Handbook of flavour ingredients

FENAROLI’S HANDBOOK OF
Flavor
Ingredients
FIFTH EDITION
Copyright 2005 by CRC Press
CRC PRESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
GEORGE A. BURDOCK, PH.D.
FENAROLI’S HANDBOOK OF
Flavor
Ingredients
FIFTH EDITION
Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

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International Standard Book Number 0-8493-3034-3
Library of Congress Card Number 2004051965
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Burdock, George A.
[Handbook of flavor ingredients]
Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients.—5th ed. / George A. Burdock.
p. cm.
Ref. ed. of: Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients / George A. Burdock. 4th ed. c2002.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-3034-3 (alk. paper)
1. Flavoring essences—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title: Handbook of flavor
ingredients. II. Fenaroli, Giovanni, Prof. Dr. Handbook of flavor ingredients. III. Title.
TP418.B86 2004
664

¢

.5—dc22 2004051965

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Copyright 2005 by CRC Press

DEDICATION

Dedicated to Ioana, Meredith and Mike

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vii

PREFACE

Since publication of the first edition of

Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients

in
1971,

Fenaroli’s

has remained the standard reference for flavor ingredients throughout the
world. Each subsequent edition has listed more substances, including those conferred food
additive status, substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by qualified scientists
(including the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association [FEMA] Expert Panel) and
those substances having undergone GRAS Notification with the Food and Drug Administra-
tion (FDA). The fourth edition added 200+ entries and represented a total reorganization and
updating of the text, consistent with new data and regulations. This edition is likewise
expanded with over 100 new entries, including many botanicals and other natural substances.
The addition of botanicals is a response to an expanded readership with an interest in dietary
supplements, in which a number of flavoring botanicals serve a dual role.

GRAS, Dietary Supplements
and Other Terms of Art, Science and Regulation

The reader is cautioned that GRAS status and approval for use as a dietary supplement

1

should not be confused, for they are not the same and not even related.

2

Both the statutory
and regulatory language is very clear in making the distinction between these two entities.
Even the standard for determining safety of GRAS

vs.

dietary supplements is different (GRAS
substances are held to a higher standard of safety).

3

For the same reasons, dietary supplements
are not GRAS (nor are food additives, for that matter) and cannot be added to food for the
purpose of providing a dietary supplement.

4

The reader should also note that a substance is GRAS for no other purpose and at no
other amount (

i.e.,

level of use) than for which it was approved. The position of FDA was
re-asserted with the following statement:

It has been too often assumed that the GRAS substance may be used in any food, at any
level for any purpose. As a result, the uses of some GRAS food ingredients have prolif-
erated to the point where the GRAS status was brought into serious question. (

Federal
Register



39

:34194-34195, 1974.)

There are, of course, exceptions to all of the preceding, but each must be evaluated
according to its own merits; and for these judgments, the opinion of experts in toxicology
and regulations should be sought. Frequently asked questions regarding the meaning of “safe,”
“common knowledge,” “notified substance,” etc., are addressed in 62

Fed. Reg.

18937 (April
17, 1997) or log on to www.burdockgroup.com.

1

More appropriately this means lack of objection by FDA for use as a dietary supplement ingredient.

2

For a definition of GRAS, see the definition of “food additive” in section 201(s) of the Federal Food Drug and
Cosmetic Act as Amended. For a definition of a dietary supplement, see section 201(ff) of the Act.

3

The reader is referred to a discussion of this distinction (Burdock, G.A., 2000). Dietary supplements and lessons
to be learned from GRAS,

Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology



31

:68-76). Copies are also available upon
request at www.burdockgroup.com.

4

A “nutrient supplement” may be added to food, but this is also distinct from a dietary supplement. See 21 CFR
§170.3(o)(20) for a definition.

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viii

Safety-In-Use

Most, but not all, of the ingredients cited in this book are either foods or products thereof,
generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or have food additive status. Also, as noted above, there
are exceptions to every rule and this is no less true in determinations of safety. Therefore,
while there is an obligation on the original approving party to ensure safety-in-use at the
time of approval, there is no assurance that all scientific data continue to support the original
determination of safety. For example, safrole, coumarin and cinnamyl anthranilate, all once
commonly used and presumed safe, are now prohibited from addition to food by FDA (21
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) §189). Likewise, FEMA has withdrawn GRAS status
for nine substances, including alknet root extract (FEMA No. 2016), 2-methyl-5-vinylpyra-
zine (FEMA No. 3211), musk ambrette (FEMA No. 2758) and

o

-vinylanisole (FEMA No.
3248). The bottom line is that the user of the substance is responsible for ensuring its safe
use. Therefore, the reader is urged to make a determination of safety based on contempora-
neous data, not simply historical information that may be outdated.

Sources and Information

It was not possible in all cases to obtain details regarding specifications, approved uses,
etc., so otherwise available information was used. For example, while FEMA publishes use
levels and categories of use for GRAS substances (in the journal

Food Technology

), FEMA
has not made equally available information such as complete specifications or identification
(e.g., CAS numbers) for the substances upon which it has conferred GRAS status. In all
cases, where critical information was not available, a good faith effort was made to obtain
information from the public venue with the assumption these data represent the articles in
commerce. Sources of information include, but are not limited to the following:
Anonymous (1996).

Inactive Ingredient Guide

. Food and Drug Administration, Center
for Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Management. Division of Drug Infor-
mation Resources, Rockville, MD.
Anonymous (1999).

Volatile Compounds in Food

. Bolens Aroma Chemical Informa-
tion Service, The Netherlands.
Anonymous (2000).

Natural Sources of Flavourings. Report No. 1.

Council of Europe,
Strasbourg.
Anonymous (2000).

Chemically-Defined Flavouring Substances.

Council of Europe,

Strasbourg.
Anonymous (2000).

Code of Federal Regulations

. Title 21 FDA. United States Gov-
ernment Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Arctander, S. (1960).

Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin

. Arctander,
Publisher, Elizabeth, NJ.
Arctander, S. (1994).

Perfume and Flavor Chemicals (Aroma Chemicals)

. Allured
Publishing, Carol Stream, IL.
Ashurst, P.R. (ed.) (1999).

Food Flavorings.

