, salad dressings and juices to
pizza and potato crisps. Processed organic products on the one hand contain raw
materials produced in accordance with organic farming methods; on the other,
special organic processing regulations also apply.
96
Fundamental provisions con-
cerning the processing of organic foods are set out at three levels:
1. By government legislation (e.g. EU organic farming regulation 2092/91 and the
Swiss organic farming ordinance)
2. Via labelling schemes (e.g. Demeter, Bioland, Naturland, Bio Suisse)
3. rough specic standards applied by food processors or trade.
EU organic farming regulation 2092/91
e requirements of the EU organic farming regulation 2092/91 form the basis
for designating a product as organic. ere are hardly any binding regulations
and legal provisions concerning how organically produced raw materials should
be processed. Within the EU organic farming regulation, Annex VI sets out the
terms under which a processed food may be designated as an organic product.
e permitted ingredients, additives and aids for processing raw materials of plant
origin are listed here. In conventional food processing, there are currently around
300 permitted additives. e EU organic farming regulation permits only 36.
Processing of meat products is regulated by the provisions in force in individual
EU Member States; in Switzerland, it is covered by the provisions of the organic
farming ordinance. In terms of processing techniques, both the EU organic farm-
ing regulation and the Swiss organic farming ordinance prohibit the use of genetic
engineering and ionizing radiation. More detailed provisions relating to process-
ing techniques can be found in the standards set out by individual labelling as-
sociations.
Labelling organizations
e processing standards of organic associations are in some cases much tougher
than the national and European regulations. In the German-speaking countries,
for example, there are detailed regulations on the most important aspects of food
processing. e most important principles are freshness, careful processing to en-
sure product quality is maintained, using as few additives as possible, and authen-
ticity.
Freshness
Even the best processing methods cannot compensate for poor quality raw materi-
als. For this reason, there are regulations governing the storage of raw products.
e Bio Suisse regulations on milk, for example, precisely stipulate the maximum
period of time that may elapse between milking and processing.
Processing techniques
e high quality of the raw materials must be maintained during processing. e
gentlest possible technical procedures must therefore be applied. Organic fruit
juices, for example, may not be produced from concentrate, a process called re-di-
luting. In general, the product should be subjected to the minimum possible heat
Processing
Natural and closely supervised
The EU organic farming regula-
tion 2092/91 covers:
raw materials from organic pro
-
duction
a positive list of the 36 permit
-
ted additives for plant products
(for animal products, the provi-
sions of individual EU Member
States apply)
a positive list of permitted
processing aids
a positive list of the maximum
5% permitted conventional raw
materials for use in exceptional
cases (e.g. special spices); this
list is updated annually
processing methods: general
prohibition of techniques involv-
ing genetic engineering (e.g. no
genetically modified cultures of
microorganisms or enzymes)
prohibition of the use of ionizing
radiation
annual inspection and certifica
-
tion by an independent inspec-
tion body.
18 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products 19
or pressure during processing. In the production process, the content of sensitive
constituents is monitored as an indicator of careful processing. For example, inac-
tivation of particular enzymes indicates inappropriate pasteurization of milk.
Additives
e number of permitted additives is further restricted by the labelling associa-
tions. e use of synthetic ascorbic acid (vitamin C), for example, is not permitted.
As an alternative, organic acerola fruit powder, which has a high vitamin C content,
may be used. e use of avourings is likewise prohibited, as avour is supposed to
derive from the ingredients and should be retained by careful processing.
Authenticity
Authenticity is the benchmark for all organic processed foods. It means that a
‘cream sauce’ must actually contain cream and not a mixture of skimmed milk,
highly re ned palm oil, water, emulsi ers, and only a trace of cream. In order to
be able to recognize that this principle has been adhered to, some associations
stipulate that the product should carry an indication of the processing method,
the origin of the raw materials, and any processing aids used (e.g. declaration of
enzymes used in bread making).
Additional standards laid down
by labelling organizations and
associations
Minimal use of additives and
processing aids: shorter list of
permitted additives than under
the EU organic farming regula-
tion, e.g. prohibition of fl avour-
ings
Careful processing: process-
ing techniques permitted on a
product-specifi c basis; exclusion
of certain processing methods,
e.g. no homogenization of milk
in the case of Demeter
Authenticity: expanded regula-
tions on labelling
Environmentally friendly packag-
ing, e.g. prohibition of chlorin-
ated fi lms
Transport, e.g. prohibition of air
transport
Note: These are selected examples
and do not apply to all labelling
organizations and associations.
Areas regulated by food proces-
sors and trade
environmentally friendly process-
ing, e.g. to ISO 14000 standards
environmentally friendly packag-
ing, e.g. compostable packaging
materials
‘regionality’: produced, proc-
essed and sold in the region
certifi cation according to social
criteria, e.g. Max Havelaar or
TransFair
Processing techniques that are not permitted —
Examples from various labelling schemes
Note: The above are selected exam-
ples and do not apply to all labelling
organizations and associations
No sterilizing
No colourings,
no use of natural
fl avourings
No indirect souring (i.e.
only souring using cultures
in the butter cream; no
addition of lactic acid or
concentrated cultures
No rennin substitute: no
use of chymosin produced
using genetically modifi ed
organisms as a substitute
for calf-stomach rennin.
Rennin is used for coagu-
lating proteins.
No use of smoke fl avourings,
no formed meat, no restruc-
tured meat produced using
enzymes
No production of juice
from concentrate
20 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Numerous studies have been carried out in recent years to estimate and assess
the impact of agricultural production on the environment. e following table
provides a summary of the environmental impact of organic farming compared to
conventional production methods.
