chemical engineers handbook, perry vol 1

For the detailed contents of any section, consult the title page of
that section. See also the alphabetical index in the back of the
handbook.
Section
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Conversion Factors and Mathematical Symbols Jam£s 0. Maloney
Physical and Chemical Data Peter E. Liley, George H. Thomson, D. G. Friend,
Thomas E. Daubert, Evan Buck
Mathematics Bruce A. Finlayson, Jam£s F Davis, Arthur W Westerberg,
Yoshiyuki Yamashita
Thermodynamics Hendrick C. Van Ness, Michael M. Abbott
Heat and Mass Transfer Jam£s G. Knudsen, Hoyt C. Hottel, Adel F Sarofim,
Phillip c. Wankat, Kent S. Knaebel
Fluid and Particle Dynamics Jam£s N. Tilton
Reaction Kinetics Stanley M. Walas
Process Control Thomas F Edgar; Cecil L. Smith, F Greg Shinskey,
George W Gassman, Paul J. Schajbuch, Thomas J. McAvoy, Dale E. Seborg
Process Economics F A. Holland, J. K Wilkinson
Transport and Storage of Fluids Meherwan 1'. Royce

Heat- Transfer Equipment Richard L. Shilling, Kenneth J. Bell,
Patrick M. Bemhagen, Thomas M. Flynn, Victor M. Goldschmidt,
Predrag S. Hrnjak, F C. Standiford, Klaus D. Timmerhaus
Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling, and Solids Drying Charles G. Moyers,
Glenn W Baldwin
Distillation J. D. Seader; Jeffrey J. Siirola, Scott D. Bamicki
vii
viii CONTENTS
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Gas Absorption and Gas-Liquid System Design james R. Fair; D. E. Steinmeyer;
W R. Penny, B. B. Crocker
Liquid-Liquid Extraction Operations and Equipment Lanny A. Robbins,
Roger W Cusack
Adsorption and Ion Exchange M. Douglas LeVan, Giorgio Carta, Carmen M. Yon
Gas-Solid Operations and Equipment Mel Pell, james B. Dunson
Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment Donald A. Dahlstrom, Richard C. Bennett,

Robert G, Emmet, Peter Harriott, Tim Laros, Wallace Leung, Shelby A. Miller;
Brooker Morey, james Y. Oldshue, George Priday, Charles E. Silverblatt,
I. Stephen Slottee, Iulian c. Smith
Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment Kalanadh V S. Sastry, Harrison Cooper;
Richard Hogg, T L. p Iespen, Frank Knoll, Bhupendra Parekh, Raj K Rajamani,
Thomas Sorenson, Ionel Wechsler; Chad McCleary, David B. Todd
Size Reduction and Size Enlargement Richard L. Snow, Terry Allen,
Bryan I. Ennis, james D. Litster
Handling of Bulk Solids and Packaging of Solids and Liquids Grantges I. Raymus
Alternative Separation Processes joseph D. Henry, Ir:, Michael E. Prudich,
William Eykamp, T Alan Hatton, Keith p johnston, Richard M. Lemert,
Robert Lemlich, Charles G. Moyers, john Newman, Herbert A. Pohl,
Kent Pollock, Michael p Thien
Chemical Reactors Stanley M. Walas
Biochemical Engineering Henry R. Bungay, Arthur E. Humphrey, George T Tsao
Waste Management Louis Theodore, Anthony I. Buonicore, John D. McKenna,
Irwin I. Kugelman, john s. Ieris, joseph I. Santoleri, Thomas R McGowan
Process Safety Stanley M. Englund, Frank T Bodurtha, Laurence G. Britton,
Daniel A. Crowl, Stanley Grossel, W G. High, Trevor A. Kletz, Robert W Ormsby,
john E. Owens, Carl A. Schiappa, Richard Siwek, Robert E. White,
David Winegardner; john L. Woodward
Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization Walter R Podolski,
Shelby A. Miller; David K Schnialzer; Anth9ny G. Fonseca, Vincent Conrad,
Douglas E. Lowenhaupt, john Bacha, Lawrence K Rath, Hsue-peng Loh,
EdgarB. Klunder; Howard G. McIlvried, III, Gary I. Stiegel,
Rameshwar D. Srivastava, Peter I. Loftus, Charles E. Benson,
john M. Wheeldon, Michael Krumpelt
Materials of Construction Oliver W Siebert, john G. Stoecker
Process Machinery Drives Heinz p Bloch, R. H. Daugherty, Fred K Geitner;
Meherwan p Boyce, judson S. Swearingen, Eric jennet, Michael M. Calistrat

Analysis of Plant Performance Colin S. Howat
Index follows Section 30.
29
30
xix
Preface to the
Seventh Edition
Perry’s has been an important source for chemical engineering information since 1934. The signif-
icant contributions of the editors who have guided preparation of the previous editions is acknowl-
edged. These include John H. Perry (first to third editions), Robert H. Perry (fourth to sixth
editions), Cecil H. Chilton (fourth and fifth editions), and Sidney D. Kirkpatrick (fourth edition).
Ray Genereaux (DuPont) contributed to each of the first six editions, and Shelby Miller (Argonne
National Lab) worked on the second through the seventh. The current editors directed both the
sixth and seventh editions. Advances in the technology of chemical engineering have continued as
we have moved toward the twenty-first century, and this edition will carry us into that century.
The Handbook has been reorganized. The first group of sections focuses on chemical and physi-
cal property data and the fundamentals of chemical engineering. The second and largest group of
sections deals with processes, generally divided as heat transfer operations, distillation, kinetics,
liquid-liquid, liquid-solid, and so on. The last group treats auxiliary information such as materials of
construction, process machinery drives, waste management, and process safety. All sections have
been revised and updated, and several sections are entirely new or have been extensively revised.
Examples of these sections are mathematics, mass transfer, reaction kinetics, process control, trans-
port and storage of fluids, alternative separation processes, heat-transfer equipment, chemical reac-
tions, liquid-solid operations and equipment, process safety, and analysis of plant performance.
Significant new information has also been included in the physical and chemical data sections.
Several section editors and contributors worked on this seventh edition, and these persons and
their affiliations are listed as a part of the front material. Approximately one-half of the section edi-
tors are fellows of the AIChE. In addition, the following chemical engineering students at the Uni-
versity of Kansas assisted in the preparation of the index: Jason Canter, Pau Ying Chong, Mei Ling
Chuah, Li Phoon Hor, Siew Pouy Ng, Francis J. Orzulak, Scott C. Renze, Page B. Surbaugh, and

Stephen F. Weller. Shari L. Gladman and Sarah Smith provided extensive secretarial assistance.
Much of Bob Perry’s work carries over into this edition and his influence is both recognized and
remembered.
DON W. GREEN
JAMES O. MALONEY
University of Kansas
April, 1997
McGraw-Hill
New York
San Francisco
Washington, D.C.
Auckland
Bogotá
Caracas
Lisbon
London
Madrid
Mexico City
Milan
Montreal
New Delhi
San Juan
Singapore
Sydney
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Toronto
Prepared by a staff of specialists
under the editorial direction of
Late Editor
Robert H. Perry

