surface production operations - design of oil handling systems and facilities

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Surface Production
Operations
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Surface Production
Operations
Design of Oil Handling
Systems and Facilities
Ken Arnold
AMEC Paragon, Houston, Texas
Maurice Stewart
President, Stewart Training Company
THIRD EDITION
AMSTERDAM
•
BOSTON
•
HEIDELBERG
•
LONDON
NEW YORK
•
OXFORD
•
PARIS

•
SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO
•
SINGAPORE
•
SYDNEY
•
TOKYO
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Contents
Acknowledgments to the Third Edition xix
About the Book xxi
Preface to the Third Edition xxiii
1 The Production Facility 1
Introduction 1
Making the Equipment Work 15
Facility Types 18
2 Process Selection 24
Introduction 24
Controlling the Process 24
Operation of a Control Valve 24
Pressure Control 27
Level Control 29
Temperature Control 29
Flow Control 29
Basic System Configuration 30
Wellhead and Manifold 30
Separation 30
Initial Separation Pressure 30

Stage Separation 32
Selection of Stages 34
v
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vi Contents
Fields with Different Flowing Tubing Pressures 34
Determining Separator Operating Pressures 36
Two-Phase vs. Three-Phase Separators 37
Process Flowsheet 37
Oil Treating and Storage 37
Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) 40
Pumps 44
Water Treating 44
Compressors 44
Gas Dehydration 48
Well Testing 50
Gas Lift 53
Offshore Platform Considerations 56
Overview 56
Modular Construction 57
Equipment Arrangement 57
3 Basic Principles 61
Introduction 61
Basic Oil-Field Chemistry 61
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 61
Atomic and Molecular Weights 62
Hydrocarbon Nomenclature 63
Paraffin Series: (C
n

H
2n+2
)64
Paraffin Compounds 64
Acids and Bases 65
Fluid Analysis 65
Physical Properties 65
Molecular Weight and Apparent Molecular Weight 68
Example 3-1: Molecular weight calculation 69
Example 3-2: Determine the apparent molecular weight of
dry air, which is a gas mixture consisting of nitrogen, oxygen,
and small amounts of Argon 69
Gas Specific Gravity and Density 70
Example 3-3: Calculate the specific gravity of a natural gas
with the following composition 71
Nonideal Gas Equations of State 73
Reduced Properties 80
Example 3-4: Calculate the pseudo-critical temperature
and pressure for the following natural gas stream
composition 81
Example 3-5: Calculate the volume of 1 lb mole of the natural
gas stream given in the previous example at 120

F
and 1500 psia 82
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Contents vii
Example 3-6: A sour natural gas has the following composition.
Determine the compressibility factor for the gas at 100


F
and 1000 psia 88
Liquid Density and Specific Gravity 89
Viscosity 92
Gas Viscosity 93
Liquid Viscosity 94
Oil-Water Mixture Viscosity 95
Phase Behavior 97
System Components 98
Single-Component Systems 99
Multicomponent Systems 101
Lean Gas Systems 103
Rich Gas Systems 103
Retrograde Systems 104
Application of Phase Envelopes 105
Black Oil Reservoir 106
Phase Diagram Characteristics 106
Field Characteristics 106
Laboratory Analysis 107
Volatile Oil Reservoir 107
Phase Diagram Characteristics 107
Field Characteristics 108
Laboratory Analysis 109
Retrograde Gas Reservoir 109
Phase Diagram Characteristics 109
Field Characteristics 110
Laboratory Analysis 110
Wet Gas Reservoir 110
Phase Diagram Characteristics 110

Field Characteristics 111
Dry Gas Reservoir 112
Phase Diagram Characteristics 112
Information Required for Design 112
Flash Calculations 113
Characterizing the Flow Stream 130
Molecular Weight of Gas 130
Gas Flow Rate 130
Liquid Molecular Weight 132
Specific Gravity of Liquid 133
Liquid Flow Rate 134
The Flow Stream 135
Approximate Flash Calculations 136
Other Properties 137
Exercises 142
References 149
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viii Contents
4 Two-Phase Oil and Gas Separation 150
Introduction 150
Phase Equilibrium 151
Factors Affecting Separation 152
Functional Sections of a Gas-Liquid Separator 152
Inlet Diverter Section 154
Liquid Collection Section 154
Gravity Settling Section 154
Mist Extractor Section 154
Equipment Description 155
Horizontal Separators 155