(3

rd

ed.). Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg,
MD.
Bauer, K. et al. (1997).

Common Fragrance and Flavor Materials.

(3

rd

ed.). Wiley-
VCH, New York.
Budvari, S. et al. (eds.) (2000).

Merck Index

. (12

th

ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRCnetBase,
Boca Raton, FL.

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ix

Burdock, G.A. (1997).

Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives

. CRC Press, Boca

Raton, FL.
Burdock, G.A. (2000). Dietary supplements and lessons to be learned from GRAS.

Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology



31

:68-76.
Burnham, T. (ed.) (1999).

Facts and Comparisons. The Review of Natural Products.

Facts and Comparisons, Wolters Kluwer Company, St. Louis, MO.
Clydesdale, F. (1997).

Food Additives: Toxicology, Regulation and Properties

. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Committee on Food Chemical Codex (1996). Food Chemicals Codex. National Acad-
emy of Sciences. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
DeRovira, D.A. (1999).

The Dictionary of Flavors

. Food & Nutrition Press, Trumbull,
CT.
Fazzalari, F.A. (ed.) (1978).

Compilation of Odor and Taste Threshold Values Data.

American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
Foster, S. (ed.) (1992).

Herbs of Commerce (1992).

American Herbal Products Asso-
ciation, Austin, TX.
Lucas, C.D. et al. (1999).

Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association of the United
States 1995 Poundage and Technical Effects Update Survey

, Washington, DC.
Mosciano, G. (1991). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer and
Flavorist



21

(4):51-55; (5):49-54; (6):49-52.
Mosciano, G. et al. (1989). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist

14

(6):47-55.
Mosciano, G. et al. (1990). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist



15

(1):19-22; (2):69-73;(3):51-54; (4):59-61; (5):47-49; (6):35-38.
Mosciano, G. et al. (1991). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist



16

(1):31-33; (2):49-54; (3):79-81; (4):45-47; (5):71-73; (6):43-46.
Mosciano, G. et al. (1992). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist

17

(1):41-44; (2):33-35; (3):57-59; (4):33-36; (5):127-129; (6):41-43.
Mosciano, G. et al. (1993). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist



18

(1):43-45; (2):38-41; (3):53-55; (4):51-53; (5):39-41; (6):33-35.
Mosciano, G. et al. (1994). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist



19

(1):27-29; (2):55-57; (3):51-53; (4):45-47; (5):79-81; (6):53-55.
Mosciano, G. et al. (1995). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist

20

(1):31-33; (2):37-40; (3):63-65; (4):23-26; (5):89-92; (6):49-51.
Mosciano, G. et al. (1996). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist



21

(1):33-35;(2):47-49; (3):51-54.
Mosciano, G. et al. (2000). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist



25

(5):72-78; (6):26-31.
Mosciano, G. et al. (2001). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials.

Perfumer
and Flavorist

26

(1):52-53; (2):40-43.
Newberne, P. et al. (1999). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients
under the food additives amendment. 18. GRAS substances.

Food Technology

52

(9):65-92.
Newberne, P. et al. (2000). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients
under the food additives amendment. 19. GRAS substances.

Food Technology

54

(6):66-84.
Smith, R.L. and Ford, R.A. (1993). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring
ingredients under the food additives amendment. 16. GRAS substances.

Food Tech-
nology

47

(6):104-117.

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x

Smith, R.L. et al. (1996). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients
under the food additives amendment. 17. GRAS substances.

Food Technology

50

(10):72-78, 80-81.
Tainter, D.R. and Grenis, A.T. (1993).

Spices and Seasonings

. VCH Publishers, New
York.
VanGemert, L.J. (ed.) (1999).

Compilations of Odour Threshold Values in Air and
Water.

TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute. Boelens Aroma Chemical Infor-
mation Service, The Netherlands.

A diligent effort was made to obtain accurate information and to proof that information
prior to publication; however, the author and publisher make or offer no warranties as to the
representations provided herein.

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xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The editor would like to thank Dr. Madhusudan Soni for his scientific expertise and
Deborah Pizzimenti for her organizational wizardry; their tireless efforts represent the core
of this edition. Thanks also to Drs. James Griffiths, Alan Hood and Ray Matulka; Erica
Dineson, Carolyn Schaner, Morgan Griffiths, Tim Fritz and Jessica Marrero for their contri-
butions including, but not limited to data gathering, data entry, editing and indexing. Thanks
also to all those who provided help and information for this and the previous editions.
Thanks also to those who have made suggestions for improvements since the last edition.
In contemplation of the next edition, I encourage those with suggestions for corrections,
revisions or additions to contact me at the following address:
George A. Burdock, Ph.D., D.A.B.T.
780 US Highway 1 – Suite 300
Vero Beach, Florida 32962
www.burdockgroup.com

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xiii

THE AUTHOR

George A. Burdock, Ph.D.,

is a principal in the toxicology consulting firm of the
Burdock Group, with offices in Vero Beach, Florida, and Washington, D.C. Dr. Burdock is
an internationally recognized authority on the safety of food ingredients, personal care
products and dietary supplements. He has more than 20 years of experience dealing with
regulatory issues related to product safety and risk assessment. He has over 40 publications
in scientific journals and has published two books, the previous two editions of

Fenaroli’s
Handbook of Flavor Ingredients

and the

Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives.

He is
coauthor of the chapter “Food Toxicology” in the current and previous edition of Casarett
and Doull’s textbook

Toxicology

. He is also author of the chapter “Flavor Regulation” in the
second edition of

Nutritional Toxicology

in the

Target Organ Toxicology Series

. His experi-
ence includes director of scientific affairs for the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Asso-
ciation and manager of product safety for the Shulton Division of American Cyanamid. He
is also experienced in laboratory studies, having been a study director and section manager
at Hazleton Laboratories (now Covance). Dr. Burdock is a diplomate of the American Board
of Toxicology and fellow of the American College of Nutrition; and is a member of the
American Chemical Society, the International Society for Regulatory Toxicology and Phar-
macology, the Society of Toxicology (associate member), the American College of Toxicol-
ogy and the Institute of Food Technologists.