Editor
Don W. Green
Deane E. Ackers Professor of Chemical
and Petroleum Engineering,
University of Kansas
Associate Editor
James O. Maloney
Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering,
University of Kansas
PE
RRY’S
CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS’
HANDBOOK
SEVENTH
EDITION
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Perry’s chemical engineers’ handbook. — 7th ed. / prepared by a staff
of specialists under the editorial direction of late editor Robert H.
Perry : editor, Don W. Green : associate editor, James O’Hara
Maloney.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-07-049841-5 (alk. paper)
1. Chemical engineering—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Perry,
Robert H., date. II. Green, Don W. III. Maloney, James O.
TP151.P45 1997
660—dc21 96-51648
CIP
Copyright © 1997, 1984, 1973, 1963, 1950, 1941, 1934 by The McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc. Copyright renewed 1962, 1969 by Robert H. Perry.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the
United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data
base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the pub-
lisher.
1234567890 DOW/DOW 90210987
ISBN 0-07-049841-5
INTERNATIONAL EDITION
Copyright © 1997. Exclusive rights by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-exported from the
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When ordering this title, use ISBN 0-07-115448-5.
The sponsoring editors for this book were Zoe Foundotos and Robert
Esposito, the editing supervisor was Marc Campbell, and the production
supervisor was Pamela A. Pelton. It was set in Caledonia by North Market
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Printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company.
This book was printed on acid-free paper.
Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-
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able. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the
accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and
neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors,
omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work
is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors
are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering
or other professional services. If such services are required, the assis-

tance of an appropriate professional should be sought.
Michael M. Ahbott, Ph.D., Howard P. Isermann Department of Chemical Engineering, Rens-
selaer Polytechnic Institute; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 4, Ther-
modynamics)
Terry Allen, Ph.D., Senior Research Associate (retired), Du~ont Central Research and Devel-
opment \Section 20, Size Reduction and Size Enlargement)
John D. Dacha, Ph.D., Consulting Scientist, Chevron Products Company; Member, ASTM
(American Society for TestiI1cg and Materials), Committee D02 on Petroleufll Products and Lubri"-
cants; American Chemical Society; International Association for Stability and Handling of Liquid
Fuels, Steering Committee (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Glenn w. Baldwin, M.S., P.E., Staff Engineer, Union Carbide Corporatio~; Membe!, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 12, Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling, and Solids Drying)
Scott D. Barnicki, Ph.D., Senior Resear~h Chemical Engineer, Eastman Chemical Company
(Section 13, Distillation)
Kenneth J. Bell, Ph.D., P.E., Regents Professor Emeritus, School of Chemical Engineering,
Oklahoma State University; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 11,
Heat- Transfer Equipment)
Richard C. Bennett, B.S., Ch.E., Registered Professional Engineer, Illinois; Member, Ameri-
can Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE); President of Crystallization Technology, Inc.; FoJ-
mer Presideptof Swenson Process Equipme~t, Inc. (Section 13, Liquid-Solid Operations and
Equipment)
Charles E. Benson, M.Eng., M.E., Director, Combustion Technology, Arthur D. Little, lIic.;
Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Comb~tion Institute (Section 27, Energy
Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Patrick M. Bernhagen, P.E., B.S.M.E., Senior Mechanical Engineer, Foster wheeler USA Cor-
poration, American Society of Mechanical EngineeFs ( Section 11, Heat -Transfer Equipment) c
ix
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORSx

Heinz P. Bloch, P.E., B.S.M.E., M.S.M.E., Consulting Engineer, Process Machinery Consult-
ing; American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vibration Institute; Registered Professional Engi-
neer (New Jersey, Texas) (Section 29, Process Machinery Drives)
Frank T. Bodurtha, Sc.D., E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Co., Inc. (retired), Wilmington,
Delaware (retired); Consultant, Frank T. Bodurtha, Inc. (Section 26, Process Safety)
Meherwan P. Boyce, P.E., Ph.D., President, Boyce Engineering International; ASME Fellow;
Registered Professional Engineer (Texas, Oklahoma) (Section 10, Transport and Storage of Fluids;
Section 29, Process Mochinery Drives),
Laurence G. Britton, Ph.D., Research Scientist, Union Carbide Corporation (Section 26,
Process Safety)
Evan Buck, M.S.Ch.E., Manager, Thermophysical Property Skill Center, Central Technology,
Union Carbide Corporation (Section 2, Physical and Chemical Data)
Henry R. Bungay, P.E., Ph.D., Professor of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Rens-
selaer Polytechnic Institute; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American
Chemical Society, American Society for Microbiology, American Society for Engineering Educa-
tion, Society for General Microbiology (Section 24, Biochemical Engineering)
Anthony I. Buonicore, M.Ch.E., P.E., Diplomate AAEE, CEO, Environmental Data
Resources, Inc.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Air and Waste Management
Association (Section 25, Waste Management)
Michael M. Calistrat, B.S.M.E., M.S.M.E., Owner, Michael Calistrat and Associates; Member,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (Section 29, Process Machinery Drives)
,
Giorgio Carta, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, U niversity of Virginia;
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, International
Adsorption Society (Section 16, Adsorption and Ion Exchange)
Vincent Conrad, Ph.D., Group Leader, Technical Services Development Laboratory,CONSOL,
Inc.; Member, Spectroscopy Society of Pittsburgh, Society for Analytical Chemistry of Pittsburgh,
Society for Applied Spectroscopy (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Harrison Cooper, ph.D., Harrison R. Cooper Systems, Inc., Salt take City, Utah (Section 19,
Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)

B. B. Crocker, S.M., P.E., Consulting Chemical Engineer; Fellow, American Institute of chem-
ical Engineers; Member, Air Pollution Control Association (Section 14, Gas Absorption and Gas-
Liquid System Design)
Daniel A. Crowl, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Chemical Engineering Depart-
ment, Michigan Technological University; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
American Chemical Society (Section 26, Process Safety)
Roger W. Cusack, Vice President, Glitsch Process Systems, Inc.; Member, American Insi:itute of
Chemical Engineers (Section 15, Liquid-Liquid Extraction Operations and Equipment)
Donald A. Dahlstrom, Ph.D., Research Professor, Chemical and Fuels Engineering Depart-
ment and Metallurgical Engineering Department, University of Utah; Member, National Acad-
emy of Engineering, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), American Chemical
Society (ACS), Society of Mining, Metallurgic Exploration (SME) of the American Institute of
Mining, Metallurgical and Petrol~um Engine()r~ (AIME), AmericaI) Society of Engineering Edu-
cation (Section 18, Liquid-Solid °?erations and Equipment)
Thomas E. Daubert, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylva-
nia State University (Section 2, Physic~ and Chemical Data)
R. H. Daugherty, Ph.D., Consulting Engineer, Research Center~ Reliance Electric Company;
Member, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (Section 29, Process Machinery Drives)
xi
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
James F. DaVis, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Ohio State University (Section 3,
Mathematics)
James B. Dunson, B.S., Principal Consultant, E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.; Member Amer-
icanlnstitute of Chemical Engineers; Registered Professional Engineer \Delaware) (Section 17,
Gas-Solid Operation and Equipment)
Thomas F. Edgar, Ph.p., Professor of Chemical Engineering, y niversity o£Texas, Austin, Texas
(Section8, Process Control)
Robert C. Emmet, Jr., B,.5., Ch.E., Senior Process Consultant, EIMCO Process Equipment
Co.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers (AIME), Society of Mining, Metallurgical and Explo-

ration Engineers (SME) (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Stanley M. Englund, M.S., Ch.E., Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Process
Consultant, The Dow Chemical Company (retired) (Section 26, Process Safety)
BryanJ. Ennis, Ph.D., President, E&G Associates, and Adjunct Professor of Chemical Engi-
neering; Vanderbilt University; Member and Chair of Powder Technology Programming Group of
the Particle Technology Forum, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 20, Size
Reduction and Size Enlargement)
William Eyka~p, Ph.D., Adjunc~ Professor of Chemical Engineering, Tufts University; For-
merly President, Koch Membrane Systems; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
American Chemical Society, American Association for the Advancement of Science, North Amer-
ican Membrane Society, European Society of Membrane Science and Technology (Section 22,
Altemative Separation Processes)
James R. Fair, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas; National
Academy of Engineering; Fello'Y, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member, American
Chemical Society, American S,ociety for Engineering Education, N atio~al Society of Professional
.,
Engineers (Section 14, Gas Ab~orption and Gas-Liquid System Design)
,
Bruce A. Finlayson, Ph.D., Rehnberg Professor and Chair, Department of Chemical Engineering,
University ofWashington; Member, National Academy of Engineering (Section 3, Mathematics)
Thomas M. FI~n, Ph.D" P.E., Cryogenic Engineer, President CRYOCO, Louisville, CoJorado;
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 11, Heat-Trans£er Equipment)
Anthony G.,Fonseca, Ph,P., Director, Coal Utiltzation, CONSOL, Inc,; Member, American
Chemical Society, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Extraction ( Section 27, Energy Resources,
Conversion, and Utilization)
D. G. Friend, National Institutes of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado (Section 2,
Physical and Chemical Data)
George W. Gassman, B.S.M.E., Senior Research Specialist, Final Control Systems, Fisher Con-
trols International, Inc., Marshalltown, Iowa (Section 8, Process Control)
Fred K. Geitner, P.Eng., B.S.M.E., M.S.M.E., Consulting Engineer; Registered Professional