Vertical Separators 156
Spherical Separators 157
Centrifugal Separators 159
Venturi Separators 160
Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators 161
Horizontal Separator with a “Boot” or “Water Pot” 162
Filter Separators 163
Scrubbers 164
Slug Catchers 165
Selection Considerations 165
Vessel Internals 169
Inlet Diverters 169
Wave Breakers 170
Defoaming Plates 171
Vortex Breaker 173
Stilling Well 173
Sand Jets and Drains 175
Mist Extractors 176
Introduction 176
Gravitational and Drag Forces Acting on a Droplet 176
Impingement-Type 177
Baffles 178
Wire-Mesh 181
Micro-Fiber 186
Other Configurations 187
Final Selection 187
Potential Operating Problems 190
Foamy Crude 190
Paraffin 192
Sand 192

Liquid Carryover 192
Gas Blowby 193
Liquid Slugs 194
Design Theory 195
Settling 195
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Contents ix
Droplet Size 203
Retention Time 203
Liquid Re-entrainment 204
Separator Design 204
Horizontal Separators Sizing—Half Full 204
Gas Capacity Constraint 205
Liquid Capacity Constraint 209
Seam-to-Seam Length 211
Slenderness Ratio 212
Procedure for Sizing Horizontal Separators—Half Full 212
Horizontal Separators Sizing Other Than Half Full 213
Gas Capacity Constraint 214
Liquid Capacity Constraint 215
Vertical Separators’ Sizing 219
Gas Capacity Constraint 219
Liquid Capacity Constraint 222
Seam-to-Seam Length 224
Slenderness Ratio 226
Procedure for Sizing Vertical Separators 226
Examples 226
Example 4-1: Sizing a Vertical Separator
(Field Units) 226

Example 4-2: Sizing a Vertical Separator (SI Units) 229
Example 4-3: Sizing a Horizontal Separator
(Field Units) 232
Example 4-4: Sizing a Horizontal Separator (SI Units) 233
Nomenclature 234
Review Questions 236
Exercises 239
Bibliography 243
5 Three-Phase Oil and Water Separation 244
Introduction 244
Equipment Description 246
Horizontal Separators 246
Derivation of Equation (5-1) 250
Free-Water Knockout 251
Flow Splitter 252
Horizontal Three-Phase Separator with a Liquid “Boot” 253
Vertical Separators 255
Selection Considerations 258
Vessel Internals 259
Coalescing Plates 260
Turbulent Flow Coalescers 260
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x Contents
Potential Operating Problems 261
Emulsions 261
Design Theory 261
Gas Separation 261
Oil–Water Settling 262
Water Droplet Size in Oil 262

Oil Droplet Size in Water 262
Retention Time 264
Separator Design 265
Horizontal Separators Sizing—Half-Full 265
Gas Capacity Constraint 265
Retention Time Constraint 266
Derivation of Equations (5-4a) and (5-4b) 267
Settling Water Droplets from Oil Phase 270
Derivation of Equations (5-5a) and (5-5b) 270
Derivation of Equation (5-7) 273
Separating Oil Droplets from Water Phase 274
Seam-to-Seam Length 274
Slenderness Ratio 275
Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Horizontal
Separators—Half-Full 275
Horizontal Separators Sizing Other Than Half-Full 278
Gas Capacity Constraint 278
Retention Time Constraint 279
Settling Equation Constraint 283
Vertical Separators’ Sizing 283
Gas Capacity Constraint 284
Settling Water Droplets from Oil Phase 284
Derivation of Equations (5-21a) and (5-21b) 285
Settling Oil from Water Phase 287
Retention Time Constraint 287
Derivation of Equations (5-24a) and (5-24b) 288
Seam-to-Seam Length 289
Slenderness Ratio 290
Procedure for Sizing Three-Phase Vertical Separators 291
Examples 294