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xv

CONTENTS

Introduction
Glossary
Brief Explanation of a Synthetic Flavor
Brief Explanation of a Natural Flavor
Flavor Ingredients
A
B
C
D
E

F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z

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xvii

INTRODUCTION

Definition of a Flavor

As might be expected, the definition of a flavor will vary according to the source. The
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines flavoring agents and adjuvants as “sub-
stances added to impart or help impart a taste or aroma in food” (21 CFR §170.3(o)(12)).
FDA identifies flavor enhancers as “substances added to supplement, enhance, or modify the
original taste and/or aroma of a food, without imparting a characteristic taste or aroma of its
own”

5

(21 CFR §170.3(o)(11)). To forestall the next question, what constitutes a natural flavor
is described in 21 CFR §101.22(a)(3) as follows:

The term natural flavor or natural flavoring means the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or
extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymol-
ysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice,
vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant
material, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof,
whose significant function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional. Natural flavors
include the natural essence or extractives obtained from plants listed in §§182.10, 182.20,
182.40, and 182.50 and part 184 of this chapter, and the substances listed in §172.510 of
this chapter.

This broad definition also embraces thermally processed flavors and smoke flavors and
flavors such as “natural vanillin” which requires naturally occurring precursors, such as ferulic
acid to enzymatic/fermentive processes to make vanillin, that are by this definition,

natural

.

Artificial flavors are as described in 21 CFR §101.22 (a)(1):

The term artificial flavor or artificial flavoring means any substance, the function of which
is to impart flavor, which is not derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or
vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat,
fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof. Artificial flavor
includes the substances listed in §§172.515(b) and 182.60 of this chapter except where
these are derived from natural sources.

This distinction between artificial and natural serves as a basis for labeling and because
of market pressures, the term

natural

is preferred for the label over any description that might
include the word

artificial

. Also, the term

artificial

is separate and distinct from the term

imitation

(See 21 CFR §101.3).
The term

nature identical

once used widely to designate a substance, although present in
nature, may also be produced synthetically. For example, natural benzaldehyde is produced
from the pits of peaches, but this process has a rather low yield and produces waste material
(cyanide) for which disposal is costly. On the other hand, production of benzaldehyde from
chemical feedstock is much more economical and is putatively the same as that produced
from nature; it is therefore

nature identical.

The use of this term is an artifact of regulation
because the approval process in some European countries was much easier for those substances

5

Flavor enhancers include such substances as monosodium glutamate (MSG) or inositol with no specific taste of
their own, but an ability to enhance other flavor ingredients. Also, substances commonly used as flavors or sweeteners
(such as cinnamon or aspartame), but used at concentrations below their own threshold of perception, may also
enhance the flavor of other ingredients.

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xviii

with a natural counterpart. The term

nature identical

was never embraced by FDA and has
largely been superseded by the term,

chemically defined

substance. The

nature identical

designation is still used by the

International Organisation of Flavour Industries

(IOFI).
The European Community (EC) Directive 88/388

6

addresses “flavouring,” “flavouring
substance” and even “flavouring preparation” which designates a flavoring resulting from a
process, such as enzymatically developed flavors in cheese. In all, the directive extends over
several pages and includes definitions, specifications and provisions for further action on
items, including limits on production methods and nonflavor ingredients in flavors (including
preservatives, solvents and processing aids).
1. This Directive shall apply to ‘flavourings’used or intended for use in or on food-
stuffs to impart odour and or taste, and to source materials used for the production
of flavorings.
2. For the purposes of this Directive:
(a) ‘flavouring’ means flavouring substances, flavouring preparations, process fla-
vourings, smoke flavourings or mixtures thereof;

(b) ‘flavouring substance’ means a defined chemical substance with flavouring
properties which is obtained:
(i) by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent
extraction) or enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of
vegetable or animal origin either in the raw state or after processing for
human consumption by traditional food-preparation processes (including
drying, torrefaction and fermentation)
(ii) by chemical synthesis or isolated by chemical processes and which is
chemically identical to a substance naturally present in material of vege-
table or animal origin as described in (i)
(iii) by chemical synthesis but which is not chemically identical to a substance
naturally present in material of vegetable or animal origin as described
in (i)
(c) ‘flavouring preparation’ means a product, other than the substances defined in
(b)(i), whether concentrated or not, with flavouring properties, which is
obtained by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent
extraction) or by enzymatic extraction) or by enzymatic or microbiological
processes from material of vegetable or animal origin, either in the raw state
or after processing for human consumption by traditional food-preparation
processes (including drying torrefaction and fermentation);
(d) ‘process flavouring’ means a product which is obtained according to good
manufacturing practices by heating to a temperature not exceeding 180

o

C for
a period not exceeding 15 minutes a mixture of ingredients, not necessarily
themselves having flavoring properties, of which at least one contains nitrogen
(amino) and another is a reducing sugar;
(e) ‘smoke flavouring’ means a smoke extract used in traditional foodstuffs smok-

ing processes.
3. Flavourings may contain foodstuffs as well as other substances as described
[elsewhere]

6

A directive sets out minimum standards and when adopted by the member states may be made more stringent. A
regulation is directly applicable to the member states without any need to transpose into national law.

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xix

This directive is binding on member states, with the exception that if a member state
determines that the regulation or regulated substance may constitute a danger to the health
of the citizens or environment of the member state, it may suspend or restrict the use of that
chemical within the borders of the member state.
The Council of Europe (CoE) uses a fairly broad definition of flavor:

A flavouring substance is a chemically-defined compound which has flavouring properties.
It is obtained either by isolation from a natural source or by synthesis. Flavouring properties
are those which are predominantly odour-producing and which may also affect the taste.

Interestingly, the Joint (WHO/FAO) Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contam-
inants (JECFA), has no definition of what constitutes a flavor, artificial or natural.
Nonregulatory organizations have slightly different views of the term

flavor

. The Inter-
national Organization of Flavour Industries indicates a flavor “concentrated preparation, with
or without solvents or carriers, used to impart flavor, with the exception of only salty, sweet,
or acid tastes. It is not intended to be consumed as such.” This definition brings up an
interesting point not addressed by regulations, that is, a flavor is not intended to be consumed
in and by itself; it is always incorporated in a delivery system (at the very least as a flavor
in mineral water or as a sweetened flavor poured over shaved ice). The Society of Flavor
Chemists describes a flavor to be “a substance that may be a single chemical entity or a blend
of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin whose primary purpose is to provide all or part
of the particular effect to any food or other product taken into the mouth.”
As descriptive as various organizations or regulatory agencies might be in their definitions,
none is so comprehensive as the following: “Flavor is the sum of those characteristics of any
material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell, and also
the general pain and tactile receptors in the mouth, as received and interpreted by the brain.”