Engineer (Ontario, Canada) (Section 29, Process Machinery Drives)
Victor M. Goldschmidt, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana (Section 11, Heat-Trallsfer Equipment)
Stanley Grossel, President, Process Safety & Design, Inc.; Fellow, American Institute of chem-
ical Engineers; Member, American Chemical Society; Member, The Combustion Institute; Mem-
ber,Explosion Protection Systems Committee of NFPA (Section 26, Process Safety)
Peter Harriott, Ph.D., Professor, School of Chemical Engineering, Cornell University; Member,
American Institute of Chemical Engineering, American Chemical Society (ACS) (Section 18;
Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
xii
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
T. Alan Hatton, Ph.D., Ralph Landau Professor and Director of the DavidH. Koch School of
Chemical Engineering Practice, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Founding Fellow, Ameri-
can Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering; Member. American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, American Chemical Society, International Association of Colloid and Interface scien-
tists, American Association for the Advancement of Science, N eutt:on Scattering Society of Amer-
ica (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
Joseph D. Henry, Jr., Ph.D., P.E., Senior Fellow, Department of Engineering and Public Pol-
icy, Carnegie Mellon University; Member, American InStitute of Chemical Engineers, American
Society for Engineering Education (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
W. G. High, C.Eng., B.Sc., F.I.Mech.E., Burgoyne Consultants Ltd., W. Yorks, England (Sec-
tion 26, Process Safety)
Richard Hogg, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Mineral Engineering, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
F. A. Holland, D.Sc., Ph.D., Consultant in Heat Energy Recycling; Research Professor, Univer-
sity of Salford, England; Fellow; Institution of Chemical Engineers, London (Section 9, Process
Economics)
Hoyt C. Hottel, S.M., Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology; Member, National Academy of Sciences, American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Combustion Institute

(Section 5, Heat and Mass Transfer)
Colin S.Howat, Ph.D., P.E., John E. & Winfred E. Sharp Professor, Department of Chemical and
Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers;
Member, American Society of Engineering Education (Section 30, Analysis ofPlant Performance)
Predrag S. Hrnjak, Ph.D., V.Res., Assistant Professor, University of Illinois at Urbana cham-
paign and Principal Investigator-U. of I. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Center, Assistant
Professor, University of Belgrade; Member, International Institute of Refrigeration, American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (Section 11, Heat-Transfer Equipment)
Arthur E. Humphrey, Ph.D., Retired, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State
University; Member, U.S. National Academy of Engineering, American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, American Chemical Society, American Society for Microbiology (Section 24, Bio-
chemical Engineering)
Eric Jenett, M.S.Ch.E., Manager, Process Engineering, Brown & Root, Inc.; Associate Member,
AIChE, Project Management Institute; Registered Professional Engineer (Texas) (Section 29,
Process Machinery Drives)
John S. Jeris, Sc.D., P.E., Professor of Environmental Engineering, Manhattan College; Envi-
ronmental Consultant; Member, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Feder-
ation Section Director (Section 25, Waste Management)
T. L. P. Jespen, M.S., MiD. Proc;, Metallurgical Engineer, Basic, Inc;; Gabbs, Nevada (Section
19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Keith P. Johnston, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas (Austin);
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, U niversity of
Texas Separations Research Program (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
Trevor A. Kletz, D.Sc., Senior Visiting Research Fellow, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Loughborough University, U.K.; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Royal Acad-
emy of Engineers (U .K.), Institution of Chemical Enginee!s (U .K.), and Royal Society of chem-
istry (U.K.) (Section 26, Process Safety)
Edgar B. Klunder, Ph.D., Project Manager, Energy Technol<?gy Center (Pittsburgh), U,~.
Department of Energy (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Kent S. Knaebel, Ph.D., President, Adsorption Research, Inc.; Member, American Il;lstitute of
Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, International Adsorption Society. Professional
Engineer (Ohio) (Section 5, Heat and Mass Transfer)
Frank Knoll, M.S., Min. Proc., President, Carpco, Inc., Jacksonville, Florida (Section 19, Solid-
Solid Operations and Equipment)
James G.Knudsen, Ph.D.,Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering, Oregon State univer-
sity; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society; Registered
Professional Engineer (Oregon) (Section 5, Heat and Mass Transfer)
Michael Krumpelt, Ph.D., Manager, Fuel Cell TechnolQgy, Argonne National Laboratory;
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Electrochemi-
cal Society (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Irwin J. Kugelman, Sc.D., Professor of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University; Member, American
Society of Civil Engineering, Water Environmental Federation (Section 25, Waste Management)
rim Laros, M.S. Mineral Processing, Senior Process Consultant, EIMCO Process Equipment
Co,; Member, Society of Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (SME of AIME) (Section 18,
Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Richard M. Lemert, Ph.D., P.E., Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of
Toledo; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Society
qf Mining Engineers, American Society for Engineering Education (Section 22, Alternative Sepa-
ration Processes)
Robert Lemlich, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Chemical Engineering Emeritus, University of
Cincinnati; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member, American Chemical
Society, American Society for Engineering Education, American Chemical Society (Sectiqn 22,
Alternative Separation Processes)
Wallace Leung, Sc.D., Director, Process Technology, Bird Machine Company; Member, Amer-
ican Filtration and Separation Society (Director) (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and
Equipment)
M. Douglas LeVan, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Vir-
ginia; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Intema-
tional Adsorption Society (Section 16, Adsorption and Ion Exchange)

Peter E. Liley, Ph.D., D.I.C., School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University (Section 2,
Physical and Chemical Data)
James D. Litster, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
of Queensland; Member, Institute of Chemical Engiiieers-Australia (Section 20, Size Reduction
and Size Enlargement)
Peter J. Lofuis, D. Phil., Arthur D. Little, Inc.; Member, American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Hsue-peng Loh, Ph.D., P.E., Federal Energy Technology Center (Morgantown), U .S. Depart-
ment of Energy; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Society of Infor-
mation Sciences (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Douglas E. Lowenhaupt, M.S., Group Leader, Coke Laboratory, CONSOL, Inc.; Member,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Iron and Steel Making Society, International Com-
mittee for Coal Petrology (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
James 0. Maloney, Ph.D., P.E., Emeritus Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of
Kansas; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineering; Fellow, American Association for
the Advancement of Science; Member, American Chemical Society, American Society for Engi-
neering Education (Section 1, Conversion Factors and Mathematical Symbols)
Thomas J. McAvoy, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Maryland, College
Park, Maryland (Section 8, Process Control)
Chad McCleary, EIMCO Process Equipment Company, Process Consultant (Section 18, Liq-
uid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Thomas F. McGowan, P.E., Senior Consultant, RMT/Four Nines; Member, American Institute
of Chemical Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Air and Waste Management
Association (Section 25, Waste Management)
Howard G. Mcllvried, III, Ph.D., Senior Engineer, Burns and Roe Services Corporation, Fed-
eral Energy Technology Center (Pittsburgh), Member, American Chemical Society, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
John D. McKenna, Ph.D., President and Chairman, ETS International, Inc., Member, Ameri-
can Institute of Chemical Engineers, Air and Waste Management Association (Section 25, Waste
Management)

