Carbohydrates 1 - Principle of food chemistry

INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates occur in plant and animal
tissues as well as in microorganisms in many
different forms and levels. In animal organ-
isms,
the main sugar is glucose and the stor-
age carbohydrate is glycogen; in milk, the
main sugar is almost exclusively the
disac-
charide
lactose. In plant organisms, a wide
variety of monosaccharides and oligosaccha-
rides occur, and the storage carbohydrate is
starch. The structural
polysaccharide
of
plants is cellulose. The gums are a varied
group of polysaccharides obtained from
plants, seaweeds, and microorganisms.
Because of their useful physical properties,
the gums have found widespread application
in food processing. The carbohydrates that
occur in a number of food products are listed
in Table
4-1.
MONOSACCHARIDES
D-glucose
is the most important monosac-
charide
and is derived from the simplest
sugar,

D-glyceraldehyde,
which is classed as
an aldotriose. The designation of aldose and
ketose sugars indicates the chemical charac-
ter of the reducing
form
of a sugar and can be
indicated by the simple or open-chain for-
mula of Fischer, as shown in Figure
4-1.
This
type of formula shows the free aldehyde
group and four optically active secondary
hydroxyls. Since the chemical reactions of
the sugars do not correspond to this structure,
a ring configuration involving a
hemiacetal
between carbons 1 and 5 more accurately
represents the structure of the monosaccha-
rides.
The five-membered ring structure is
called
furanose;
the six-membered ring, pyra-
nose.
Such rings are heterocyclic because one
member is an oxygen atom. When the reduc-
ing group becomes involved in a hemiacetal
ring structure, carbon 1 becomes asymmetric
and two isomers are possible; these are called

anomers.
Most natural sugars are members of the D
series.
The designation D or L refers to two
series of sugars. In the D series, the highest
numbered asymmetric carbon has the OH
group directed to the right, in the Fischer
projection formula. In the L series, this
hydroxyl points to the left. This originates
from the simplest sugars, D- and
L-glyceral-
dehyde (Figure
4-2).
After the introduction of the Fischer for-
mulas came the use of the Haworth represen-
tation, which was an attempt to give a more
accurate spatial view of the molecule. Be-
cause the Haworth formula does not account
for the actual bond angles, the modern con-
Carbohydrates
CHAPTER
4
Table
4-1
Carbohydrates in Some Foods and Food Products
Product
Fruits
Apple
Grape
Strawberry

Vegetables
Carrot
Onion
Peanuts
Potato
Sweet corn
Sweet potato
Turnip
Others
Honey
Maple syrup
Meat
Milk
Sugarbeet
Sugar cane juice
Total Sugar
(%)
14.5
17.3
8.4
9.7
8.7
18.6
17.1
22.1
26.3
6.6
82.3
65.5
4.9

18-20
14-28
Mono-
and
Disaccharides
(%)
glucose
1.17;
fructose 6.04;
sucrose 3.78; mannose trace
glucose 5.35; fructose 5.33;
sucrose 1.32; mannose
2.19
glucose 2.09; fructose 2.40;
sucrose
1
.03;
mannose 0.07
glucose 0.85; fructose 0.85;
sucrose 4.25
glucose 2.07; fructose 1.09;
sucrose 0.89
sucrose
4-1
2
sucrose
12-17
glucose 0.87; sucrose 2-3
glucose 1.5; fructose
1.18;

sucrose 0.42
glucose 28-35;
fructose 34-41 ;
sucrose 1-5
sucrose 58.2-65.5;
hexoses
0.0-7.9
glucose 0.01
lactose 4.9
sucrose 18-20
glucose + fructose 4-8;
sucrose
10-20
Polysaccharides
(%)
starch
1
.5;
cellulose
1 .0
cellulose 0.6
cellulose
1 .3
starch 7.8;
cellulose 1.0
cellulose 0.71
cellulose 2.4
starch
14;
cellulose 0.5

cellulose 0.7;
cellulose 60
starch 14.65;
cellulose 0.7
cellulose
0.9
glycogen
0.10
formational formulas (Figure 4-1) more
accurately represent the sugar molecule. A
number of chair conformations of pyranose
sugars are possible
(Shallenberger
and Birch
1975) and the two most important ones for
glucose are shown in Figure
4—1.
These are
named the CI D and the IC D forms (also
described as
O-outside
and
O-inside,
respec-
tively).
In the
CID
form of
(3-D-gluco-pyra-
nose,

all hydroxyls are in the equatorial
position, which represents the highest ther-
modynamic stability.
The two possible anomeric forms of
monosaccharides are designated by Greek
letter prefix a or p. In the
oc-anomer
the
hydroxyl group points to the right, according
to the Fischer projection formula; the
hydroxyl group points to the left in the p-
anomer.
In Figure 4-1 the structure marked
Cl D represents the
oc-anomer,
and 1C D
represents the p-anomer. The anomeric
forms of the sugars are in tautomeric equilib-
rium in solution; and this causes the change
in optical rotation when
a
sugar is placed in
CHO
CHO
HCOH
HOCH
I
I
CH
2