7

This definition reminds us that flavor can be an experience as well as a sensation. Consider
the pain, bite and heat associated with capsicum (red pepper), piperine (black pepper) and
allylisothiocyanate (horseradish) as part of the “total experience” of eating food. This expe-
rience also forms associations needed for future discriminations, both negative and positive.
For example, it is possible to make banana-flavored potato chips, but the crunchy texture
would be incongruous with the taste. Conversely, we have long enjoyed pineapple-flavored
hard candy, which in reality, tastes nothing like the fruit but has long been accepted as how
a pineapple candy should taste.

7

Hall, R.L. (1968). Food flavors: benefits and problems.

Food Technol.

22

:1388.

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xxi

GLOSSARY

Absolute: A material extracted from a plant that represents a concentrated form of that
material and is extremely similar to the starting material in taste and odor. Usually,
this term refers to the alcoholic extract of a “concrete” (see below). Absolutes are
not used widely for compounding flavors.
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI): An estimate of the amount of a substance in food or
drinking water expressed on a body-weight basis that can be ingested daily over
a lifetime without appreciable risk (assuming the average adult body weight to be
60 kg). The ADI is given in milligrams per kilogram body weight (mg/kg).
Acidulant: An agent that serves several purposes in modern food processing, in addition
to its major role of rendering foods more palatable and stimulating to the consumer.
In flavoring agents, acidulants may intensify certain tastes, blend unrelated taste
characteristics or mask undesirable aftertastes. Acidulants affect only flavor, not
aroma; therefore while citric acid may be an acidulant, acetic acid is not.
ADI “not limited”: A term that is no longer used by JECFA and has been supplanted
with “ADI not specified.”
ADI “not specified”: A term used by JECFA for a food ingredient of very low toxicity
that, on the basis of the information supplied to JECFA, at historical levels of use

and current levels of use conforming to good manufacturing practices, does not
constitute a concern for safety.
Antioxidant: An additive to retard oxidation; usually a sterically hindered phenol (see
also, auto-oxidation).
Aroma: The odor or fragrance of a flavor.
Aromatic (chemical) or aroma chemical: Any chemical that has aroma or flavor prop-
erties; not to be confused with the chemist’s definition of a compound containing
a benzene ring structure.
Artificial: Similar to imitation. It is possible to have a flavor that contains all natural
ingredients, but it must be called artificial because it has no counterpart in nature.
See also the regulatory definition (21 CFR §101.3).
Artificial flavor: Any substance, the function of which is to impart flavor to a food that
is not native to that substance. See also the regulatory definition (21 CFR §101.22).
Auto-oxidation: A series of spontaneous and degradative reactions that take place in
essential oils when they are exposed to air, light, heat or metallic ions.
Balsam: Although most often associated with Peru Balsam, any plant (most often, a tree)
exudate, soluble in most organic solvents and alcohol, but insoluble in water.
Baumé (Bé): A scale of specific gravities used in graduated hydrometers. The scale is
used to express the sugar concentration of a syrup or other liquid. Most commercial
corn syrups are customarily sold on a Baumé (Bé) basis, which is a measure of
the dry-substance content and specific gravity. Baumé determination, however, has
been largely superseded by direct determination of refractive index. High fructose
corn syrups are sold on a dry substance basis without reference to Baumé.
Blender: A material, that when added to a substance, appears to bring various flavor
characteristics together. A blender may or may not introduce a flavor of its own.
For example, vanilla can act as a blender.
Bottom note: The characteristic left when top and middle notes disappear; the residue
when a flavoring evaporates.
Brix: A measure of soluble solids (sugars) obtained from the refractive index of a solution.
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xxii
Bulking: Mixing of one or more lots of the same flavorful material to produce a uniform
product. The entire crop of an essential oil may be bulked to assure uniformity.
Carrier: The diluent or solvent for a flavor. It may be liquid or solid; for example, gum
acacia is the carrier for spray-dried flavors, whereas alcohol and propylene glycol
are the carriers for many liquid-based flavors.
CAS No.: Chemical Abstracts Service number.
CDER: Center for Drug Evaluation and Review – FDA branch responsible for approval
of drugs and excipients.
CFR: Code of Federal Regulations; the official document describing regulations promul-
gated by FDA.
Citrus flavors: Flavors made from the oils and juices of the citrus fruits (e.g., orange,
lemon, lime, tangerine, grapefruit, mandarin and bergamont); also, synthetic ingre-
dients used to simulate these flavors.
Clouding agent: A flavoring adjunct used to create a translucent or opaque appearance
in citrus drinks.
CoE: Council of Europe.
CoE chemically defined categories: Chemically defined flavoring substances that are
divided into Category A (flavouring substances which may be used as foodstuffs
(referred to as List 1 substances in previous designations) and Category B (fla-
vouring substances for which further information is required before the Committee
of Experts is able to offer a firm opinion on their safety-in-use (referred to as List
2 in previous designations). Category B substances may be used provisionally in
foodstuffs. In general, Category A substances are those for which sufficient data
were available, although a JECFA ADI may not have been established for all
chemicals within the category. Where there is no ADI, the Committee of Experts
has proposed practical upper levels to be used for beverages foods and/or other
food items. Category B contains substances for which the toxicological data were
insufficient for a dispositive opinion on safety-in-use. However, extant data