Shelhy A. Miller, Ph.D., P.E., Resident Retired Senior Engineer; Argonne National Laboratory;
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Fellow), American Chemical Society,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Fellow), American Institutes of Chemists (Fellow), Fil-
tration Society, New York Academy of Sciences, Society of Chemical Industry (Section 18; Liqmd.;
Solid Operations and Equipment; Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Booker Morey, Ph.D., Senior Consultant, SRI International; Member; Society of Mining,
Metallurgy and Exploration (SME of AIME), The Filtration Society, Air and Waste Management
Association; Registered Professional Engineer (California and Massachusetts) (Section 18, Liquid-
Solid Operations and Equipment)
Charles G. Moyers, Ph.D., P.E., Principal Engineer, Union Carbide Corporation; Fellow,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 12, Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling, and
Solids Drying; Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
John Newman, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley;
Principle Investigator; Inorganic Materials Research Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
(Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
James Y. Oldshue, Ph.D., President, Oldshue Technologies International, Inc.; Member,
National Academy of Engineering; Adjunct Professor of Chemical Engineering atBeijing Institute
of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China; Member; American Chemical Society (ACE), American
Institute of Chemical Engineering (AIChE), Traveler Century Club, Executive Committee on the
Transfer of Appropriate Technology for the World Federation of Engineering Organizations (Sec-
tion 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Robert W. Ormsby, M.S., Ch.E. P.E., Manager of Safety, Chemical Group, Air Products and
Chemicals, Inc.; Air Products Corp.; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section
26, Process Safety)
John E. Owens, B.E.E., Electrostatic Consultant, Condux, Inc.; Member, Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, Electrostatics Society of America (Section 26, Process Safety)
Bhupendra Parekb, Ph.D., Associate Director, Center for Applied Energy Research, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Mel Pen, Ph.D., Senior Consultant, E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.; Fellow, American Institute
of Chemical Engineers; Registered Professional Engineer (Delaware) (Section 17, Gas-Solid

Operations and Equipment)
W. R. Penney, Ph.D., P.E., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas; Member,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 14, Gas Absorption and Gas-Liquid System
Design)
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xv
WalterF. Podolski, Ph.D., Chemical Engineer, Electrochemical Technology Program, Argonne
National Laboratory; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 27, Energy
Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Herbert A. Pohl, Ph.D. (deceased), Professor of Physics, Oklahoma State University (Section
22, Alternative Separation Processes)
Kent Pollock, Ph.D., Member of Technical Staff, Group 91, Space Surveillance Techniques,
MIT Lincoln Laboratory (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
George Priday,B.S., Ch.E., EIMCO Process Equipment Company; Member, American Insti-
tute of Chemical Engineering {AIChE), Instrument Society of America (ISA) (Section 18, Liquid-
Solid Operations and Equipment)
Michael E. Prudich, Ph.D" Professor and Chair of Chemical Engineering, Ohio U~iversity;
Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Society of Min-
ing Engineers, American Society for Engineering Education (Section 22, Alternative Skparation
Processes)
Raj K. Rajamani, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Metallurgy and Metallurgical Engineering,
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Lawrence K. Rath, B.S., P.E., Federal Energy Technology Center (Morgantown), U .S. Depart-
ment of Energy; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 27, Energy
Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
Grantges J. Raymus, M.E., M.S., President, Raymus Associates, Incorporated, Packaging con-
sultants; Adjunct Professor and Program Coordinator, Center for Packaging Science and Engi-
neering, College of Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey; formerly Manager
of Packaging Engineering, Union Carbide Corporation; Registered Professional Engineer, cali-
fornia; Member, Institute of Packaging Professionals, ASME (Section 21, Handling of Bulk Solids
and Packagi?g of Solids and Liquids)

Lanny A. Robbins, Ph.D., Research Fellow, Dow Chemical Company; Member, American Insti-
tute of Chemical Engineers (Section 15, Liquid-Liquid Extraction Operations and Equipment)
Joseph J. Santoleri, P.E.,Senior Consultant, RMT/Four Nines; Member, American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Air and Waste Management
Association (Section 25, Waste Management)
Adel F. Sarofim, Sc.D., Lammot DuPont Professor of Chemical Engineering and Assistant
Director, Fuels Research Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Member, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, Combustion Institute (Section 5,
Heat and Mass Transfer)
Kalanadh v. S. Sastry, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Materials Science and Mineral Engineer-
ing, University of California, Berkeley, CA; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Paul J. Schafbuch, Ph.D" Senior Research Specialist, ~inal Control Systems, Fisher Controls
International, Inc., Marshalltown, Iowa (Section 8, Process Control)
Carl A. Schiappa, B.S., Ch.E., Process Engineering Associate, Michigan Division Engineering,
The Dow Chemical Company; Member, AIChE and CCPS (Section 26, Process Safety)
David K. Schmalzer, Ph.D., P.E., Fossil Energy Program Manager, Argonne National Labora-
tory; Member, American Chemical Society, Americanlnstitute of Chemical Engineers (Section
27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
J. D. Seader, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City,
Utah; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member, American Chemical Society;
Member. American SocietY for Enl!ineerin!! Education (Section 13. Distillation)
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
xvi
Dale E. Seborg, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Bar-
bara, California (Section 8, Process Control)
Richard L. Shilling, P.E., B.S.M., B.E.M.E., Manager of Engineering Development, Brown
Fintube Company-a Koch Engineering Company; Member, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (Section 11, Heat-Transfer Equipment)
F. Greg Shinskey, B.S.Ch.E., Consultant (retired from Foxboro Co.), North Sandwich, New

Hampshire (Section 8, Process Control)
Oliver w. Siebert, P.E., B.S.M.E., Washington University, Graduate Metallurgical Engineering,
Sever Institute of Technology; Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Washington Uni-
versity, St. Louis, Missouri; President, Siebert Materials Engineering, Inc., St, Louis, Missouri;
Senior Engineering Fellow (retired), Monsanto Co.; Mechanical Designer, Sverdrup Corp.; Met-
allurgist, Carondelet Foundry; United Nations Consultant to the People's Republic of China; Fel-
low, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Life Fellow, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers; Past Elected Director and Fellow, N ational Association of Corrosion Engineers, Int'I;
American Society for Metals, Int'I; American Welding Society; Pi Tau Sigma, Sigma Xi, and Tau
Beta Pi (Section 28, Materials of Construction)
Jeffrey J. Siirola, Ph.D., Research Fellow, Eastman Chemical Company; Member, National
Academy of Engineering; Fellow, American Institute ofChemical Engineers, American Chemical
Society, American Association for Artificial Intelligence, American Society for Engineering Edu-
cation (Section 13, Distillation)
Charles E. Silverblatt, M.S., Ch.E., Peregrine International Associates, Inc.; Consultant to
WesTech Engineering, Inc., American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engines
(AIME) (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Richard Siwek, M.S., Explosion Protection Manager, Corporate Unit Safety and Environment,
Ciba-Geigy Ltd., Basel, Switzerland (Section 26, Process Safety)
J. Stephen Slottee, M.S., Ch.E., Manager, Technology and Development, EIMCO Process
Equipment Co.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) (Section 18,
Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Cecil L. Smith, Ph.D., Principal, Cecil L. Smith Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana (Section 8,
Process Control)
Julian C. Smith, B. Chem., Ch.E., Professor Emeritus Chemical Engineering, Cornell Univer-
sity; Member, American Chemical Society (ACS), American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(AIChE) (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Richard H. Snow, Ph.D., Engineering Advisor, lIT Research Institute; Member, American
Chemical Society, Sigma Xi; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 20, Size
Reduction and Size Enlargement)

