mcgraw hill osborne oracle9i the complete reference

ORACLE Series TIGHT / Oracle9
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Oracle9i:
The Complete
Reference
Kevin Loney
George Koch
And the Experts at TUSC
McGraw-Hill/Osborne
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To my parents, and to Sue, Emily, Rachel, and Jane
—K.L.
To Elwood Brant, Jr. (Woody), 1949–1990
—G.K.
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About the Authors
Kevin Loney is a senior management technical consultant with
TUSC (), an Oracle-focused consultancy
headquartered in Chicago. He is an expert in the administration,
tuning, security, recovery, design, and development of Oracle
databases and applications. An Oracle DBA and developer since
1987, he is the primary author of numerous books, including
Oracle9i DBA Handbook
,
Oracle9i Instant Scripts
, and
Oracle8
Advanced Tuning and Administration
, all published by Oracle
Press. He is a frequent presenter at local and international Oracle
user groups.
George Koch is a leading authority on relational database
applications. A popular speaker and widely published author, he is
also the creator of THESIS, the securities trading, accounting, and
portfolio management system that was the first major commercial
applications product in the world to employ a relational database
(Oracle) and provide English language querying to its users. He is a
former senior vice president of Oracle Corporation.
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Contents At a Glance
PART I
Critical Database Concepts
1 Sharing Knowledge and Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 The Dangers in a Relational Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 The Basic Parts of Speech in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4 The Basics of Object-Relational Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5 Introduction to Web-Enabled Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
PART II
SQL and SQL*PLUS
6 Basic SQL*PLUS Reports and Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7 Getting Text Information and Changing It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8 Playing the Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9 Dates: Then, Now, and the Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10 Conversion and Transformation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
11 Grouping Things Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
12 When One Query Depends upon Another . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
13 Some Complex Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
14 Building a Report in SQL*PLUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
15 Changing Data: insert, update, merge, and delete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
16 Advanced Use of Functions and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
17 DECODE and CASE: if, then, and else in SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
18 Creating, Dropping, and Altering Tables and Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

19 By What Authority? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
20 Changing the Oracle Surroundings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
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21 Using SQL*Loader to Load Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
22 Accessing Remote Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
23 Using Materialized Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
24 Using Oracle Text for Text Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
25 Using External Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
26 Using Flashback Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
PART III
PL/SQL
27 An Introduction to PL/SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
28 Triggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
29 Procedures, Functions, and Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
PART IV
Object-Relational Databases
30 Implementing Types, Object Views, and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
31 Collectors (Nested Tables and Varying Arrays) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
32 Using Large Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
33 Advanced Object-Oriented Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
PART V

Java in Oracle
34 An Introduction to Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
35 JDBC and SQLJ Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
36 Java Stored Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
PART VI
Hitchhiker’s Guides
37 The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Oracle9i Data Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
38 The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Oracle Optimizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
39 The Hitchhiker’s Guide to Oracle9iAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
40 The Hitchhiker’s Guide to Database Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
41 The Hitchhiker’s Guide to XML in Oracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
PART VII
Alphabetical Reference
Alphabetical Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
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Acknowledgments
T
his book is dedicated to my family, who have allowed me the time to write it.
Thank you for your patience and support and love.
Beyond that, this book is dedicated to the memory of two people: Stephen Jay
Gould and Matthew Horning. Stephen Jay Gould inspired me to be a technical
writer—his steady growth as a writer and his clarity of thought and expression
made me believe this kind of writing was a possibility. He passed away as this book was being