allowed for provisional acceptance, provided usage levels do not exceed levels
designated, and pending the submission of additional data, an ultimate opinion
will be rendered.
CoE natural flavouring categories: Category 1 – Plants, animals and other organisms,
and parts of these or products thereof, normally consumed as food items, herbs or
spices in Europe for which it is considered that there should be no restrictions on
use. Category 2 – Plants, animals and other organisms, and parts of these or
products thereof, and preparations derived therefrom, not normally consumed as
food items, herbs or spices in Europe, but on the basis of information available,
including consumption data, are not considered to constitute a risk to the consumer.
Category 3 – Plants, etc., normally consumed in Europe which contain defined
“active principles” or “other chemical components” requiring limits on use levels.
Category 4 – Plants, etc., not normally consumed in Europe which contain defined
“active principles” or “other chemical components” requiring limits on use levels.
Category 5 – Plants, etc., for which additional toxicological and/or chemical
information is required. These could be temporarily acceptable provided limits for
the which contain “active principles” or “other chemical components” were not
exceeded. Category 6 – Plants, etc., which are considered unfit for human con-
sumption in any amount.
Cold pressing: A process for expressing citrus essential oils by pressure without the use
of heat; a process for pressing or squeezing out the oil from the rind of the fruit.
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xxiii
Comminution: The process of grinding or breaking into small fragments.
Compounds: Not to be confused with the chemist’s definition (i.e., two elements chem-
ically combined), but a flavoring mixture (flavor) composed of two or more sub-
stances. These substances can be natural or synthetic, a chemical or an essential
oil, an extract or an oleoresin or combinations. Unlike chemical compounds, which
are of known fixed compositions, flavor compounds are usually proprietary mix-

tures. Normally, they are finished flavorings that can be added directly to a product
so that no additional flavorings are needed.
Concentrated fruit juices: A fruit juice from which the water has been partially removed
by some form of evaporation, such as distillation. The juice is usually concentrated
to the strength of 5 to 6 times the single-fold juice. The essences are usually added
back to the concentrate before use.
Concentrated or folded citrus oils: Essential oils, such as lemon oil, in which part of
the terpene fraction has been removed either by distillation or solvent extraction.
The process produces essential oils of greater strength and character, with greater
alcohol solubility. They also usually show better stability to oxidation.
Concrete: A semisolid mixture containing the essential oil and fatty, waxy materials
obtained after extracting the plant tissue, especially flowers, with various solvents.
Consumption (annual): From the PAFA database, originating from the NAS survey of
1987 (NAS, 1989) and assuming only 60% of poundage was reported.
Consumption (individual): A per capita estimate of intake (Maximum Survey-Derived
Daily Intake or MSDI) based on “disappearance data” from periodic surveys
conducted by the National Academy of Sciences under contract to FDA (NRC,
1989). The last survey was conducted in 1987 and was based on a voluntary
reporting by manufacturers of the volume of ingredients produced during the survey
year. The assumption is that there is a finite amount of substance available and it
is ingested regardless of source at the retail level. The method is easy to use because
it divides the total yearly poundage by the population in the survey year and the
number of days per year. Some considerations are necessary in the use of the survey
data: because (1) not all producers participate, it is generally held that the amount
reported is a fraction of the actual volume; and (2) not all persons eat all foods
each day in each category in which the substance may be found and conversely,
some consumers may seek out the substance; therefore, distribution of consumption
may be uneven. In order to compensate for these variables, FDA assumes (1) only
60% of the actual value was reported and (2) only 10% of the U.S. population
(243.9 million in 1987) consumes 100% of the calculated amount (Clydesdale,

1997). Again, the assumption is made for a 60 kg individual.
Council of Europe (CoE):
8
A body of 41 European states, among which have signed
the Partial Agreement in the Social and Public Health Field. A Committee of
Experts has been appointed by the signers to review the safety of substances added
to food. The substances reviewed by CoE are designated as “chemically defined”
and “natural flavouring” substances; there are subsets of each designation.
Decoction: A solution made by boiling the material to be extracted with a solvent, usually
followed by filtration, for example, the preparation of tea.
Distillate: A clear, flavorful liquid produced from fruits, herbs, roots, etc., by distillation;
also the condensed product separated by distillation.
8
For definitions of the Council of Europe designations (categories) and an explanation of the principles used, the
reader is urged to contact the Council of Europe at www.coe.int/soc-sp.
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xxiv
Distillation: The separation of a more volatile part of a substance from those less volatile
by vaporizing and subsequent condensation. Two types are generally used: steam
and fractional distillation.
Distilled oil: The oil separated from a botanical material by distillation methods.
Dry solubles: Natural spice oils and/or oleoresins extended on a soluble, dry, edible
carrier.
EEC: European Economic Community = European Union.
EINECS: European Inventory of New and Existing Chemicals.
ELINCS: European List of Notified Chemical Substances.
Emulsion: A system containing two immiscible liquids in which one is dispersed as very
small droplets or globules throughout the other. For example, an emulsion may be
water-in-oil or oil-in-water.

Encapsulation: A process by which a particle is coated with a partially impermeable
layer to retard evaporation and/or chemical reaction. Basically, the material to be
protected is wrapped in a wall of impervious material that serves to lock in or
entrap the volatile substances.
Enhancer: An ingredient that is added to supplement, enhance or modify the original
taste and/or aroma of a food without imparting a characteristic taste or aroma of
its own. (Examples include maltol, ethyl maltol and monosodium glutamate.)
EOA: Essential Oil Association.
Essence: Concentrated fragrance or flavorant. In some countries, essence is used to
designate volatile oils, but in the U.S., this term is commonly applied to alcoholic
solutions of volatile oils.
Essential oil: An oily substance obtained from plant material through various methods.
The essential oil normally has the characteristic taste and odor of the plant from
which it was derived. An essential oil is still called a volatile oil as differentiated
from a fixed oil. The hydraulically pressed sesame seed yields a fixed oil (sesame
oil) that has low odor and is not volatile. The anise seed, upon distillation, yields
odorous and volatile oil — oil of anise. Essential oils may have received their
name because at one time they were thought to be essential to the life processes
of the plant or were the essence of the plant.
Excipient: Any ingredient in a mixture of substances that is not present as an active
ingredient and may include solvents, preservatives, stabilizers, etc. In drugs, this
would include any tablet or capsule ingredients as well. In drugs, the only active
ingredients are those present for a specific pharmacologic effect. No excipient may
exert a pharmacologic effect and remain an excipient.
Expression: A process using pressure to obtain an essential oil, usually out of the rind
of citrus fruits without the use of heat.
Extended flavor: Dispersion of a flavor on a dry carrier. The flavor may be liquid (flavors,
spice oils or oleoresins) or solid (vanillin or heliotropine) and can be natural or
artificial. The dry carrier is usually an anhydrous material, such as dextrose. These
flavors are also referred to as plated flavors (see also Dry solubles).