Thomas Sorenson, M.B.A., MiD. Eng., President, Galigher Ash (Canada) Ltd. (Section 19,
Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Rameshwar D. Srivastava, Ph.D., Fuels Group Manager, Burns and Roe Services Corporation,
Federal Energy Technology Center (Pittsburgh) (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and
Utilization )
F. C. Standiford, M.S., P.E., Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American
Chemical Society (Section 11, Heat-Transfer Equipment)
D. E. SteiDmeyer, M.A., M.S., P.E., Distinguished Fellow, Monsanto Company; Fellow; Amer-
ican Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member, American Chemical Society (Section 14, Gas
Absorption and Gas-Liquid System Design)
Gary J. Stiegel, M.S., P.E., Program Coordinator, Federal Energy Technology Center (Pitts-
burgh), U .S. Department of Energy (Section 27, Energy Resources, Conversion, and Utilization)
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
xvii
John G. Stoecker II, B.S.M.E., University of Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy; princi-
pal Consultant, Stoecker & Associates, St. Louis, Missouri; Principal Materials Engineering
Specialist (retired), Monsanto Co.; High-Temperature Design/Application Engineer, Abex
Corporation; Member, NACE International, ASM International (Section 27, Energy Resources,
Conversion, and Utilization)
Judson S. Swearingen, Ph.D., Retired President, Rotoflow Corporation (Section 29, Process
Machinery Drives)
Louis Theodore, Sc.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Manhattan College; Member, Air
and Waste Management Association (Section 25, Waste Management)
Michael P. Thien, Sc.D., Senior Research Fellow, Merck & Co., Inc.; Member, American Insti-
tute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, International Society for Pharmaceutical
Engineers (Section 22, Alternative Separation Processes)
George H. Thomson, AIChE Design Institute for Physical Property Data (Section 2, Physical
and Chemical Data)
James N. Tilton, Ph.D., P.E., Senior Consultant, Process Engineering, E. I. duPont de Nemours
& Co.; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Registered Professional Engineer

(Delaware) (Section 6, Fluid and Particle Dynamics)
Klaus D. Timmerhaus, Ph.D., P.E., Professor and President's Teaching Scholar, University of
Colorado, Boulder, Colorado; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Soci-
ety for Engineering Education, American Association for the Advancement of Science; Member,
American Astronautical Society, N ational Academy of Engineering, Austrian Academy of Science,
International Institute of Refrigeration, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Con-
ditioning Engineers, American Society of Environmental Engineers, Engineering Society for
Advancing Mobility on Land, Sea, Air, and Space, Sigma Xi, The Research Society (Section 11,
Heat-Transfer Equipment)
David B. Todd, Ph.D., President, Todd Engineering; Member, American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS), American Chemical Society (ACS), American Institute of
Chemical Engineering (AIChE), American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS), Society of Plastics Engi-
neers (SPE), and Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI); Registered Professional Engineer, Michi-
gan (Section 18, Liquid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
George T. Tsao, Ph.D., Director, Laboratory for Renewable Resource Engineering, Purdue
University; Member, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society,
American Society for Microbiology (Section 24, Biochemical Engineering)
Hendrick c. Van Ness, D.Eng., Howard P. Isermann Department of Chemical Engineering,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Member,
American Chemical Society (Section 4, Thermodynamics)
Stanley M. Walas, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engi-
neering, University of Kansas; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 7,
Reaction Kinetics; Section 23, Chemical Reactors)
Phillip C. Wankat, Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University; Member,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Chemical Society, International Adsorp-
tion Society (Section 5, Heat and Mass Transfer)
Ionel Wechsler, M.S., MiD. and Met., Vice President, Sala Magnetics, Inc., Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts (Section 19, Solid-Solid Operations and Equipment)
Arthur W. Westerberg, Ph.D., Swearingen University Professor of Chemical Engineering,
Carnegie Mellon University; Member, National Academy of Engineering (Section 3, Mathematics)

John M. Wheeldon, Ph.D., Electric Power Research Institute (Section 27, Energy Resources,
Conversion. and Utilization)
xviii
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Robert E. White, Ph.D., Principal Engineer; Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division,
Southwest Research Institute (Section 26, Process Safety)
J. K. Wilkinson, M.Sc., Consultant Chemical Engineer; Fellow, Institution of Chemical Engi-
neers, London (Section 9, Process Economics)
David Winegarder, Ph.D., Engineering Associate, Michigan Division Engineering, The Dow
Chemical Company; Member AIChE and CCPS (Section 26, Process Safety)
John L. Woodward, Ph.D., Principal, DNV Technica, Inc. (Section 26, Process Safety)
Yoshiyuki Yamashita, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering, Tohoku University,
Sendai, Japan (Section 3, Mathematics)
Cannen M. Yon, M.S., DevelopmentAssociate, UOP, Des Plaines, Illinois; Member, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (Section 16, Adsorption and Ion Exchange)
CONVERSION FACTORS
Fig. 1-1 Graphic Relationships of SI Units with Names . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Table 1-1 SI Base and Supplementary Quantities and Units. . . . . . . 1-3
Table 1-2a Derived Units of SI that Have Special Names. . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Table 1-2b Additional Common Derived Units of SI . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Table 1-3 SI Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Table 1-4 Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly
Used Units to SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Table 1-5 Metric Conversion Factors as Exact Numerical
Multiples of SI Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Table 1-6 Alphabetical Listing of Common Conversions . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Table 1-7 Common Units and Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
Table 1-8 Kinematic-Viscosity Conversion Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
Table 1-9 Values of the Gas-Law Constant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
Table 1-10 United States Customary System of Weights

and Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19
Table 1-11 Temperature Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-19
Table 1-12 Specific Gravity, Degrees Baumé, Degrees API, Degrees
Twaddell, Pounds per Gallon, Pounds per Cubic Foot. . . 1-20
Table 1-13 Wire and Sheet-Metal Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21
Table 1-14 Fundamental Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22
CONVERSION OF VALUES FROM U.S. CUSTOMARY
UNITS TO SI UNITS
MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS
Table 1-15 Mathematical Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations . . . . . . . 1-24
Table 1-16 Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
1-1
Section 1
Conversion Factors and
Mathematical Symbols*
James O. Maloney, Ph.D., P.E., Emeritus Professor of Chemical Engineering, Univer-
sity of Kansas; Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineering; Fellow, American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science; Member, American Chemical Society, American Society for
Engineering Education
* Much of the material was taken from Sec. 1. of the fifth edition. The contribution of Cecil H. Chilton in developing that material is acknowledged.
1-2
FIG. 1-1 Graphic relationships of SI units with names (U.S. National Bureau of Standards, LC 1078, December 1976.)
1-3
TABLE 1-1 SI Base and Supplementary Quantities and Units
SI unit symbol
(“abbreviation”);
Use roman
Quantity or “dimension” SI unit (upright) type
Base quantity or “dimension”
length meter m

mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole* mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Supplementary quantity or “dimension”
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
*When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified; they may
be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such
particles.
TABLE 1-2
a
Derived Units of SI that Have Special Names
Quantity Unit Symbol Formula
frequency (of a periodic phenomenon) hertz Hz l/s
force newton N (kg⋅m)/s
2
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m
2
energy, work, quantity of heat joule J N⋅m
power, radiant flux watt W J/s
quantity of electricity, electric charge coulomb C A⋅s
electric potential, potential difference, volt V W/A
electromotive force
capacitance farad F C/V
electric resistance ohm Ω V/A
conductance siemens S A/V
magnetic flux weber Wb V⋅s

magnetic-flux density tesla T Wb/m
2
inductance henry H Wb/A
luminous flux lumen lm cd⋅sr
illuminance lux lx lm/m
2
activity (of radionuclides) becquerel Bq l/s
absorbed dose gray Gy J/kg
TABLE 1-2
b
Additional Common Derived Units of SI
Quantity Unit Symbol
acceleration meter per second squared m/s
2
angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s
2
angular velocity radian per second rad/s
area square meter m
2
concentration (of amount of mole per cubic meter mol/m
3
substance)
current density ampere per square meter A/m
2
density, mass kilogram per cubic meter kg/m
3
electric-charge density coulomb per cubic meter C/m
3
electric-field strength volt per meter V/m
electric-flux density coulomb per square meter C/m