Process quality
Environmental impact
Most of the studies arrive at this result The study fi ndings are in this range
Organic farming is
Indicator
Much better Better The same Worse Much worse
Agricultural genetic resources are more abundant, including insects and microorganisms
Greater diversity and frequency of wild fl ora and fauna
Organic farming contributes to landscape diversity
Organic fi elds link near-natural biotopes better
Higher humus content, greater physical stability, better water-retention capacity,
resulting in reduced risk of erosion
More biological activity, more biomass, quicker nutrient recycling,
better soil structurer
Greater abundance of symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi
No risk of synthetic plant protection substances leaching into the groundwater
or surface water
Considerably lower nitrogen leaching rate
Lower greenhouse gas emissions, fewer reactive substances from plant protectant
applications
Enhanced CO
2
sequestration in the soil
Markedly lower consumption of direct energy (fuels and lubricants)
and indirect energy (fertilizers and pesticides) for a given area
Good energy effi ciency (energy input in relation to yield); with the exception
of a few crops, better than under conventional farming
Biodiversity and landscape
Soil
Water
Climate and air
Energy
Environmental impact: comparison of organic and conventional farming systems
4/26/27/28
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products
21
Animal protection on organic farms
From the point of view of animal protection, process quality is enhanced by:
keeping breeds that are appropriate for the location
optimizing rather than maximizing potential output
appropriate feed
appropriate livestock management conditions
appropriate veterinary health management
careful slaughter procedures to minimize stress to the animals
Socio-economic aspects
It is only possible to achieve high-quality, responsibly produced foods if the pro-
duction process not only takes ecological perspectives into account, but also em-
phasizes the importance of socially acceptable working conditions. In order to
achieve this, it must be possible to sell and trade products at a price that ‘tells the
truth’. For this reason, the basic standards of IFOAM, the international umbrella
organization for organic farming stipulate that “social justice and social rights are
an integral part of organic farming and processing”. Consequently, to ensure the
world-wide operation of a system of guarantees, IFOAM works together in an
alliance with organizations committed to fair trade, protecting the environment,
and improving working conditions. Organic farming contributes to sustainable
regional development. Conserving and revitalizing rural areas by developing a
multifaceted agricultural sector that is close to nature, with the processing and
sale of its produce centred on the region, is fundamentally important.
Psychological aspects
Individual well-being relating to food consumption depends not only on the ma-
terial attributes of the food, but is also determined by psychological, societal and
social factors.29 The knowledge that the foods consumed originate from an eco-
logically sound and socially acceptable form of farming with few negative effects
on biodiversity, water, soil, air and climate can have a positive effect on a person’s
well-being.98 Such psychological effects of foods with a higher level of process
quality must also be regarded as an important factor in terms of overall quality.
In organic agriculture, livestock man-
agement conditions are adapted to
suit our fellow creatures, the animals,
and not the other way round.
Special emphasis is laid on socially
acceptable working conditions.
It is not only material attributes that
make organic products taste better,
but also psychological factors.
22 Quality and Safety of Organic Products
Dossier
Summary
In short
More beneficial nutritional quality
In terms of desirable substances, organic products stand out as having higher lev-
els of secondary plant compounds and vitamin C. In the case of milk and meat,
the fatty acid prole is oen better from a nutritional point of view. As regards
carbohydrates and minerals, organic products are no dierent from conventional
products.
As regards undesirable substances such as nitrate and pesticide residues, organic
products have a clear advantage. Other undesirable attributes can be inuenced
to some extent, but do not depend on the production method: mycotoxins, heavy
metal content, environmental pollutants and contamination with pathological mi-
croorganisms.
Greater enjoyment
Organic vegetables and fruit tend to have a higher sensory quality. Alongside pro-
duction method, other factors such as choice of variety, climate, soil characteris-
tics and post-harvest management are also decisive factors.
Optimizing functional suitability
Organic products have better storage performance. However, in the case of or-
ganic wheat and potatoes, some technical challenges still need to be met. Due to
the lower protein content of organic wheat, bread-making methods need to be
adapted. In the case of potatoes, functional suitability may be impaired by damage
caused by disease and pests, and diculties with long-term storage.
Promise in the area of inner quality
Holistic methods are used in addition to the standard methods of analysis to arrive
at a more comprehensive representation of quality. Both image-forming methods
and uorescence excitation spectroscopy enable a distinction to be made between
coded samples from organic and conventional farming systems. Intensive research
is currently under way to validate these methods.
More careful processing
Natural, authentic and retaining its original qualities: processing organic products
requires particular care. Regulations dening permitted processing methods and
prohibiting the use of many additives and processing aids have resulted in the de-
velopment of special formulas and the use of high-quality ingredients.
More sustainable process quality
Organic farming is more benecial across a wide range of environmental aspects.
is applies to biodiversity and landscape, soil, water, climate and air, and also
to energy consumption. In short, organic is better for people, animals and the
environment.
Dossier
Quality and Safety of Organic Products
23
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Publication details
Published by: Research Institute of Organic Agriculture
(Forschungsinstitut für biologischen Landbau, FiBL)
Switzerland, Germany, Austria
Contributors: Thomas Alföldi, José Granado, Edith Kief-
fer, Ursula Kretzschmar, Marion Morgner, Urs Niggli,
Alfred Schädeli, Bernhard Speiser, Franco Weibel,
Gabriela Wyss (all FiBL); Wanda and Gernot Schmidt
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