finished, and the world is poorer for his passing.
Matthew Horning was an Oracle DBA I worked with for several weeks during the summer
of 2001 on the upper floors of #1 World Trade Center in New York City. He had the misfortune of
being in the office early on 9/11. His coworkers were inspiring to work with during the recovery
efforts that followed. In his obituary, Matt’s family asked that donations in his memory be given
to Heifer International (). If an act of compassion can come out of such
destruction, then there may always be hope. As Gould noted, “Ordinary kindness trumps
paroxysmal evil by at least a million events to one.”
This book is the product of many hands, and countless hours from many people. My thanks
go out to all those who helped, whether through their comments, feedback, edits, or suggestions.
For additional information about the book, see the publisher’s site () and
my site (). Additional articles and presentations can be found on the
company site at .
Thanks to all of my colleagues at TUSC:
■
To the contributors and reviewers there, including Brad Brown, Jay Urban, and Mike Holder.
■
To the exemplary management, including Jake Van der Vort, Rich Niemiec, Joe Trezzo,
Brad Brown, and others. It’s a delight to work with an executive team who understands
the requirements of this kind of undertaking and who shares a commitment to professional
altruism. Thanks to the rest of the management team there who actively pursue the
professional traits TUSC values.
■
To my peers at TUSC, including Mike Ault, Bill Callahan, Patrick Callahan, Holly Clawson,
Judy Corley, Mark Greenhalgh, Andy Hamilton, Mike Killough, Allen Peterson, Randy
Swanson, Bob Taylor, Bob Yingst, and many others for their insights and contributions.
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Special thanks to Bob Bryla, who served as technical editor for this edition. His thoroughness,
corrections, and suggestions were greatly appreciated. Imagine being a technical editor on a
1400 page book covering such a range of content and you can begin to appreciate Bob’s task—
then do it while working on my schedule!
Thanks to my colleagues and friends, including Eyal Aronoff, John Beresniewicz, Steve
Bobrowski, Rachel Carmichael, Steven Feuerstein, Mike McDonnell, Marlene Theriault, Mike
Janesch, Craig Warman, and Vinny Smith. This book has benefited from the knowledge they
have shared, and I have benefited from their friendship and guidance.
Thanks to the folks at McGraw-Hill/Osborne who guided this product through its stages:
Scott Rogers, LeeAnn Pickrell, Athena Honore, Lisa McClain, and Jeremy Judson, and the others
at Osborne with whom I never directly worked. Thanks also to the Oracle component of Oracle
Press. This book would not have been possible without the earlier excellent work of George Koch
and Robert Muller.
Thanks to the writers and friends along the way: Jerry Gross; Jan Riess; Robert Meissner;
Marie Paretti; Br. Declan Kane, CFX; Br. William Griffin, CFX; Chris O’Neill; Cheryl Bittner;
Bill Fleming; and Mike Restuccia.
Thanks to the First State Oracle User Group board (Pete Silva, Phil Stewart, Earl Shaffer, and
Lori Kaupas) for its support ().
Special thanks to Sue, Emily, Rachel, Jane, and the rest of the home team. As always, this has
been a joint effort.
—Kevin Loney
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Preface
The Intriguing History of This Book
I
first encountered Oracle in 1982, in the process of evaluating database management
systems for a major commercial application that my company was preparing to design
and build. At its conclusion, our evaluation was characterized by
ComputerWorld
as
the single-most “grueling” study of DBMSs that had ever been conducted. The study
was so tough on the vendors whose products we examined that word of it made the
press as far away as New Zealand and publications as far afield as the
Christian Science Monitor
.
We began the study with 108 candidate companies, then narrowed the field to sixteen
finalists, including most of the major database vendors of the time, and all types of databases:
network, hierarchical, relational, and others. After the rigorous final round of questions, two
of the major vendors participating asked that the results of the study of their products never be
published. A salesman from a third vendor quit his job at the end of one of the sessions. We
knew how to ask tough questions.
Oracle, known then as Relational Software, Inc., had fewer than 25 employees at the time,
and only a few major accounts. Nevertheless, when the study was completed, we announced
Oracle as the winner. We declared that Oracle was technically the best product on the market,
and that the management team at RSI looked capable enough to carry the company forward
successfully. Our radical proclamation was made at a time when few people even knew what

the term relational meant, and those who did had very few positive things to say about it. Many
IS executives loudly criticized our conclusions and predicted that Oracle and the relational
database would go nowhere.
Oracle today is the largest database company, and the second largest software company in
the world. The relational database is now the world standard.
Koch Systems Corporation, the company I owned and ran at the time, became Oracle’s first
Valued Added Reseller. We developed the world’s first major commercial relational application,
a securities trading and accounting system called THESIS. This product was used by major banks
and corporations to manage their investment portfolios. Even IBM bought THESIS, and it allowed
Oracle to be installed at IBM headquarters in spite of vigorous internal opposition. After all, IBM
was the leading database company at the time, with IMS and DB2 as their flagship products.
Oracle was continuing to refine its young product, to understand the kinds of features and
functionality that would make it productive and useful in the business world, and our development
efforts at Koch Systems contributed to that refinement. Some of Oracle’s features were the direct
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results of requests that we made of Oracle’s developers, and our outspoken advocacy of an
end-user bias in application design and naming conventions has influenced a generation of
programmers who learned Oracle in our shop or read articles which we published.
All of this intimate involvement with the development and use of Oracle led us to an early
and unmatched expertise with the product and its capabilities. Since I have always loved sharing
discoveries and knowledge—to help shorten the learning time necessary with new technologies
and ideas, and save others the cost of making the same mistakes I did—I decided to turn what
we’d learned into a book.
Oracle: The Complete Reference
was conceived in 1988 to pull together all of the fundamental
commands and techniques used across the Oracle product line, as well as give solid guidance