2
energy density joule per cubic meter J/m
3
entropy joule per kelvin J/K
heat capacity joule per kelvin J/K
heat-flux density, watt per square meter W/m
2
irradiance
luminance candela per square meter cd/m
2
magnetic-field strength ampere per meter A/m
molar energy joule per mole J/mol
molar entropy joule per mole-kelvin J/(mol⋅K)
molar-heat capacity joule per mole-kelvin J/(mol⋅K)
moment of force newton-meter N⋅m
permeability henry per meter H/m
permittivity farad per meter F/m
radiance watt per square-meter- W/(m
2
⋅sr)
steradian
radiant intensity watt per steradian W/sr
specific-heat capacity joule per kilogram-kelvin J/(kg⋅K)
specific energy joule per kilogram J/kg
specific entropy joule per kilogram-kelvin J/(kg⋅K)
specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m
3
/kg
surface tension newton per meter N/m
thermal conductivity watt per meter-kelvin W/(m⋅K)

velocity meter per second m/s
viscosity, dynamic pascal-second Pa⋅s
viscosity, kinematic square meter per second m
2
/s
volume cubic meter m
3
wave number 1 per meter 1/m
TABLE 1-3 SI Prefixes
Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10
18
exa E
1 000 000 000 000 000 = 10
15
peta P
1 000 000 000 000 = 10
12
tera T
1 000 000 000 = 10
9
giga G
1 000 000 = 10
6
mega M
1 000 = 10
3
kilo k
100 = 10
2

hecto* h
10 = 10
1
deka* da
0.1 = 10
−1
deci* d
0.01 = 10
−2
centi c
0.001 = 10
−3
milli m
0.000 001 = 10
−6
micro µ
0.000 000 001 = 10
−9
nano n
0.000 000 000 001 = 10
−12
pico p
0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10
−15
femto f
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10
−18
atto a
*Generally to be avoided.
TABLE 1-4 Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units

Conversion factor; multiply
Customary or commonly Alternate customary unit by factor to
Quantity used unit SI unit SI unit obtain SI unit
Space,† time
Length naut mi km 1.852* E + 00
mi km 1.609 344* E + 00
chain m 2.011 68* E + 01
link m 2.011 68* E − 01
fathom m 1.828 8* E + 00
yd m 9.144* E − 01
ft m 3.048* E − 01
cm 3.048* E + 01
in mm 2.54* E + 01
in cm 2.54 E + 00
mil µm 2.54* E + 01
Length/length ft/mi m/km 1.893 939 E − 01
Length/volume ft/U.S. gal m/m
3
8.051 964 E + 01
ft/ft
3
m/m
3
1.076 391 E + 01
ft/bbl m/m
3
1.917 134 E + 00
Area mi
2
km

2
2.589 988 E + 00
section ha 2.589 988 E + 02
acre ha 4.046 856 E − 01
ha m
2
1.000 000* E + 04
yd
2
m
2
8.361 274 E − 01
ft
2
m
2
9.290 304* E − 02
in
2
mm
2
6.451 6* E + 02
cm
2
6.451 6* E + 00
Area/volume ft
2
/in
3
m

2
/cm
3
5.699 291 E − 03
ft
2
/ft
3
m
2
/m
3
3.280 840 E + 00
Volume cubem km
3
4.168 182 E + 00
acre⋅ft m
3
1.233 482 E + 03
ha⋅m 1.233 482 E − 01
yd
3
m
3
7.645 549 E − 01
bbl (42 U.S. gal) m
3
1.589 873 E − 01
ft
3

m
3
2.831 685 E − 02
dm
3
L 2.831 685 E + 01
U.K. gal m
3
4.546 092 E − 03
dm
3
L 4.546 092 E + 00
U.S. gal m
3
3.785 412 E − 03
dm
3
L 3.785 412 E + 00
U.K. qt dm
3
L 1.136 523 E + 00
U.S. qt dm
3
L 9.463 529 E − 01
U.S. pt dm
3
L 4.731 765 E − 01
U.K. fl oz cm
3
2.841 307 E + 01

U.S. fl oz cm
3
2.957 353 E + 01
in
3
cm
3
1.638 706 E + 01
Volume/length (linear bbl/in m
3
m 6.259 342 E + 00
displacement) bbl/ft m
3
/m 5.216 119 E − 01
ft
3
/ft m
3
/m 9.290 304* E − 02
U.S. gal/ft m
3
/m 1.241 933 E − 02
L/m 1.241 933 E + 01
Plane angle rad rad 1
deg (°) rad 1.745 329 E − 02
min (′) rad 2.908 882 E − 04
sec (″) rad 4.848 137 E − 06
Solid angle sr sr 1
Time year a 1
week d 7.0* E + 00

h s 3.6* E + 03
min 6.0* E + 01
min s 6.0* E + 01
h 1.666 667 E − 02
mµsns1
Mass, amount of substance
Mass U.K. ton Mg t 1.016 047 E + 00
U.S. ton Mg t 9.071 847 E − 01
U.K. cwt kg 5.080 234 E + 01
U.S. cwt kg 4.535 924 E + 01
lbm kg 4.535 924 E − 01
oz (troy) g 3.110 348 E + 01
oz (av) g 2.834 952 E + 01
gr mg 6.479 891 E + 01
1-4
1-5
TABLE 1-4 Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units (
Continued
)
Conversion factor; multiply
Customary or commonly Alternate customary unit by factor to
Quantity used unit SI unit SI unit obtain SI unit
Amount of substance lbm⋅mol kmol 4.535 924 E − 01
std m
3
(0°C, 1 atm) kmol 4.461 58 E − 02
std ft
3
(60°F, 1 atm) kmol 1.195 30 E − 03
Enthalpy, calorific value, heat, entropy, heat capacity

Calorific value, enthalpy Btu/lbm MJ/kg 2.326 000 E − 03
(mass basis) kJ/kg J/g 2.326 000 E + 00
kWh/kg 6.461 112 E − 04
cal/g kJ/kg J/g 4.184* E + 00
cal/lbm J/kg 9.224 141 E + 00
Caloric value, enthalpy kcal/(g⋅mol) kJ/kmol 4.184* E + 03
(mole basis) Btu/(lb⋅mol) kJ/kmol 2.326 000 E + 00
Calorific value (volume Btu/U.S. gal MJ/m
3
kJ/dm
3
2.787 163 E − 01
basis—solids and liquids) kJ/m
3
2.787 163 E + 02
kWh/m
3
7.742 119 E − 02
Btu/U.K. gal MJ/m
3
kJ/dm
3
2.320 800 E − 01
kJ/m
3
2.320 800 E + 02
Btu/ft
3
kWh/m
3

6.446 667 E − 02
MJ/m
3
kJ/dm
3
3.725 895 E − 02
kJ/m
3
3.725 895 E + 01
kWh/m
3
1.034 971 E − 02
cal/mL MJ/m
3
4.184* E + 00
(ft⋅lbf)/U.S. gal kJ/m
3
3.581 692 E − 01
Calorific value (volume cal/mL kJ/m
3
J/dm
3
4.184* E + 03
basis—gases) kcal/m
3
kJ/m
3
J/dm
3
4.184* E + 00