OH CH
2
OH
Figure 4-2 Structure of D- and
L-Glyceralde-
hyde.
Source: From R.S.
Shallenberger
and G.G.
Birch, Sugar
Chemistry,
1975, AVI Publishing
Co.
solution. Under normal conditions, it may
take several hours or longer before the equi-
librium is established and the optical rotation
reaches its equilibrium value. At room tem-
perature an aqueous solution of glucose can
exist in four tautomeric forms (Angyal
1984):
P-furanoside—0.14
percent, acyclic
aldehyde—0.0026
percent,
p-pyranoside—
62 percent, and
oc-pyranoside—38
percent
(Figure 4-3). Fructose under the same con-
ditions also exists in four tautomeric forms

as follows:
oc-pyranoside—trace,
p-pyrano-
side—75
percent,
oc-furanoside—4
percent,
and
p-furanoside—21
percent (Figure 4-4)
(Angyal 1976).
When the monosaccharides become
involved in condensation into di-,
oligo-,
and
polysaccharides, the conformation of the
bond on the number 1 carbon becomes fixed
and the different compounds have either an
all-a
or
all-p
structure at this position.
Naturally occurring sugars are mostly hex-
oses,
but sugars with different numbers of
carbons are also present in many products.
There are also sugars with different func-
Figure
4-1 Methods of Representation of
D-Glucose.

Source: From M.L. Wolfrom, Physical and
Chemical Structures of Carbohydrates, in Symposium on Foods: Carbohydrates and Their
Roles,
H.
W.
Schultz, R.F. Cain, and
R.W.
Wrolstad, eds., 1969, AVI Publishing Co.
GLUCOSE(deKtrose)
Aldose (oldohexose)
Howorth
Conformotionol
Glucopyronose
Glucose
Fischer
Fischer
Figure 4-3 Tautomeric Forms of Glucose in Aqueous Solution at Room Temperature
Figure
4-4
Tautomeric Forms of Fructose in Aqueous Solution at Room Temperature
tional groups or
substituents;
these lead to
such diverse compounds as aldoses, ketoses,
amino sugars, deoxy sugars, sugar acids,
sugar alcohols, acetylated or methylated sug-
ars,
anhydro sugars,
oligo-
and polysaccha-

rides,
and glycosides. Fructose is the most
widely occurring ketose and is shown in its
various representations in Figure 4-5. It is
the sweetest known sugar and occurs bound
to glucose in sucrose or common sugar. Of
all the other possible hexoses only two occur
widely—D-mannose
and
D-galactose.
Their
formulas and relationship to
D-glucose
are
given in Figure 4-6.
RELATED
COMPOUNDS
Amino sugars usually contain
D-glu-
cosamine (2-deoxy-2-amino glucose). They
occur as components of high molecular
weight compounds such as the chitin of crus-
taceans and mollusks, as well as in certain
mushrooms and in combination with the
ovomucin of egg white.
Glycosides are sugars in which the hydro-
gen of an anomeric hydroxy group has been
replaced by an
alkyl
or

aryl
group to form a
mixed acetal. Glycosides are hydrolyzed by
acid or enzymes but are stable to alkali. For-
mation of the full acetal means that glyco-
sides have no reducing power. Hydrolysis of
glycosides yields sugar and the aglycone.
Amygdalin
is an example of one of the cyan-
ogetic glycosides and is a component of bit-
ter almonds. The glycone moiety of this
compound is gentiobiose, and complete
hydrolysis yields benzaldehyde, hydrocyanic
acid, and glucose (Figure 4-7). Other impor-
tant glycosides are the flavonone glycosides
of citrus rind, which include hesperidin and
naringin, and the mustard oil glycosides,
such as
sinigrin,
which is a component of
mustard and horseradish. Deoxy sugars
occur as components of nucleotides; for
example, 2-deoxyribose constitutes part of
deoxyribonucleic acid.
Sugar alcohols occur in some fruits and are
produced industrially as food ingredients.
Figure
4-5
Methods
of