Example 5-1: Sizing a vertical three-phase separator
(field units) 294
Example 5-2: Sizing a vertical three-phase separator
(SI units) 297
Example 5-3: Sizing a horizontal three-phase separator
(field units) 299
Example 5-4: Sizing a horizontal three-phase separator
(SI units) 302
Nomenclature 305
Review Questions 308
Exercises 310
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Contents xi
6 Mechanical Design of Pressure Vessels 316
Introduction 316
Design Considerations 317
Design Temperature 317
Design Pressure 317
Maximum Allowable Stress Values 319
Determining Wall Thickness 320
Corrosion Allowance 324
Inspection Procedures 327
Estimating Vessel Weights 329
Specification and Design of Pressure Vessels 331
Pressure Vessel Specifications 331
Shop Drawings 331
Nozzles 334
Vortex Breaker 334
Manways 339

Vessel Supports 339
Ladder and Platform 341
Pressure Relief Devices 342
Corrosion Protection 342
Example 6-1: Determining the weight of an FWKO vessel
(field units) 342
Review Questions 346
Exercises 348
Reference 350
7 Crude Oil Treating and Oil Desalting Systems 351
Introduction 351
Equipment Description 351
Free-Water Knockouts 351
Gunbarrel Tanks with Internal and External
Gas Boots 352
Example 7.1: Determination of external water leg
height 354
Horizontal Flow Treaters 359
Heaters 360
Indirect Fired Heaters 361
Direct Fired Heaters 362
Waste Heat Recovery 363
Heater Sizing 363
Heater-Treaters 363
Vertical Heater-Treaters 363
Coalescing Media 367
Horizontal Heater-Treaters 368
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xii Contents

Electrostatic Heater-Treaters 377
Oil Dehydrators 382
Heater-Treater Sizing 383
Emulsion Treating Theory 383
Introduction 383
Emulsions 384
Differential Density 385
Size of Water Droplets 386
Viscosity 386
Interfacial Tension 386
Presence and Concentration of Emulsifying Agents 387
Water Salinity 387
Age of the Emulsion 387
Agitation 388
Emulsifying Agents 388
Demulsifiers 392
Bottle Test 393
Field Trial 394
Field Optimization 395
Changing the Demulsifier 395
Demulsifier Troubleshooting 395
Emulsion Treating Methods 396
General Considerations 396
Chemical Addition 397
Amount of Chemical 397
Bottle Test Considerations 398
Water Drop-Out Rate 398
Sludge 398
Interface 398
Water Turbidity 398

Oil Color 399
Centrifuge Results 399
Chemical Selection 399
Settling Tank or “Gunbarrel” 399
Vertical Heater-Treater 399
Horizontal Heater-Treater 400
Settling Time 400
Coalescence 401
Viscosity 402
Heat Effects 403
Electrostatic Coalescers 410
Water Droplet Size and Retention Time 412
Treater Equipment Sizing 413
General Considerations 413
Heat Input Required 413
Derivation of Equations (7-5a) and (7-5b) 414
Gravity Separation Considerations 415
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Contents xiii
Settling Equations 416
Horizontal Vessels 417
Derivation of Equations (7-8a) and (7-8b) 417
Vertical Vessels 418
Gunbarrels 419
Horizontal Flow Treaters 419
Derivation of Equations (7-10a) and (7-10b) and
(7-11a) and (7-11b) 421
Retention Time Equations 422
Horizontal Vessels 422

Vertical Vessels 422
Gunbarrels 423
Horizontal Flow Treaters 423
Derivation of Equations (7-12a) and (7-12b) 424
Water Droplet Size 425
Design Procedure 428
General Design Procedure 428
Design Procedure for Vertical Heater-Treaters and
Gunbarrels (Wash Tanks with Internal/External
Gas Boot) 428
Design Procedure for Horizontal Heater-Treaters 429
Design Procedure for Horizontal-Flow Treaters 429
Examples 432
Example 7-2: Sizing a horizontal treater
(field units) 432
Example 7-3: Sizing a horizontal treater (SI units) 434
Example 7-4: Sizing a vertical treater (field units) 436
Example 7-5: Sizing a vertical treater (SI units) 437
Practical Considerations 439
Gunbarrels with Internal/External Gas Boot 439
Heater-Treaters 440
Electrostatic Heater-Treaters 440
Oil Desalting Systems 440
Introduction 440
Equipment Description 441
Desalters 441
Mixing Equipment 441
Globe Valves 441
Spray Nozzles 442
Static Mixers 443