Btu/ft
3
kJ/m
3
J/dm
3
3.725 895 E + 01
kWh/m
3
1.034 971 E − 02
Specific entropy Btu/(lbm⋅°R) kJ/(kg⋅K) J/(g⋅K) 4.186 8* E + 00
cal/(g⋅K) kJ/(kg⋅K) J/(g⋅K) 4.184* E + 00
kcal/(kg⋅°C) kJ/(kg⋅K) J/(g⋅K) 4.184* E + 00
Specific-heat capacity (mass kWh/(kg⋅°C) kJ/(kg⋅K) J/(g⋅K) 3.6* E + 03
basis) Btu/(lbm⋅°F) kJ/(kg⋅K) J/(g⋅K) 4.186 8* E + 00
kcal/(kg⋅°C) kJ/(kg⋅K) J/(g⋅K) 4.184* E + 00
Specific-heat capacity (mole Btu/(lb⋅mol⋅°F) kJ/(kmol⋅K) 4.186 8* E + 00
basis) cal/(g⋅mol⋅°C) kJ/(kmol⋅K) 4.184* E + 00
Temperature, pressure, vacuum
Temperature (absolute) °R K 5/9
KK1
Temperature (traditional) °F °C 5/9(°F − 32)
Temperature (difference) °F K, °C 5/9
Pressure atm (760 mmHg at 0°C or 14,696 psi) MPa 1.013 250* E − 01
kPa 1.013 250* E + 02
bar 1.013 250*E + 00
bar MPa 1.0* E − 01
kPa 1.0* E + 02
mmHg (0°C) = torr MPa 6.894 757 E − 03
kPa 6.894 757 E + 00

bar 6.894 757 E − 02
µmHg (0°C) kPa 3.376 85 E + 00
µ bar kPa 2.488 4 E − 01
mmHg = torr (0°C) kPa 1.333 224 E − 01
cmH
2
O (4°C) kPa 9.806 38 E − 02
lbf/ft
2
(psf) kPa 4.788 026 E − 02
mHg (0°C) Pa 1.333 224 E − 01
bar Pa 1.0* E + 05
dyn/cm
2
Pa 1.0* E − 01
Vacuum, draft inHg (60°F) kPa 3.376 85 E + 00
inH
2
O (39.2°F) kPa 2.490 82 E − 01
inH
2
O (60°F) kPa 2.488 4 E − 01
mmHg (0°C) = torr kPa 1.333 224 E − 01
cmH
2
O (4°C) kPa 9.806 38 E − 02
Liquid head ft m 3.048* E − 01
in mm 2.54* E + 01
cm 2.54* E + 00
Pressure drop/length psi/ft kPa/m 2.262 059 E + 01

1-6
TABLE 1-4 Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units (
Continued
)
Conversion factor; multiply
Customary or commonly Alternate customary unit by factor to
Quantity used unit SI unit SI unit obtain SI unit
Density, specific volume, concentration, dosage
Density lbm/ft
3
kg/m
3
1.601 846 E + 01
g/m
3
1.601 846 E + 04
lbm/U.S. gal kg/m
3
1.198 264 E + 02
g/cm
3
1.198 264 E − 01
lbm/U.K. gal kg/m
3
9.977 633 E + 01
lbm/ft
3
kg/m
3
1.601 846 E + 01

g/cm
3
1.601 846 E − 02
g/cm
3
kg/m
3
1.0* E + 03
lbm/ft
3
kg/m
3
1.601 846 E + 01
Specific volume ft
3
/lbm m
3
/kg 6.242 796 E − 02
m
3
/g 6.242 796 E − 05
ft
3
/lbm dm
3
/kg 6.242 796 E + 01
U.K. gal/lbm dm
3
/kg cm
3

/g 1.002 242 E + 01
U.S. gal/lbm dm
3
/kg cm
3
/g 8.345 404 E + 00
Specific volume (mole basis) L/(g⋅mol) m
3
/kmol 1
ft
3
/(lb⋅mol) m
3
/kmol 6.242 796 E − 02
Specific volume bbl/U.S. ton m
3
/t 1.752 535 E − 01
bbl/U.K. ton m
3
/t 1.564 763 E − 01
Yield bbl/U.S. ton dm
3
/t L/t 1.752 535 E + 02
bbl/U.K. ton dm
3
/t L/t 1.564 763 E + 02
U.S. gal/U.S. ton dm
3
/t L/t 4.172 702 E + 00
U.S. gal/U.K. ton dm

3
/t L/t 3.725 627 E + 00
Concentration (mass/mass) wt % kg/kg 1.0* E − 02
g/kg 1.0* E + 01
wt ppm mg/kg 1
Concentration (mass/volume) lbm/bbl kg/m
3
g/dm
3
2.853 010 E + 00
g/U.S. gal kg/m
3
2.641 720 E − 01
g/U.K. gal kg/m
3
g/L 2.199 692 E − 01
lbm/1000 U.S. gal g/m
3
mg/dm
3
1.198 264 E + 02
lbm/1000 U.K. gal g/m
3
mg/dm
3
9.977 633 E + 01
gr/U.S. gal g/m
3
mg/dm
3

1.711 806 E + 01
gr/ft
3
mg/m
3
2.288 351 E + 03
lbm/1000 bbl g/m
3
mg/dm
3
2.853 010 E + 00
mg/U.S. gal g/m
3
mg/dm
3
2.641 720 E − 01
gr/100 ft
3
mg/m
3
2.288 351 E + 01
Concentration (volume/volume) ft
3
/ft
3
m
3
/m
3
1

bbl/(acre⋅ft) m
3
/m
3
1.288 931 E − 04
vol% m
3
/m
3
1.0* E − 02
U.K. gal/ft
3
dm
3
/m
3
L/m
3
1.605 437 E + 02
U.S. gal/ft
3
dm
3
/m
3
L/m
3
1.336 806 E + 02
mL/U.S. gal dm
3

/m
3
L/m
3
2.641 720 E − 01
mL/U.K. gal dm
3
/m
3
L/m
3
2.199 692 E − 01
vol ppm cm
3
/m
3
1
dm
3
/m
3
L/m
3
1.0* E − 03
U.K. gal/1000 bbl cm
3
/m
3
2.859 403 E + 01
U.S. gal/1000 bbl cm

3
/m
3
2.380 952 E + 01
U.K. pt/1000 bbl cm
3
/m
3
3.574 253 E + 00
Concentration (mole/volume) (lb⋅mol)/U.S. gal kmol/m
3
1.198 264 E + 02
(lb⋅mol)/U.K. gal kmol/m
3
9.977 644 E + 01
(lb⋅mol)/ft
3
kmol/m
3
1.601 846 E + 01
std ft
3
(60°F, 1 atm)/bbl kmol/m
3
7.518 21 E − 03
Concentration (volume/mole) U.S. gal/1000 std ft
3
(60°F/60°F) dm
3
/kmol L/kmol 3.166 91 E + 00

bbl/million std ft
3
(60°F/60°F) dm
3
/kmol L/kmol 1.330 10 E − 01
Facility throughput, capacity
Throughput (mass basis) U.K. ton/year t/a 1.016 047 E + 00
U.S. ton/year t/a 9.071 847 E − 01
U.K. ton/day t/d 1.016 047 E + 00
t/h 4.233 529 E − 02
U.S. ton/day t/d 9.071 847 E − 01
t/h 3.779 936 E − 02
U.K. ton/h t/h 1.016 047 E + 00
U.S. ton/h t/h 9.071 847 E − 01
lbm/h kg/h 4.535 924 E − 01
1-7
TABLE 1-4 Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units (
Continued
)
Conversion factor; multiply
Customary or commonly Alternate customary unit by factor to
Quantity used unit SI unit SI unit obtain SI unit
Throughput (volume basis) bbl/day t/a 5.803 036 E + 01
m
3
/d 1.589 873 E − 01
ft
3
/day m
3

/h 1.179 869 E − 03
bbl/h m
3
/h 1.589 873 E − 01
ft
3
/h m
3
/h 2.831 685 E − 02
U.K. gal/h m
3
/h 4.546 092 E − 03
L/s 1.262 803 E − 03
U.S. gal/h m
3
/h 3.785 412 E − 03
L/s 1.051 503 E − 03
U.K. gal/min m
3
/h 2.727 655 E − 01
L/s 7.576 819 E − 02
U.S. gal/min m
3
/h 2.271 247 E − 01
L/s 6.309 020 E − 02
Throughput (mole basis) (lbm⋅mol)/h kmol/h 4.535 924 E − 01
kmol/s 1.259 979 E − 04
Flow rate
Flow rate (mass basis) U.K. ton/min kg/s 1.693 412 E + 01
U.S. ton/min kg/s 1.511 974 E + 01