in how to develop applications using Oracle and SQL. Part I of the book was aimed both at
developers and end-users, so that they could share a common language and understanding during
the application development process: developers and end users working side by side—a wild
concept when the book was first conceived.
Linda Allen, a respected literary agent in San Francisco, introduced me to Liz Fisher, then the
editor at McGraw-Hill/Osborne. Liz liked the idea very much. Contracts were drawn, and the first
edition was scheduled to be released in 1989. But a now-departed senior executive at McGraw-Hill
heard of the project and instantly canceled its development, pronouncing that Oracle is a flash in
the pan. It is going nowhere. A year later, when Oracle Corporation had again doubled in size and
the senior executive was gone, the effort was restarted, and the first edition finally arrived in 1990.
Almost immediately, it became the No. 1 book in its category, a position it has maintained
for over a decade.
In July of 1990, I was hired by Oracle to run its Applications Division. I became senior vice
president of the company and guided the division (with a lot of talented help) to worldwide success.
While at Oracle, I also introduced McGraw-Hill/Osborne to Oracle senior management, and
after opposition from an Oracle vice president who didn’t see any value in the idea (he’s no
longer with Oracle), Oracle Press was born.
Oracle Press is now the leading publisher of Oracle-based reference manuals in the world.
In 1992, Bob Muller, a former developer at both Koch Systems and Oracle, took over
responsibilities for technical updates to the book, as my duties at Oracle precluded any more
than editorial review of changes. This produced
Oracle7: The Complete Reference
. This was
Bob’s first published book, and he has since gone on to write several other popular books on
development and database design.
In 1994, I left Oracle to fulfill a long-held desire—full time ministry—and today I’m the pastor
of Church of the Resurrection () in West Chicago, Illinois. I continue
to write in publications as diverse as the
Wall Street Journal
and

Christianity Today
, and I’ve
recently published a book in England,
The Country Parson’s Advice to His Parishioner
, from
Monarch Books. I also sit on the board of directors of Apropos, a leading call center applications
company, but I no longer work in Oracle application development.
Also in 1994, Kevin Loney, a highly respected independent Oracle consultant and author
(), took over the updating and rewriting responsibilities for the third
edition of the book, and has continued ever since. He has contributed major new sections (such
as the Hitchhiker’s Guides, the PL/SQL, Java, and ORDBMS sections, among others), and fully
integrated new Oracle product features into all sections of the book. He has also integrated many
readers’ comments into the structure and content of the book, making its current form the product
of both its readers and its authors. Those efforts have allowed
Oracle: The Complete Reference
to
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stay at the top of its field and continue to be the single-most comprehensive guide to Oracle, still
unmatched in range, content, and authority. I am a real fan of Kevin’s and am most impressed by
his knowledge and thoroughness.
Oracle: The Complete Reference
is now available in eight languages, and is found on the
desks of developers and Oracle product users all over the world. Not only has it been No. 1 in
its category (with two editions out, it was once both No. 1 and No. 4), it has also been regularly
in the top 100 of
all
books sold through Amazon.com. At one point it was the No. 7 best-selling
book of all books sold in Brazil! Its reputation and enduring success are unparalleled in its
marketplace.
Like Oracle itself, the book has survived and prospered in spite of the recurring predictions of
failure from many quarters. Perhaps this brief history can be an encouragement to others who
face opposition but have a clear vision of what is needed in the years ahead.
As Winston Churchill said, “Never give in, never give in, never give in—in nothing great or
small, large or petty—never give in except to convictions of honor and good sense.”
George Byron Koch