Representation
of
D-Fructose.
Source:
From
M.L.
Wolfrom,
Physical
and
Chemical
Structures
of
Carbohydrates,
in
Symposium
on
Foods:
Carbohydrates
and
Their
Roles,
H.W.
Schultz,
R.F.
Cain,
and
R.W.
Wrolstad,
eds.,
1969, AVI

Publishing
Co.
They can be made by reduction of free sug-
ars with sodium amalgam and lithium alumi-
num hydride or by catalytic hydrogenation.
The resulting compounds are sweet as sug-
ars,
but are only slowly absorbed and can,
therefore, be used as sweeteners in diabetic
foods.
Reduction of glucose yields glucitol
(Figure 4-8), which has the trivial name sor-
bitol.
Another commercially produced sugar
alcohol is xylitol, a five-carbon compound,
which is also used for diabetic foods (Figure
4-8).
Pentitols and hexitols are widely dis-
tributed in many foods, especially fruits and
vegetables
(Washiittl
et
al.
1973), as is indi-
cated in Table 4-2.
Anhydro sugars occur as components of
seaweed
polysaccharides
such as alginate
and agar. Sugar acids occur in the pectic sub-

Figure
4-6
Relationship
of
D-Aldehyde
Sugars. Source:
From
M.L.
Wolfrom,
Physical
and
Chemical
Structures
of Carbohydrates, in
Symposium
on Foods:
Carbohydrates
and
Their
Roles,
H.W.
Schultz,
R.F
Cain,
and
R.W.
Wrolstad,
eds.,
1969, AVI
Publishing

Co.
Figure
4-7
Hydrolysis
of the
Glycoside Amygdalin
Benzaldehyde
o-Glucose
Amygdalin
Gentiobiose
stances.
When some of the carboxyl groups
are esterified with methanol, the compounds
are known as pectins. By far the largest
group of
saccharides
occurs as
oligo-
and
polysaccharides.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Polymers of monosaccharides may be
either of the homo- or hetero-type. When the
number of units in a glycosidic chain is in
the range of 2 to
10,
the resulting compound
is an oligosaccharide. More than 10 units are
usually considered to constitute a polysac-
CH

2
OH
HCOH CH
2
OH
I
I
HOCH HCOH
I
I
HCOH HOCH
I
I
HCOH HCOH
I
I
CH
2
OH CH
2
OH
Figure
4-8
Structure of Sorbitol and Xylitol
charide. The number of possible oligosac-
charides is very large, but only a few are
found in large quantities in foods; these are
listed in Table 4-3. They are composed of
the monosaccharides
D-glucose,

D-galac-
tose,
and
D-fructose,
and they are closely
related to one another, as shown in Figure
4-9.
Sucrose or ordinary sugar occurs in abun-
dant quantities in many plants and is com-
mercially obtained from sugar cane or sugar
beets.
Since the reducing groups of the
monosaccharides are linked in the glycosidic
bond, this constitutes one of the few nonre-
ducing disaccharides. Sucrose, therefore,
does not reduce Fehling solution or form
osazones and it does not undergo
mutarota-
tion in solution. Because of the unique car-
bonyl-to-carbonyl
linkage, sucrose is highly
labile in acid medium, and acid hydrolysis is
more rapid than with other
oligosaccharides.
The structure of sucrose is shown in Figure
4-10.
When sucrose is heated to
21O
0
C,

par-
tial decomposition takes place and caramel is
formed. An important reaction of sucrose,
Table
4-2
Occurrence
of
Sugar-Alcohols
in
Some
Foods
(Expressed
as
mg/100g
of Dry
Food)
Source:
From
J.
Washiittl,
R
Reiderer,
and E.
Bancher,
A
Qualitative
and
Quantitative
Study
of

Sugar-Alcohols
in
Several
Foods:
A
Research
Role,
J.
Food
ScL,
Vol.
38,
pp.
1262-1263,1973.
Product
Bananas
Pears
Raspberries
Strawberries
Peaches
Celery
Cauliflower
White
mushrooms
Arabitol
340
Xylitol
21
268
362

300
128
Mannitol
4050
476
Sorbitol
4600
960
Galactitol
48
which it has in common with other sugars, is
the formation of insoluble compounds with
calcium hydroxide. This reaction results in
the formation of tricalcium compounds
C
12
H
22
O
11
-S
Ca(OH)
2
and is useful for
recovering sucrose from
molasses.
When the
calcium saccharate is treated with
CO
2