Process Description 444
Single-Stage Desalting 444
Two-Stage Desalting 445
Nomenclature 446
Review Questions 447
Exercises 451
Reference 456
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xiv Contents
8 Crude Stabilization 457
Introduction 457
Basic Principles 458
Phase-Equilibrium Considerations 458
Flash Calculations 460
Process Schemes 460
Multi-Stage Separation 460
Oil Heater-Treaters 460
Liquid Hydrocarbon Stabilizer 461
Cold-Feed Stabilizer 464
Stabilizer with Reflux 466
Equipment Description 467
Stabilizer Tower 467
Trays and Packing 469
Trays 469
Packing 472
Trays or Packing 474
Stabilizer Reboiler 475
Stabilizer Cooler 476
Stabilizer Reflux System 476

Stabilizer Feed Cooler 477
Stabilizer-Heater 477
Stabilizer Design 477
Stabilizer As a Gas-Processing Plant 481
9 Produced Water Treating Systems 482
Introduction 482
Disposal Standards 483
Offshore Operations 483
Onshore Operations 484
Characteristics of Produced Water 484
Dissolved Solids 484
Precipitated Solids (Scales) 485
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO
3
) 485
Calcium Sulfate (CaSO
4
) 485
Iron Sulfide (FeS
2
) 486
Barium and Strontium Sulfate (BaSO
4
and SrSO
4
) 486
Scale Removal 486
Controlling Scale Using Chemical Inhibitors 487
Sand and Other Suspended Solids 487
Dissolved Gases 488

Oil in Water Emulsions 489
Dissolved Oil Concentrations 490
Dispersed Oil 491
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Contents xv
Toxicants 494
Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Materials 496
Bacteria 497
System Description 499
Theory 500
Gravity Separation 501
Coalescence 502
Dispersion 503
Flotation 504
Filtration 507
Equipment Description and Sizing 508
Skim Tanks and Skim Vessels 508
Configurations 509
Vertical 509
Horizontal 510
Pressure Versus Atmospheric Vessels 511
Retention Time 511
Performance Considerations 512
Skimmer Sizing Equations 514
Horizontal Cylindrical Vessel:
Half-Full 514
Derivation of Equation (9-7) 514
Horizontal Rectangular Cross-Section

Skimmer 517
Derivation of Equation (9-12) 518
Derivation of Equation (9-13) 520
Vertical Cylindrical Skimmer 521
Derivation of Equation (9-15) 522
Derivation of Equation (9-17) 523
Coalescers 524
Plate Coalescers 524
Parallel Plate Interceptor (PPI) 526
Corrugated Plate Interceptor (CPI) 526
Cross-Flow Devices 530
Performance Considerations 532
Selection Criteria 534
Coalescer Sizing Equations 536
Derivation of Equation (9-18) 537
Derivation of Equation (9-19) 539
CPI Sizing 540
Cross-Flow Device Sizing 541
Example 9-1: Determining the dispersed oil content in
the effluent water from a CPI plate
separator 542
Oil/Water/Sediment Coalescing Separators 543
Oil/Water/Sediment Sizing 545
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xvi Contents
Performance Considerations 546
Skimmer/Coalescers 546
Matrix Type 547
Loose Media 547

Performance Considerations 548
Precipitators/Coalescing Filters 549
Free-Flow Turbulent Coalescers 551
Performance Considerations 555
Flotation Units 555
Dissolved Gas Units 556
Dispersed Gas Units 559
Hydraulic Induced Units 562
Mechanical Induced Units 563
Other Configurations 565
Sizing Dispersed Gas Units 566
Performance Considerations 568
Hydrocyclones 573
General Considerations 573
Operating Principles 573
Static Hydrocyclones 575
Dynamic Hydrocyclones 578
Selection Criteria and Application Guidelines 578
Sizing and Design 580
Disposal Piles 580
Disposal Pile Sizing 582
Derivation of Equation (9-26) 583
Derivation of Equation (9-27) 585
Skim Piles 585
Skim Pile Sizing 588
Derivation of Equation (9-28) 588
Drain Systems 589
Information Required for Design 590
Effluent Quality 590
Influent Water Quality 591