Wheaton, Illinois
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Introduction
O
racle is the most widely used database in the world. It runs on virtually every
kind of computer. It functions virtually identically on all these machines,
so when you learn it on one, you can use it on any other. This fact makes
knowledgeable Oracle users and developers very much in demand, and
makes your Oracle knowledge and skills very portable.
Oracle documentation is thoroughgoing and voluminous, currently spanning multiple
CDs.
Oracle9i: The Complete Reference
is the first entity that has gathered all of the major Oracle
definitions, commands, functions, features, and products together in a single, massive core
reference—one volume that every Oracle user and developer can keep handy on his or her desk.
The audience for this book will usually fall into one of three categories:
■
An Oracle end user
Oracle can easily be used for simple operations such as entering
data and running standard reports. But such an approach would ignore its great power;
it would be like buying a high-performance racing car, and then pulling it around with
a horse. With the introduction provided in the first two sections of this book, even an
end user with little or no data processing background can become a proficient Oracle
user—generating ad hoc, English-language reports; guiding developers in the creation
of new features and functions; and improving the speed and accuracy of the real work
done in a business. The language of the book is simple, clear English without data processing
jargon, and with few assumptions about previous knowledge of computers or databases.
It will help beginners to become experts with an easy-to-follow format and numerous
real examples.
■
A developer who is new to Oracle
With as many volumes of documentation as Oracle

provides, finding a key command or concept can be a time-consuming effort. This book
attempts to provide a more organized and efficient manner of learning the essentials of
the product. The format coaches a developer new to Oracle quickly through the basic
concepts, covers areas of common difficulty, examines misunderstanding of the product
and relational development, and sets clear guidelines for effective application building.
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An experienced Oracle developer
As with any product of great breadth and sophistication,
there are important issues about which little, if anything, has been published. Knowledge
comes through long experience, but is often not transferred to others. This book delves
deeply into many such subject areas (such as precedence in UNION, INTERSECTION,
and MINUS operators; inheritance and CONNECT BY; eliminating NOT IN with an
outer join; using external tables; implementing the object-relational and Java options;
and many others). The text also reveals many common misconceptions and suggests
rigorous guidelines for naming conventions, application development techniques, and
design and performance issues.
How This Book Is Organized
There are seven major parts to this book and a CD-ROM.
Part I is an introduction to “Critical Database Concepts.” These chapters are essential reading

for any Oracle user, new or veteran, from key-entry clerk to database administrator. They establish
the common vocabulary that both end users and developers can use to coherently and intelligently
share concepts and assure the success of any development effort. This introductory section is
intended for both developers and end users of Oracle. It explores the basic ideas and vocabulary
of relational databases and points out the dangers, classical errors, and profound opportunities in
relational database applications.
Part II, “SQL and SQL*Plus,” teaches the theory and techniques of relational database systems
and applications, including SQL (Structured Query Language) and SQLPLUS. The section begins
with relatively few assumptions about data processing knowledge on the part of the reader, and
then advances step by step, through some very deep issues and complex techniques. The method
very consciously uses clear, conversational English, with unique and interesting examples, and
strictly avoids the use of undefined terms or jargon. This section is aimed primarily at developers
and end users who are new to Oracle, or need a quick review of certain Oracle features. It moves
step by step through the basic capabilities of SQL and Oracle’s interactive query facility, SQLPLUS.
When you’ve completed this section you should have a thorough understanding of all SQL key
words, functions, and operators. You should be able to produce complex reports, create tables,
and insert, update, and delete data from an Oracle database.
The later chapters of Part II provide some very advanced methods in SQLPLUS, Oracle’s
simple, command-line interface, and in-depth descriptions of the new and very powerful features
of Oracle. This is intended for developers who are already familiar with Oracle, and especially
those familiar with previous versions of Oracle, but who have discovered needs they couldn’t
readily fill. Some of these techniques are previously unpublished and, in some cases, have been
thought impossible. The tips and advanced techniques covered here demonstrate how to use
Oracle in powerful and creative ways. These include taking advantage of distributed database
capabilities, loading data files, and performing advanced text-based searches. They also include
the latest features, such as external tables, flashback queries, and new datatypes and functions.
Part III, “PL/SQL,” provides coverage of PL/SQL. The topics include a review of PL/SQL
structures, plus triggers, stored procedures, and packages.
Part IV, “Object-Relational Databases,” provides extensive coverage of object-oriented
features such as abstract datatypes, methods, object views, object tables, nested tables, varying