,
the
sugar is liberated.
Hydrolysis of sucrose results in the forma-
tion of equal quantities of
D-glucose
and D-
MANNlNOTRlOSE
GALACTOBIOSE
MEUBIOSE
GAlACTOSE
GAtACTOSE
GlUCOSE
FRUCTOSE
SUCROSE
RAFFINOSE
STACHYOSE
Figure
4-9
Composition
of
Some
Major
Oligosaccharides Occurring
in Foods. Source:
From
R.S.
Shallenberger
and G.G.
Birch,

Sugar
Chemistry,
1975, AVI
Publishing
Co.
Table
4-3
Common Oligosaccharides Occurring in Foods
Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose
a,oc-Trehalose
Raffinose
Stachyose
Verbascose
(a-D-glucopyranosyl
p-D-fructofuranoside)
(4-O-p-D-galactopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose)
(4-O-a-D-glucopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose)
(a-D-glucopyranosyl-a-D-glycopyranoside)
[O-a-D-galactopyranosyl-(1
->6)-O-cc-D-glucopyranosyl-(1
->2)-
p-D-fructofuranoside]
[O-a-D-galactopyranosyl-(1^6)-O-a-D-galactopyranosyl-
(1 -»6)-O-a-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 -»2)-p-D-fructofuranoside]
[O-a-D-galactopyranosyl-(1^6)-O-a-D-galactopyranosyl-
(1 -»6)-O-cc-D-galactopyranosyl-(1
->6)-O-oc-D-glucopyrano-
syl-(1

->2)-p-D-fructofuranoside]
Source:
From R.S. Shallenberger and
G. G.
Birch,
Sugar
Chemistry,
1975, AVI Publishing Co.
fructose. Since the specific rotation of
sucrose is +66.5°, of
D-glucose
+52.2°, and
of
D-fructose
-93°, the resulting invert sugar
has a specific rotation of -20.4°. The name
invert sugar refers to the inversion of the
direction of rotation.
Sucrose is highly soluble over a wide
temperature range, as is indicated in Figure
4-11.
This property makes sucrose an
excellent ingredient for syrups and other
sugar-containing foods.
The characteristic carbohydrate of milk is
lactose or milk sugar. With a few minor
exceptions, lactose is the only sugar in the
milk of all species and does not occur else-
where. Lactose is the major constituent of
the dry matter of cow's milk, as it represents

close to 50 percent of the total solids. The
lactose content of cow's milk ranges from
4.4 to 5.2 percent, with an average of 4.8
percent expressed as anhydrous lactose. The
lactose content of human milk is higher,
about 7.0 percent.
Lactose is a disaccharide of D-glucose and
D-galactose
and is designated as
4-0-p-D-
galactopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose
(Figure
4-10). It is
hydrolyzed
by the enzyme
(3-D-
galactosidase (lactase) and by dilute solu-
tions of strong acids. Organic acids such as
citric acid, which easily hydrolyze sucrose,
are unable to hydrolyze lactose. This differ-
ence is the basis of the determination of the
two sugars in mixtures.
Maltose is
4-a-D-glucopyranosyl-f5-D-
glucopyranose. It is the major end product of
the enzymic degradation of starch and
glyco-
gen by
p-amylase
and has a characteristic

flavor of malt. Maltose is a reducing disac-
charide, shows mutarotation, is fermentable,
and is easily soluble in water.
Lactose
CellobTose
Maltose
Sucrose
Figure 4-10 Structure of Some Important
Disaccharides
TEMPERATURE
Figure
4-11 Approximate Solubility of Some
Sugars
at Different
Temperatures.
Source:
From
R.S.
Shallenberger and G.G. Birch, Sugar
Chemistry,
1975, AVI Publishing Co.
Cellobiose is
4-p-D-glucopyranosyl-p-D-
glucopyranose, a reducing disaccharide
resulting from partial hydrolysis of cellulose.
Legumes contain several oligosaccha-
rides, including
raffmose
and stachyose.
These sugars are poorly absorbed when

ingested, which results in their fermentation
in the large intestine. This leads to gas pro-
duction and flatulence, which present a bar-
rier to wider food use of such legumes.
deMan et
al.
(1975 and 1987) analyzed a
large number of soybean varieties and found
an average content of 1.21 percent stachyose,
0.38 percent
raffinose,
3.47 percent sucrose,
and very small amounts of melibose. In soy
milk, total reducing sugars after inversion
amounted to
11.1
percent calculated on dry
basis.
Cow's milk contains traces of oligosaccha-
rides other than lactose. They are made up of
two,
three, or four units of lactose, glucose,
galactose, neuraminic acid, mannose, and
acetyl glucosamine. Human milk contains
about 1
g/L
of these oligosaccharides, which
are referred to as the
bifidus
factor. The oli-