Produced Water 591
Soluble Oil 592
Deck Drainage 592
Equipment Selection Procedure 592
Equipment Specification 594
Skim Tank 594
SP Pack System 595
CPI Separator 595
Cross-Flow Devices 595
Flotation Cell 595
Disposal Pile 595
Example 9-2: Design the produced water treating system for the
data given 595
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Contents xvii
Nomenclature 606
Review Questions 607
References 609
10 Water Injection Systems 610
Introduction 610
Solids Removal Theory 612
Removal of Suspended Solids from
Water 612
Gravity Settling 612
Flotation Units 615
Filtration 615
Inertial Impaction 615
Diffusional Interception 616
Direct Interception 617

Filter Types 618
Nonfixed-Pore Structure Media 618
Fixed-Pore Structure Media 619
Surface Media 620
Summary of Filter Types 620
Removal Ratings 621
Nominal Rating 621
Absolute Rating 622
Beta () Rating System 623
Choosing the Proper Filter 624
Nature of Fluid 624
Flow Rate 625
Temperature 625
Pressure Drop 625
Surface Area 627
Void Volume 628
Degree of Filtration 629
Prefiltration 629
Coagulants and Flocculation 630
Measuring Water Compatibility 631
Solids Removal Equipment Description 632
Gravity Settling Tanks 636
Horizontal Cylindrical Gravity Settlers 639
Horizontal Rectangular Cross-Sectional
Gravity Settlers 641
Vertical Cylindrical Gravity Settlers 643
Plate Coalescers 644
Hydrocyclones 644
Centrifuges 648
Flotation Units 648

Disposable Cartridge Filters 649
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xviii Contents
Backwashable Cartridge Filters 651
Granular Media Filters 652
Diatomaceous Earth Filters 660
Chemical Scavenging Equipment 663
Nomenclature 665
Appendix A: Definition of Key Water Treating Terms 667
Appendix B: Water Sampling Techniques 672
Appendix C: Oil Concentration Analysis Techniques 676
Glossary of Terms 682
Index 701
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Acknowledgments to the
Third Edition
A number of people helped to make possible this revised third edition of
Surface Production Operations, Volume 1—Design of Oil and Water Han-
dling Facilities. A real debt is owed to the 45,000-plus professional men
and women of the organizations that I’ve taught and worked with through
my 35-plus years in the oil and gas industry and made a reality the ideas
in this book. The companies are too numerous to name, but it’s worth
emphasizing that a consultant only makes suggestions—it’s the engi-
neers, managers, technicians, and operators who are faced with the real
challenge. I have been privileged to work with the “best-of-the-best”
companies in the world, and this book is dedicated to them for their
vision and perseverance.
Although I can’t mention everyone who has helped me along the way,

I would like to say thank you to my colleagues and friends: Jamin Djuang
of PT Loka Datamas Indah; Chang Choon Kiang, Amran Manaf, and
Ridzuan Arrifin of Petroleum Training Southeast Asia (PTSEA); Clem
Nwogbo of Resourse Plus; Khun Aujchara and Bundit Pattanasak of
PTTEP; Al Ducote and Greg Abdelnor of Chevron Nigeria Limited, and
David Rodriguez of Chevron Angola (CABGOC).
Thanks are due to Samuel Sowunmi of Chevron Nigeria Limited and
Mochammad Zainal-Abidin of Total Indonesie, who were responsible for
proofreading the text and making certain all units were correct. Thanks
are also due to Yudhianto of Stewart Training Company (STC), for
drawing hundreds of new illustrations from our crude sketches. Of critical
xix
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xx Acknowledgments to the Third Edition
importance was the contribution of Heri Wibowo of STC, who was
responsible for coordinating the entire typing and drafting effort. Heri
was also responsible for editing and pulling it all together at the end.
However, we take full responsibility for any errors that still remain in
this text.
Lastly, I would like to thank my wife, Dyah who has been my inspi-
ration, providing support and encouragement when needed.
Maurice Stewart
The first editions of this book were based mostly on materials I had
developed and gathered over the years based on what was then 20 years
worth of experience and interaction with some very talented people at
Shell and Paragon Engineering Services (now AMEC Paragon). Maurice
provided first drafts of several chapters, additional materials and technical
assistance.
The second edition was created by Maurice and I furnishing guidance