arrays, and large objects.
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Introduction
xv
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Blind Folio FM:xv
Part V, “Java in Oracle,” provides coverage of the Java features in the Oracle database. This
section includes an overview of Java syntax as well as chapters on JDBC and SQLJ and Java
stored procedures.
Part VI contains several “hitchhiker” guides: to the data dictionary, database optimizer,
Oracle9i Application Server, database administration, and Oracle’s XML implementation. These
guides provide an overview of areas that developers may need to use in their application
development and administration.
Part VII, the “Alphabetical Reference,” is the complete reference for the Oracle server—a
book unto itself. Reading the introductory pages to this reference will make its use much more
effective and understandable. This section contains references for most major Oracle commands,
keywords, products, features and functions, with extensive cross-referencing of topics. The
reference is intended for use by both developers and users of Oracle but assumes some familiarity
with the products. To make the most productive use of any of the entries, it would be worthwhile
to read the first four pages of the reference. These explain in greater detail what is and is not
included and how to read the entries.
The CD that accompanies this book contains a special electronic edition of
Oracle9i: The
Complete Reference
. Now, with this electronic version, you can easily store all of the valuable

information contained in the book on your PC while the print version of the book remains in your
office or home. The CD also contains the table creation statements and row insertions for all of
the tables used in this book. For anyone learning Oracle, having these tables available on your
own Oracle ID, or on a practice ID, will make trying or expanding on the examples very easy.
Style Conventions Used in This Book
Except when testing for an equality (such as, City = 'CHICAGO'), Oracle ignores upper- and
lowercase. In the formal listing of commands, functions, and their format (syntax) in the Alphabetical
Reference, this book will follow Oracle’s documentation style of putting all SQL in UPPERCASE,
and all variables in lowercase italic.
Most users and developers of Oracle, however, never key all their SQL in uppercase. It’s
too much trouble, and Oracle doesn’t care anyway. This book, therefore, will follow somewhat
different style conventions in its examples (as opposed to its formal command and function
formats, mentioned earlier), primarily for readability. They are as follows:
■
Italic and boldface will not be used in example listings.
■
select, from, where, order by, having, and group by will be in lowercase.
■
SQLPLUS commands will be in lowercase: column, set, save, ttitle, and so on.
■
SQL operators and functions will be in uppercase, such as IN, BETWEEN, UPPER,
SOUNDEX, and so on.
■
Columns will use upper- and lowercase, as in Feature, EastWest, Longitude, and so on.
■
Tables will be in uppercase, such as in NEWSPAPER, WEATHER, LOCATION, and so on.
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PART
I
Critical Database
Concepts
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CHAPTER
1
Sharing Knowledge
and Success
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F
or an Oracle9i application to be built and used rapidly and effectively, users and
developers must share a common language and a deep and common understanding
of both the business application and the Oracle tools.
This is a new approach to development. Historically, the systems analyst
studied the business requirements and built an application to meet those needs. The
user was involved only in describing the business and, perhaps, in reviewing the functionality
of the application after it was completed.
With the new tools and approaches available, and especially with Oracle, applications
can be built that more closely match the needs and work habits of the business—but only if a
common understanding exists.
This book is aimed specifically at fostering this understanding, and at providing the means for
both user and developer to exploit Oracle’s full potential. The end user will know details about the
business that the developer will not comprehend. The developer will understand internal functions
and features of Oracle and the computer environment that will be too technically complex for the
end user. But these areas of exclusive expertise will be minor compared with what both end users
and developers can share in using Oracle. There is a remarkable opportunity here.
It is no secret that “business” people and “systems” people have been in conflict for decades.
Reasons for this include differences in knowledge, culture, professional interests and goals, and the
alienation that simple physical separation between groups can often produce. To be fair, this
syndrome is not peculiar to data processing. The same thing occurs between people in accounting,
personnel, or senior management, as members of each group gather apart from other groups on a