U.K. ton/h kg/s 2.822 353 E − 01
U.S. ton/h kg/s 2.519 958 E − 01
U.K. ton/day kg/s 1.175 980 E − 02
U.S. ton/day kg/s 1.049 982 E − 02
million lbm/year kg/s 5.249 912 E + 00
U.K. ton/year kg/s 3.221 864 E − 05
U.S. ton/year kg/s 2.876 664 E − 05
lbm/s kg/s 4.535 924 E − 01
lbm/min kg/s 7.559 873 E − 03
lbm/h kg/s 1.259 979 E − 04
Flow rate (volume basis) bbl/day m
3
/d 1.589 873 E − 01
L/s 1.840 131 E − 03
ft
3
/day m
3
/d 2.831 685 E − 02
L/s 3.277 413 E − 04
bbl/h m
3
/s 4.416 314 E − 05
L/s 4.416 314 E − 02
ft
3
/h m
3
/s 7.865 791 E − 06
L/s 7.865 791 E − 03

U.K. gal/h dm
3
/s L/s 1.262 803 E − 03
U.S. gal/h dm
3
/s L/s 1.051 503 E − 03
U.K. gal/min dm
3
/s L/s 7.576 820 E − 02
U.S. gal/min dm
3
/s L/s 6.309 020 E − 02
ft
3
/min dm
3
/s L/s 4.719 474 E − 01
ft
3
/s dm
3
/s L/s 2.831 685 E + 01
Flow rate (mole basis) (lb⋅mol)/s kmol/s 4.535 924 E − 01
(lb⋅mol)/h kmol/s 1.259 979 E − 04
million scf/D kmol/s 1.383 45 E − 02
Flow rate/length (mass basis) lbm/(s⋅ft) kg/(s⋅m) 1.488 164 E + 00
lbm/(h⋅ft) kg/(s⋅m) 4.133 789 E − 04
Flow rate/length (volume basis) U.K. gal/(min⋅ft) m
2
/s m

3
/(s⋅m) 2.485 833 E − 04
U.S. gal/(min⋅ft) m
2
/s m
3
/(s⋅m) 2.069 888 E − 04
U.K. gal/(h⋅in) m
2
/s m
3
/(s⋅m) 4.971 667 E − 05
U.S. gal/(h⋅in) m
2
/s m
3
/(s⋅m) 4.139 776 E − 05
U.K. gal/(h⋅ft) m
2
/s m
3
/(s⋅m) 4.143 055 E − 06
U.S. gal/(h⋅ft) m
2
/s m
3
/(s⋅m) 3.449 814 E − 06
Flow rate/area (mass basis) lbm/(s⋅ft
2
) kg/(s⋅m

2
) 4.882 428 E + 00
lbm/(h⋅ft
2
) kg/(s⋅m
2
) 1.356 230 E − 03
Flow rate/area (volume basis) ft
3
/(s⋅ft
2
) m/s m
3
/(s⋅m
2
) 3.048* E − 01
ft
3
/(min⋅ft
2
) m/s m
3
/(s⋅m
2
) 5.08* E − 03
U.K. gal/(h⋅in
2
) m/s m
3
/(s⋅m

2
) 1.957 349 E − 03
U.S. gal/(h⋅in
2
) m/s m
3
/(s⋅m
2
) 1.629 833 E − 03
U.K. gal/(min⋅ft
2
) m/s m
3
/(s⋅m
2
) 8.155 621 E − 04
U.S. gal/(min⋅ft
2
) m/s m
3
/(s⋅m
2
) 6.790 972 E − 04
U.K. gal/(h⋅ft
2
) m/s m
3
/(s⋅m
2
) 1.359 270 E − 05

U.S. gal/(h⋅ft
2
) m/s m
3
/(s⋅m
2
) 1.131 829 E − 05
1-8
TABLE 1-4 Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary and Commonly Used Units to SI Units (
Continued
)
Conversion factor; multiply
Customary or commonly Alternate customary unit by factor to
Quantity used unit SI unit SI unit obtain SI unit
Energy, work, power
Energy, work therm MJ 1.055 056 E + 02
kJ 1.055 056 E + 05
kWh 2.930 711 E + 01
U.S. tonf⋅mi MJ 1.431 744 E + 01
hp⋅h MJ 2.684 520 E + 00
kJ 2.684 520 E + 03
kWh 7.456 999 E − 01
ch⋅h or CV⋅h MJ 2.647 780 E + 00
kJ 2.647 780 E + 03
kWh 7.354 999 E − 01
kWh MJ 3.6* E + 00
kJ 3.6* E + 03
Chu kJ 1.899 101 E + 00
kWh 5.275 280 E − 04
Btu kJ 1.055 056 E + 00

kWh 2.930 711 E − 04
kcal kJ 4.184* E + 00
cal kJ 4.184* E − 03
ft⋅lbf kJ 1.355 818 E − 03
lbf⋅ft kJ 1.355 818 E − 03
J kJ 1.0* E − 03
(lbf⋅ft
2
)/s
2
kJ 4.214 011 E − 05
erg J 1.0* E − 07
Impact energy kgf⋅m J 9.806 650* E + 00
lbf⋅ft J 1.355 818 E + 00
Surface energy erg/cm
2
mJ/m
2
1.0* E + 00
Specific-impact energy (kgf⋅m)/cm
2
J/cm
2
9.806 650* E − 02
(lbf⋅ft)/in
2
J/cm
2
2.101 522 E − 03
Power million Btu/h MW 2.930 711 E − 01

ton of refrigeration kW 3.516 853 E + 00
Btu/s kW 1.055 056 E + 00
kW kW 1
hydraulic horsepower—hhp kW 7.460 43 E − 01
hp (electric) kW 7.46* E − 01
hp [(550 ft⋅lbf)/s] kW 7.456 999 E − 01
ch or CV kW 7.354 999 E − 01
Btu/min kW 1.758 427 E − 02
(ft⋅lbf)/s kW 1.355 818 E − 03
kcal/h W 1.162 222 E + 00
Btu/h W 2.930 711 E − 01
(ft⋅lbf)/min W 2.259 697 E − 02
Power/area Btu/(s⋅ft
2
) kW/m
2
1.135 653 E + 01
cal/(h⋅cm
2
) kW/m
2
1.162 222 E − 02
Btu/(h⋅ft
2
) kW/m
2
3.154 591 E − 03
Heat-release rate, mixing power hp/ft
3
kW/m

3
2.633 414 E + 01
cal/(h⋅cm
3
) kW/m
3
1.162 222 E + 00
Btu/(s⋅ft
3
) kW/m
3
3.725 895 E + 01
Btu/(h⋅ft
3
) kW/m
3
1.034 971 E − 02
Cooling duty (machinery) Btu/(bhp⋅h) W/kW 3.930 148 E − 01
Specific fuel consumption (mass lbm/(hp⋅h) mg/J kg/MJ 1.689 659 E − 01
basis) kg/kWh 6.082 774 E − 01
Specific fuel consumption (volume m
3
/kWh dm
3
/MJ mm
3
/J 2.777 778 E + 02
basis) U.S. gal/(hp⋅h) dm
3
/MJ mm

3
/J 1.410 089 E + 00
U.K. pt/(hp⋅h) dm
3
/MJ mm
3
/J 2.116 806 E − 01
Fuel consumption U.K. gal/mi dm
3
/100 km L/100 km 2.824 807 E + 02
U.S. gal/mi dm
3
/100 km L/100 km 2.352 146 E + 02
mi/U.S. gal km/dm
3
km/L 4.251 437 E − 01
mi/U.K. gal km/dm
3
km/L 3.540 064 E − 01