Extract: A solution obtained by passing alcohol, or an alcohol–water mixture, through
a substance. An example would be vanilla extract. Extracts found on the grocer’s
shelf, such as orange, almond, lemon, etc., are essential oils dissolved in an
alcohol–water mixture.
FEMA: Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association – one of several groups conferring
GRAS status.
FFPA: Free from Prussic Acid – used to describe HCN-free bitter almond oil.
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xxv
Fixative: Usually applied to perfume, but in flavoring, acts to reduce the overall volatility
of the flavoring.
Fixed oil: Generally, refers to a nonvolatile oil, obtained by hydraulic pressing or solvent
extraction, with little or no odor (e.g., sesame oil).
Fold: Indicates the degree of concentration of an extract or oil. For example, a fourfold
oil indicates a concentration of 8 to 2 kg.
Food: “Food includes human food, substances migrating to food and from food contact
articles, pet food, and animal feed” (see 21 CFR §170.3).
Food additive: Indicates any substance approved for addition to food by FDA on the
basis of a food additive petition. Food additives are but one category of the all-
inclusive designation, food ingredients. Other categories of food ingredients
include, but are not limited to GRAS substances, prior-sanctioned substances and
color additives (both certified and noncertified). Although each category is distinct
under FDA regulations, some substances are members of more than a single
category. For example, a substance can be both a food additive and a GRAS
substance at the same time.
Food standard: A method or process and/or list of ingredients that may be used in a
food that FDA has defined through regulation such as mayonnaise, macaroni,
farina, French dressing or milk chocolate. Food standards were developed, in part,
to thwart unscrupulous manufacturers from marketing products that did not con-

form to the usual and common understanding of the nature of a particular product.
GRAS: The acronym for G
enerally Recognized As Safe, indicating any substance (and
its intended use) that has been granted GRAS status by experts (either in or outside
FDA). (See 21 CFR §170.30.)
GRAS affirmed: A substance whose GRAS status has been designated by one party and
is affirmed GRAS by FDA (21 CFR §184.1). The FDA GRAS Affirmation Program
played a large role initially in incorporating food ingredients into the CFR (21
CRF §182), but GRAS affirmation has fallen into disuse, having been supplanted
by the GRAS Notification Program.
GRAS notification: The proposed regulation 21 CFR §176 (Federal Register (1997).
62(74):18937-18964), which provides for a notification system to FDA for any
substance found to be GRAS. The notification system is voluntary.
Herbs of commerce (HOC): 21 CFR §101.4(h) – part of the labeling regulation requires
— “The common or usual name of ingredients of dietary supplements that are
botanicals (including fungi and algae) shall be consistent with the names standard-
ized in Herbs of Commerce, 1992 edition, which is incorporated by reference in
accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51.” This designation in Fenaroli’s
indicates this substance is recognized in Herbs of Commerce.
Imitation: A flavor containing all or some portion of nonnatural materials. For example,
unless an orange flavoring is made entirely from orange, it is imitation. Specific
provisions for the use of the word imitation are described in 21 CFR §101.3.
Inactive ingredient: An excipient — any ingredient in a mixture of substances that is
not present as an active ingredient and may include solvents, preservatives, stabi-
lizers, etc. In drugs, this would include any tablet or capsule ingredients as well.
In drugs, the only active ingredients are those present for a specific pharmacologic
effect. No excipient may exert a pharmacologic effect and remain an excipient.
Indirect food additive: A substance that is not directly added to food, but whose use in
the proximity of food may allow for migration of the substance into food (e.g., a
component of a food wrapper).

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xxvi
Infusion: Prepared by refluxing a solvent over raw materials (usually alcohol), often using
heat over a prolonged period of time. This is an archaic methodology, no longer
employed.
IOFI: International Organization of Flavour Industries.
Isolate: A chemical or fraction obtained from a natural substance. For example, citral
can be isolated from lemon oil or lemongrass.
JECFA: Joint (WHO/FAO) Expert Committee on Food Additives.
LGMP (limited by good manufacturing practice): A food ingredient whose use in
food is self-limiting for technological, organoleptic or other reasons. Many flavor
ingredients are self-limiting and over-use would make food impalatable.
Maceration: To steep or soak in a solvent for the purpose of extraction.
Maillard reaction: Flavor production by nonenzymatic browning of food; proceeds
mainly from reactions of reducing sugars with amines, peptides and proteins.
Masking agent: An ingredient capable of covering or at least making more acceptable
an unpleasant odor or taste in a food or pharmaceutical.
Menstrum: The medium in which a substances is dissolved – a solvent.
Middle note or main note: The substance of a flavor; the main characteristic.
Modifier: An ingredient that influences, but does not change materially, the flavor and
odor characteristics of a flavor.
MRL (maximum residue limit): A term used by JECFA to indicate the maximum con-
centration of residue resulting from the use of a veterinary drug that is acceptable
in or on a food.
MTDI (maximum tolerable daily intake): See PMTDI.
NAS (National Academy of Sciences): In this context, the NAS number that is the iden-
tification number provided by NAS for the purposes of the surveys for food
ingredients.
Nature identical: A naturally-occurring substance produced by synthetic means.