separate floor or in a separate building or city. Relations between the individuals from one group
and another become formalized, strained, and abnormal. Artificial barriers and procedures that
stem from this isolationism become established, and these also contribute to the syndrome.
This is all very well, you say, and may be interesting to sociologists, but what does it have to
do with Oracle?
Because Oracle isn’t cloaked in arcane language that only systems professionals can
comprehend, it fundamentally changes the nature of the relationship between business and
systems people
. Anybody can understand it. Anybody can use it. Information that previously was
trapped in computer systems until someone in systems created a new report and released it now
is accessible, instantly, to a business person, simply by typing an English query. This changes the
rules of the game.
Where Oracle is used, it has radically improved the understanding between the two camps,
has increased their knowledge of one another, and has even begun to normalize relations
between them. This has also produced superior applications and end results.
Since its first release, Oracle has been based on the easily understood relational model
(explained shortly), so nonprogrammers can readily understand what Oracle does and how it
does it. This makes it approachable and unimposing.
Furthermore, Oracle was created to run identically on virtually any kind of computer. Thus, it
doesn’t matter which manufacturer sold you your equipment; Oracle works on it. These features
all contributed directly to the profound success of the product and the company.
In a marketplace populated by computer companies with “proprietary” hardware,
“proprietary” operating systems, “proprietary” databases, and “proprietary” applications, Oracle
gives business users and systems departments new control over their lives and futures. They are
no longer bound to the database product of a single hardware vendor. Oracle runs on nearly
every kind of computer. This is a basic revolution in the workplace and in application
development, with consequences that will extend far into the future.
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Some individuals neither accept nor understand this yet, nor do they realize just how vital it
is that the dated and artificial barriers between “users” and “systems” continue to fall. But the
advent of cooperative development will profoundly affect applications and their usefulness.
However, many application developers have fallen into an easy trap with Oracle: carrying
forward unhelpful methods from previous-generation system designs. There is a lot to unlearn.
Many of the techniques (and limitations) that were indispensable to a previous generation of
systems are not only unnecessary in designing with Oracle; they are positively counterproductive.
In the process of explaining Oracle, the burden of these old habits and approaches must be lifted.
Refreshing new possibilities are available.
Throughout this book, the intent will be to explain Oracle in a way that is clear and simple,
in terms that both users and developers can understand and share. Outdated or inappropriate
design and management techniques will be exposed and replaced.
The Cooperative Approach
Oracle is an
object-relational database.
A relational database is an extremely simple way of
thinking about and managing the data used in a business. It is nothing more than a collection of
tables of data. We all encounter tables every day: weather reports, stock charts, sports scores.
These are all tables, with column headings and rows of information simply presented. Even so,
the relational approach can be sophisticated and powerful enough for even the most complex of
businesses. An object-relational database supports all of the features of a relational database
while also supporting object-oriented concepts and features.
Unfortunately, the very people who can benefit most from a relational database—the

business users—usually understand it the least. Application developers, who must build systems
that these users need to do their jobs, often find relational concepts difficult to explain in simple
terms. A common language is needed to make this cooperative approach work.
The first two parts of this book explain, in readily understandable terms, just what a relational
database is and how to use it effectively in business. It may seem that this discussion is for the
benefit of “users” only. An experienced relational application designer may be inclined to skip
these early chapters and simply use the book as a primary source Oracle reference. Resist that
temptation! Although much of this material may seem like elementary review, it is an opportunity
for an application designer to acquire a clear, consistent, and workable terminology with which
to talk to users about their needs and how these needs might be quickly met. If you are an
application designer, this discussion may also help you unlearn some unnecessary and probably
unconscious design habits. Many of these habits will be uncovered in the course of introducing
the relational approach. It is important to realize that even Oracle’s power can be diminished
considerably by design methods appropriate only to nonrelational development.
If you are an end user, understanding the basic ideas behind object-relational databases will
help you express your needs cogently to application developers and comprehend how those
needs can be met. An average person working in a business role can go from beginner to expert
in short order. With Oracle, you’ll have the power to get and use information, have hands-on
control over reports and data, and possess a clear-eyed understanding of what the application
does and how it does it. Oracle gives you, the user, the ability to control an application or query
facility expertly and
know
whether you are getting all the available flexibility and power.
You also will be able to unburden programmers of their least favorite task: writing new
reports. In large organizations, as much as 95 percent of all programming backlog is composed
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of new report requests. Because you can write your own reports, in minutes instead of months,
you will be delighted to have the responsibility.
Everyone Has “Data”
A library keeps lists of members, books, and fines. The owner of a baseball card collection keeps
track of players’ names, dates, averages, and card values. In any business, certain pieces of
information about customers, products, prices, financial status, and so on must be saved. These
pieces of information are called
data
.
Information philosophers like to say that data is just data until it is organized in a meaningful
way, at which point it becomes “information.” If this is true, then Oracle is also a means of easily
turning data into information. Oracle will sort through and manipulate data to reveal pieces of
knowledge hidden there—such as totals, buying trends, or other relationships—which are as yet
undiscovered. You will learn how to make these discoveries. The main point here is that you
have data, and you do three basic things with it: acquire it, store it, and retrieve it.
Once you’ve achieved the basics, you can make computations with data, move it from one
place to another, or modify it. This is called
processing
, and, fundamentally, it involves the same
three steps that affect how information is organized.
You could do all of this with a cigar box, pencil, and paper, but as the volume of data
increases, your tools tend to change. You may use a file cabinet, calculators, pencils, and paper.
While at some point it makes sense to make the leap to computers, your tasks remain the same.
A
relational database management system