and technical material to a group of AMEC Paragon engineers who
made modifications to the existing chapters. These engineers were: Eric
Barron, Jim Cullen, Fernando De La Fuente, Robert Ferguson, Mike Hale,
Sandeep Khurana, Kevin Mara, Matt McKinstry, Carl Sikes, Mary Thro,
Kirk Trascher and Mike Whitworth. David Arnold pulled it all together.
This edition contains significant amounts of new material which was
developed and gathered primarily by Maurice as a result of his years of
teaching and consulting using the original editions as a guide. I served
mostly as a technical reviewer adding little in the way of new materials.
Maurice deserves most of the credit for this edition.
Ken Arnold
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About the Book
Surface Production Operations, Volume 1—Design of Oil and Water
Handling Facilities, is a complete and up-to-date resource manual for
the design, selection, specification, installation, operation, testing, and
troubleshooting of oil and water handling facilities. It is the first volume
in the Surface Production Operations series and is the most compre-
hensive book you’ll find today dealing with surface production opera-
tions in its various stages, from initial entry into the flowline through
separation, treating, conditioning, and processing equipment to the exit-
ing pipeline. Featured in this text are such important topics as gas–
liquid separation, liquid–liquid separation, oil treating, desalting, water
treating, water injection, crude stabilization, and many other related
topics.
This complete revision builds upon the classic text to further enhance
its use as a facility engineering process design manual of methods and
proven fundamentals. This new edition includes important supplemental
mechanical and related data, nomographs, illustrations, charts, and tables.

Also included are improved techniques and fundamental methodologies
to guide the engineer in designing surface production equipment and
applying chemical processes to properly detailed equipment.
All volumes of the Surface Production Operations series serve the
practicing engineer by providing organized design procedures; details on
suitable equipment for application selection; and charts, tables, and nomo-
graphs in readily usable form. Facility engineers, designers, and operators
will develop a “feel” for the important parameters in designing, selecting,
xxi
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xxii About the Book
specifying, operating, and troubleshooting surface production facilities.
Readers will understand the uncertainties and assumptions inherent in
designing and operating the equipment in these systems and the limita-
tions, advantages, and disadvantages associated with their use.
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Preface to the Third Edition
Ken Arnold and I initially wrote the Surface Production Operations two-
volume series with the intention of providing facility engineers with a
starting point for addressing the design and operation of surface pro-
duction facilities. This text provides the basic concepts and techniques
necessary to design, specify, and manage oil and gas production facilities.
In the early 1980s, Ken and I developed and taught a number of
graduate-level production facility design courses. These courses were
taught in the petroleum engineering department of the University of
Houston, Tulane University, and Louisiana State University. In the mid-
1980s, we took our course lecture notes and published the two-volume
Surface Production Operations series. These books became the standard

for the industry and have been used by thousands in every oil producing
region of the world since their first printing.
We developed and taught two 5-day intensive continuing education
courses dealing with oil and gas handling facilities; they were based
on our production facility design experience, with emphasis on how
to design, select, specify, install, operate, test, and troubleshoot. These
courses became so well known through presentations in Southeast Asia,
Northern and West Africa, the North Sea, Western and Southern Europe,
China, Central Asia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, India, Central
and South America, Australia, Canada, and throughout the United States,
that in the late 1980s, in response to the many requests by international
oil and gas companies and design consultants, we developed additional
5-day seminars devoted to all aspects of production facility design. The
continuing-education course lecture notes developed for the 20-plus 5-day
courses was the starting point for the expansion and extensive revision
of this series.
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xxiv Preface to the Third Edition
The third edition of Surface Production Operations, Volume 1—Design
of Oil and Water Handling Facilities, builds upon the classic text to fur-
ther enhance its use as a production facility engineering design manual.
Every chapter has been significantly expanded and thoroughly updated
with new material. Every chapter has been carefully reviewed and older
material removed and replaced by newer design techniques. It is impor-
tant to appreciate that not all of the material has been replaced, because
much of the so-called older material is still the best available today, and
still yields good designs. Additional charts and tables have been included
to aid in the design methods or in explaining the design techniques. This

book further provides both fundamental theories where applicable and
directs application of these theories to applied equations, expressed in
both SI and field units, essential in the design effort. A conscious effort
has been made to offer guidelines of sound engineering judgment, deci-
sions, and selections with applicable codes, standards, and recommended
practices.