Note: A distinct flavor or odor characteristic. For example, many raspberry flavors have
a seedy note.
Oleoresin: A resinous–viscous product obtained when a substance is extracted with a
nonaqueous solvent. The solvent is later removed. Spices, as a class, form most
of the oleoresins the flavorist encounters; an example would be pepper oleoresin.
PMTDI (provisional maximum tolerable daily intake): A term used by JECFA to
indicate the endpoint used for contaminants with no cumulative properties. Its value
represents permissible human exposure as a result of the natural occurrence of the
substance in food and in drinking water.
Possible average daily intake (PADI): The FEMA PADI (possible average daily intake)
that is similar to the TAMDI concept, using maximum use level values, but only
mean consumption values (based on Market Research Corporation of America
mean frequency of eating and USDA mean portion size of 34 general food cate-
gories). Therefore, the FEMA PADI (in milligrams/person/day) is the mean con-
sumption of foods containing the maximum amount. The conservatism of the PADI
method assumes that the maximum amount of substance is added to the entire food
category, not just the substance within that category. For example, the consumption
of a substance added only to marshmallow cream cookies (a relatively rarely eaten
food) would account for very little consumption, but the FEMA assumption is the
substance is added to all baked goods, not just the small portion of baked goods
represented by an exotic cookie.
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xxvii
Prior-sanctioned food ingredient: A substance approved for the addition to food by
FDA or USDA prior to September 6, 1958, and whose approval remains in place.
FDA prior-sanctioned substances include several food-packaging materials and
as single or multiple food contact materials. The USDA prior-sanctioned sub-
stances are sodium and potassium nitrate and nitrite for use in meat and poultry
products.

PTWI (provisional tolerable weekly intake): The endpoint used for food contaminants
such as heavy metals with cumulative properties. The value of the PTWI represents
permissible human weekly exposure to those contaminants unavoidably associated
with the consumption of otherwise wholesome foods.
Reported uses: As given in the text of this book, those amounts (both usual and maxi-
mum) in specific categories of food. Unless otherwise noted, the reported uses in
this book are those designated by the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Associ-
ation (FEMA) from the list of 34 food categories adopted by FEMA. FDA recog-
nizes 43 general categories of food (21 CFR §170.3(n)) as originally established
in Exhibit 33B of the report of the National Academy of Sciences/National
Research Council report, “A Comprehensive Survey of Industry on the Use of Food
Chemicals Generally Recognized as Safe” (September 1972).
Secondary food additive: Usually designating a substance used in the manufacture of
food and, although it may be present in the final product, having no functionality
in the final food. Examples include enzymes for processing cheese, solvents,
lubricants or release agents (a release agent allows a piece of candy to exit the
mold without damage).
Single-fold oil: The oil as it is produced from the plant (distillation or expression), without
concentration.
Solid extract: A water-soluble concentrated extractant resulting from the extraction of
plant matter using water-compatible solvents. If the concentrated product is oil-
soluble, it would be an oleoresin. Fluid extracts are water or alcohol reconstitutions
of solid extracts.
Specialty: Usually similar to a compound, only not finished. A specialty, although not
complete, carries the major part of the flavor load, so that only a few other
substances are needed to complete the flavoring.
Synthetic: Produced by chemical means, but not to be confused with the term artificial.
Terpeneless oil: Removal of some terpenes to provide stability because they contribute
to the instability of an essential oil. However, removal of all terpenes may severely
undermine the flavor. There is no standard of what constitutes a “terpeneless oil.”

Theoretical added maximum daily intake (TAMDI): Calculated on the basis of upper
use levels and the estimated daily intakes of foods. For example, the more recent
FEMA GRAS lists indicate two levels of use, the “average usual” and “average
maximum.” The TAMDI would be determined using the “average maximum” level
times the estimated daily intake of the food to which the substance is added. The
estimated daily would presumably maximized as well, using the 90
th
or 95
th
per-
centile consumption.
Tincture: An alcoholic extract of a botanical material, without further processing.
Although originally an apothecary’s term, in the flavor industry, it refers to an
alcoholic extract of a botanical in which the aroma is preserved.
Top note: The first note normally perceived when a flavor is smelled or tasted. Usually
a top note is relatively volatile and suggests identity.
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xxviii
Type or class: The flavorist’s tendency to group similar flavors together, for example,
red flavors (flavorings): strawberry, cherry, raspberry; citrus flavors: lemon, orange,
lime, grapefruit, bergamot; brown flavors: coffee, malt, caramel; spice flavors:
cassia, clove, nutmeg. Classes can also be made by volatility, chemical function
or end use.
WONF (with other natural flavors): Essentially, this indicates the addition of juices in
addition to those indicated as the characterizing flavor as identified on the label of
the container. Please consult 21 CFR §102 for labeling regulations of this type of
product.
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xxix
ACETAL
Synonyms: Acetaldehyde diethyl acetal
Description: A colorless liquid with a pungent, green, woody solvent pleasant odor
and whisky or nutty taste.
Consumption: Annual: 1000.00 lb Individual: 0.0008474 mg/kg/day
Regulatory Status:
CoE: Approved. Bev.: 23 ppm; Food: 20 ppm
FDA: 21 CFR 172.515
FDA (other): n/a
JECFA: n/a
Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 11.580 mg IOFI: Nature Identical
Synthesis: From ethyl alcohol and acetaldehyde in the presence of anh
ydrous calcium
chloride.
Aroma threshold values: Detection: 4 to 42 ppb
Taste threshold values: n/a
Natural occurrence: Present in some liquors (e.g., sake, whiskey and cognac); also
detected and quantitatively assessed in rums.
CAS No.: 105-57-7 EEC No.: 35 FEMA No.: 2002 NAS No.: 2002
CoE No.: 35 EINECS No.: 203-310-6 JECFA No.: n/a
Empirical Formula/MW:
C
6
H
14
0
2
/118.18
Specifications: (FCC, 1996 and proposed 2000)

Appearance Colorless to pale-yellow liquid Solubility Soluble in alcohol
Assay 97.0% of C
6
H
14
0
2
Specific gravity 0.821-0.827 at 25˚C
Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)
Food Category Usual Max. Food Category Usual Max.
Alcoholic beverages 5.00 13.33 Gelatin, pudding 36.39 66.78
Baked goods 65.20 89.70 Hard candy 4.20 4.20
Chewing gum 154.70 154.70 Nonalcoholic beverages
5.41 10.55
Preferred name (usually the most
commonly used FDA name)
Names appearing in bold are the
most common synonyms
Identification numbers. See Glossary
for description of each
Describes the organoleptic character-
istics and other relevant information
See Glossary for detailed explanation
United States and European
regulatory agencies. See Glossary
for description of each term
FEMA Possible Average Daily
Intake (PADI), IOFI designation
(Natural, Nature Identical or
Artificial