(often called an RDBMS for short) such as Oracle
gives you a way of doing these tasks in an understandable and reasonably uncomplicated way.
Oracle basically does three things:
■
Lets you put data into it
■
Keeps the data
■
Lets you get the data out and work with it
Figure 1-1 shows how simple this process is.
Oracle supports this in-keep-out approach and provides clever tools that allow you
considerable sophistication in how the data is captured, edited, modified, and put in; how
you keep it securely; and how you get it out to manipulate and report on it.
An
object-relational database management system (ORDBMS)
extends the capabilities
of the RDBMS to support object-oriented concepts. You can use Oracle as an RDBMS or take
advantage of its object-oriented features.
The Familiar Language of Oracle
The information stored in Oracle is kept in tables—much like the weather table from a daily
newspaper shown in Figure 1-2.
This table has four columns: City, Temperature, Humidity, and Condition. It also has a row
for each city from Athens to Sydney. Last, it has a table name: WEATHER.
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These are the three major characteristics of most tables you’ll see in print:
columns, rows,
and a

name.
The same is true in a relational database. Anyone can understand the words and the
ideas they represent, because the words used to describe the parts of a table in an Oracle
database are the same words used in everyday conversation. The words have no special,
unusual, or esoteric meanings. What you see is what you get.
Tables of Information
Oracle stores information in tables, an example of which is shown in Figure 1-3. Each of these
tables has one or more columns. The column headings, such as City, Temperature, Humidity,
and Condition shown in Figure 1-3, describe the kind of information kept in the column. The
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WEATHER
City Temperature Humidity Condition
Athens 97 89 Sunny
Chicago 66 88 Rain
Lima 45 79 Rain
Manchester 66 98 Fog
Paris 81 62 Cloudy
Sparta 74 63 Cloudy
Sydney 29 12 Snow
FIGURE 1-2.
A weather table from a newspaper
FIGURE 1-1.
What Oracle does with data
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information is stored row after row (city after city). Each unique set of data, such as the
temperature, humidity, and condition for the city of Manchester, gets its own row.
Oracle avoids specialized, academic terminology in order to make the product more
approachable. In research papers on relational theory, a column may be called an “attribute,” a
row may be called a “tuple” (rhymes with “couple”), and a table may be called an “entity.” For
an end user, however, these terms are confusing. More than anything, they are an unnecessary
renaming of things for which there are already commonly understood names in our shared
everyday language. Oracle takes advantage of this shared language, and developers can too. It is
imperative to recognize the wall of mistrust and misunderstanding that the use of unnecessary
technical jargon produces. Like Oracle, this book will stick with “tables,” “columns,” and “rows.”
Structured Query Language
Oracle was the first company to release a product that used the English-based
Structured Query
Language,
or
SQL
. This language allows end users to extract information themselves, without
using a systems group for every little report.
Oracle’s query language has structure, just as English or any other language has structure. It
has rules of grammar and syntax, but they are basically the normal rules of careful English speech
and can be readily understood.
SQL, pronounced either “sequel” or “S.Q.L.,” is an astonishingly capable tool, as you will
see. Using it does not require any programming experience.
Here’s an example of how you might use SQL. If someone asked you to select from the
preceding WEATHER table the city where the humidity is 89, you would quickly respond
“Athens.” If you were asked to select cities where the temperature is 66, you would respond
“Chicago and Manchester.”
Oracle is able to answer these same questions, nearly as easily as you are, and in response to

simple queries very much like the ones you were just asked. The keywords used in a query to
Oracle are select, from, where, and order by. They are clues to Oracle to help it understand your
request and respond with the correct answer.
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WEATHER
City Temperature Humidity Condition

ATHENS 97 89 SUNNY
CHICAGO 66 88 RAIN
LIMA 45 79 RAIN
MANCHESTER 66 98 FOG
PARIS 81 62 CLOUDY
SPARTA 74 63 CLOUDY
SYDNEY 29 12 SNOW
FIGURE 1-3.
A WEATHER table from Oracle
A row
Table name
A column
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A Simple Oracle Query
If Oracle had the example WEATHER table in its database, your first query (with a semicolon to

tell Oracle to execute the command) would be simply this:
select City from WEATHER where Humidity = 89 ;
Oracle would respond:
City

ATHENS
Your second query would be this:
select City from WEATHER where Temperature = 66 ;
For this query, Oracle would respond:
City

MANCHESTER
CHICAGO
As you can see, each of these queries uses the keywords select, from, and where. What
about order by? Suppose you wanted to see all the cities listed in order by temperature. You’d
simply type this:
select City, Temperature from WEATHER
order by Temperature ;
and Oracle would instantly respond with this:
City Temperature

SYDNEY 29
LIMA 45
MANCHESTER 66
CHICAGO 66
SPARTA 74
PARIS 81
ATHENS 97
Oracle has quickly reordered your table by temperature. (This table lists lowest temperatures
first; in a later chapter, you’ll learn how to specify whether you want low numbers or high

numbers first.)
There are many other questions you can ask with Oracle’s query facility, but these examples
show how easy it is to obtain the information you need from an Oracle database in the form that
will be most useful to you. You can build complicated requests from simple pieces of information,
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but the method used to do this will always be understandable. For instance, you can combine the
where and order by keywords, both simple by themselves, to tell Oracle to select those cities
where the temperature is greater than 80, and show them in order by increasing temperature.
You would type this:
select City, Temperature from WEATHER
where Temperature > 80
order by Temperature ;
and Oracle would instantly respond with this:
City Temperature

PARIS 81
ATHENS 97
Or, to be even more specific, request cities where the temperature is greater than 80 and the
humidity is less than 70:
select City, Temperature, Humidity from WEATHER
where Temperature > 80

and Humidity < 70
order by Temperature ;
and Oracle would respond with this:
City Temperature Humidity

PARIS 81 62
Why It Is Called “Relational”
Notice that the WEATHER table lists cities from several countries, and some countries have more
than one city listed. Suppose you need to know in which country a particular city is located. You
could create a separate LOCATION table of cities and their countries, as shown in Figure 1-4.
For any city in the WEATHER table, you can simply look at the LOCATION table, find the
name in the City column, look over to the Country column in the same row, and see the
country’s name.
These are two completely separate and independent tables. Each contains its own information
in columns and rows. They have one significant thing in common: the City column. For each city
name in the WEATHER table, there is an identical city name in the LOCATION table.
For instance, what is the current temperature, humidity, and condition in an Australian city?
Look at the two tables, figure it out, and then resume reading this.
How did you solve it? You found just one AUSTRALIA entry, under the Country column, in
the LOCATION table. Next to it, in the City column of the same row, was the name of the city,
SYDNEY. You took this name, SYDNEY, and then looked for it in the City column of the
WEATHER table. When you found it, you moved across the row and found the Temperature,
Humidity, and Condition: 29, 12, and SNOW.
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Even though the tables are independent, you can easily see that they are related. The city
name in one table is
related
to the city name in the other (see Figure 1-5). This relationship is the
basis for the name
relational
database.
This is the basic idea of a relational database (sometimes called a
relational model
). Data is
stored in tables. Tables have columns, rows, and names. Tables can be related to each other if
each has a column with a common type of information.
That’s it. It’s as simple as it seems.
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LOCATION
City Country
WEATHER
ATHENS GREECE
CHICAGO UNITED STATES
City Temperature Humidity Condition CONAKRY GUINEA
LIMA PERU
ATHENS 97 89 SUNNY MADRAS INDIA

CHICAGO 66 88 RAIN MADRID SPAIN
LIMA 45 79 RAIN MANCHESTER ENGLAND
MANCHESTER 66 98 FOG MOSCOW RUSSIA
PARIS 81 62 CLOUDY PARIS FRANCE
SPARTA 74 63 CLOUDY ROME ITALY
SYDNEY 29 12 SNOW SHENYANG CHINA
SPARTA GREECE
SYDNEY AUSTRALIA
TOKYO JAPAN
FIGURE 1-4.
WEATHER and LOCATION tables
LOCATION
City Country
WEATHER
ATHENS GREECE
CHICAGO UNITED STATES
City Temperature Humidity Condition CONAKRY GUINEA
LIMA PERU
ATHENS 97 89 SUNNY MADRAS INDIA
CHICAGO 66 88 RAIN MADRID SPAIN
LIMA 45 79 RAIN MANCHESTER ENGLAND
MANCHESTER 66 98 FOG MOSCOW RUSSIA
PARIS 81 62 CLOUDY PARIS FRANCE
SPARTA 74 63 CLOUDY ROME ITALY
SYDNEY 29 12 SNOW SHENYANG CHINA
SPARTA GREECE
SYDNEY AUSTRALIA
TOKYO JAPAN
FIGURE 1-5.
The relationship between the WEATHER and LOCATION tables

Relationship
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