Chemical formula, molecular weight
(grams/mole) and chemical structure
FCC specifications where available,
otherwise JECFA or presumed article
of commerce
FEMA GRAS approved uses only (in
ppm). There may be other (unpub-
lished) use levels
Brief description of industrial
processes
Representative values from the
literature
Representative values in distilled
water unless otherwise designated
Reported in the literature for
substances designated by IOFI as
“Nature Identical”
BRIEF EXPLANATION OF A SYNTHETIC FLAVOR
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xxx
ACACIA GUM
Botanical name: Acacia sengal (L.) willd
Botanical family: Leguminosae
Other names: Acacia sengal gum; Arabic gum
Description: Arabic or acacia gum is the dried exudate obtained from the stems and
branches of Acacia senegal (L.) willd or of related species of Acacia. Injured trees
exude Gum Arabic; heat, poor nutrition and drought stimulate it
s production.
Consumption: Annual: 12,000,000 lb Individual: 10.1694 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status:
CoE: n/a
FDA: 21 CFR 169.179, 184.1330, 582.7330, 27 CFR 24.246, 240.1051
FDA (other): Approved as an excipient (CDER, 1996); HOC (1992)
JECFA: ADI: Not specified (1989)
Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 2.47 mg IOFI: Naturall
Physical-chemical characteristics: The oil is a mobile pale-yellow liquid exhibiting
a peculiar odor and an extremely bitter flavor.
Composition: Four acetophenone glycosides were isolated from the butanol-soluble
fraction.
Aroma threshold values: n/a
Taste threshold values: Absolute; taste characteristics at 15 ppm: spicy sweet, fruity
and honey with a woody herbal nuance.
CAS No.: 9000-01-05 EEC No.: 8 FEMA No.: 2001 NAS No.: 2001
CoE No.: n/a EINECS No.: 232-519-5 JECFA No.: n/a
Specifications: (FCC, 1996)
Appearance
White or yellowish-white
spheroidal tears
Insoluble matter Not more than 1%
Arsenic (as AS) Not more than 3 mg/kg Solubility
One gram dissolves in 2
ml water
Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)
Food Category Usual Max. Food Category Usual Max.
Alcoholic beverages 0.59 1.53 Imitation dairy 9.56 12.50
Baked goods 0.78 3.84 Instant coffee/tea 0.13 0.80
Breakfast cereals 0.07 0.18 Meat products
0.99 3.37
Preferred name (usually the most

commonly used FDA name)
Genus and species name
Identification numbers. See Glossary
for description of each
Describes the plant (and plant parts)
from which the flavoring is derived
FEMA Possible Average Daily
Intake (PADI), IOFI designation
(Natural, Nature Identical or
Artificial
Included for those plants from which
flavoring substances are derived
Representative values from the
literature
See Glossary for detailed explanation
United States and European
regulatory agencies. See Glossary
for description of each term
FCC specifications where available,
otherwise JECFA or presumed article
of commerce
FEMA GRAS approved uses only
(in ppm). There may be other
(unpublished) use levels
Representative values from the
literature
Reported in the literature for
substances designated by IOFI as
“Nature Identical”
BRIEF EXPLANATION OF A NATURAL FLAVOR

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Flavor Ingredients

A

ACACIA GUM

Botanical name:



Acacia sengal

(L.) willd.

Botanical family:

Leguminosae

Other names:

Acacia sengal gum; Arabic gum; gum Arabic; Acacia delbata gum; Acacia
solution; Acacia syrup; Australian gum; Gum Arabic; Indian gum; Wattle gum

Description:

Arabic or acacia gum is the dried exudate obtained from the stems and branches
of

Acacia Senegal

(L.) willd. or of related species of

Acacia

. Injured trees exude gum Arabic;
heat, poor nutrition and drought stimulate its production. Most of the gum Arabic production
is from wild trees, but some from privately owned and cultivated gardens are tapped and col-
lected on a systematic basis.
The gum called Hashab geneina (garden gum) is the cleanest and lightest grade and
is most preferred for the U.S. market. The wild gum (called Hashab wady) is collected on a part-
time basis in the dry season, from October to May or June, by natives whose main occupation is
usually farming. After gathering, it is taken to central collecting stations where it is auctioned
under government supervision, graded by hand and dried before exporting to gum suppliers in all
parts of the world. Then it is resorted, ground, processed and graded to various specifications.
Clear, white (sun-bleached) spheroidal tears, up to 32 mm in diameter, also occur
as flakes. Chemically, gum Arabic is a neutral or slightly acid salt of a complex polysaccha-
ride containing calcium, magnesium and potassium cations. Its most distinguishing property
among the natural gums is its extreme solubility in water. Solutions of over 50% concentra-
tion may be prepared. Gum Arabic is best described as "heteropolymolecular," that is, a poly-
mer system having either a variation in monomer (galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, glucuronic
acid and 4-

O

-methylgucuronic acid) composition and/or variation in the mode of linking and
branching of the monomer units, in addition to a distribution in molecular weight.
Major uses of gum Arabic in foods are as a fixative for flavors, a foam stabilizer

in beverages, an adhesive for icings and toppings, and an emulsifier and stabilizer in confec-
tionary and ice cream. It is also widely used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, paper, textile,
paint, ink and lithography industries.

Consumption:

Annual: 12000000.00 lb Individual: 10.1694 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status:

CoE: n/a
FDA: 21 CFR 169.179, 184.1330, 582.7330; 27 CFR 24.246; 240.1051
FDA (other): Listed in Inactive Ingredient Guide (CDER, 1996); HOC (1992)
JECFA: ADI: Not specified (1989)

Trade association guidelines:

FEMA PADI: 2.47 mg IOFI: Natural

CAS No.: 9000-01-05 FL No.: n/a FEMA No.: 2001 NAS No.: 2001
CoE No.: n/a EINECS No.: 232-519-5 JECFA No.: n/a

Specifications: (FCC, 1996)

Appearance
White or yellowish white
spheroidal tears
Heavy metals (as Pb) Not more than 0.002%
Arsenic (as As) Not more than 3 mg/kg Identification
To 10 ml of a cold 1-in-50

solution of acacia, add 0.2
ml diluted lead sub-ace-
tate TS; a flocculent, or
curdy, white precipitate is
formed immediately

(Part 1 of 2)

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