gosaccharides have a beneficial effect on the
intestinal flora of
infants.
Fructooligosaccharides
(FOSs) are
oligo-
mers of sucrose where an additional one,
two,
or three fructose units have been added
by a
p-(2-l)-glucosidic
linkage to the fruc-
tose unit of sucrose. The resulting FOSs,
therefore, contain two, three, or four fruc-
tose units. The FOSs occur naturally as
components of edible plants including
banana, tomato, and onion (Spiegel et al.
1994).
FOSs are also manufactured com-
mercially by the action of a fungal enzyme
from Aspergillus
niger,
p-fructofuranosi-
dase,
on sucrose. The three possible FOSs
are
!^(l-p-fructofuranosyl)^
sucrose
oli-
gomers with abbreviated and common

names as follows:
GF
2
(1-kestose),
GF
3
(nystose), and
GF
4
(l
F
-p-fructofuranosyl-
nystose).
The commercially manufactured
product is a mixture of all three FOSs with
sucrose, glucose, and fructose. FOSs are
nondigestible by humans and are suggested
to have some dietary fiber-like function.
Chemical
Reactions
Mutarotation
When a crystalline reducing sugar is placed
in water, an equilibrium is established
between isomers, as is evidenced by a rela-
tively slow change in specific rotation that
eventually reaches the final equilibrium val-
ue.
The working hypothesis for the occur-
rence of mutarotation has been described by
Shallenberger and Birch

(1975).
It is assumed
that five structural isomers are possible for
any given reducing sugar (Figure
4-12),
with
pyranose and furanose ring structures being
generated from a central straight-chain inter-
7.
SUGAR
mediate. When all of these forms are present,
the mutarotation is complex. When only the
pyranose forms are present, the mutarotation
is simple. Aldoses that have the
gluco,
manno,
gulo,
and
allo
configurations (Figure
4-6) exhibit simple mutarotation.
D-glucose,
for example, shows simple mutarotation and
in aqueous solution only two forms are
present, 36 percent
oc-D-glucopyranose
and
64 percent
(3-D-glucopyranose.
The amount

of aldehyde form of glucose in solution has
been estimated at 0.003 percent. The distribu-
tion of isomers in some
mutarotated
mono-
saccharides at
2O
0
C
is shown in Table 4-4,
The distribution of a- and p-anomers in solu-
tions of lactose and maltose is nearly the
same as in glucose, about 32 percent a- and
64 percent
(3-anomer.
Simple mutarotation is
a first-order reaction characterized by uni-
form values of the reaction constants
k
1
and
k
2
in the equation
*i
oc-D-glucopyranose ^
p-D-glucopyranose
k
2
The velocity of the reaction is greatly

accelerated by acid or base. The rate is at a
minimum for
pyranose-pyranose
intercon-
versions in the pH range 2.5 to 6.5. Both
acids and bases accelerate mutarotation rate,
with bases being more effective. This was
expressed by Hudson
(1907)
in the following
equation:
K
25
0
= 0.0096 + 0.258
[H
+
]
+ 9.750
[OH~]
Figure 4-12 Equilibria Involved in Mutarotation. Source: From R.S.
Shallenberger
and G.G. Birch,
Sugar
Chemistry,
1975, AVI Publishing Co.
OC-
PYRANOSE
/3-
PYRANOSE

ALDEHYDO
OR
KETO
FORM
OL-
FURANOSE
B-
FURANOSE
Table
4-4
Percentage
Distribution
of Isomers of Mutarotated Sugars at
2O
0
C
Sugar
D-Glucose
D-Galactose
D-Mannose
D-Fructose
a-Pyranose
31.1-37.4
29.6-35.0
64.0-68.9
4.0?
$~Pyranose
64.0-67.9
63.9-70.4
31.1-36.0

68.4-76.0
a-Furanose
1.0
fi-Furanose
3.1
28.0-31.6
Source:
From R.S. Shallenberger and G.G.
Birch,
Sugar
Chemistry,
AVI Publishing Co.
This indicates that the effect of the
hydroxyl ion is about 40,000 times greater
than that of the hydrogen ion. The rate of
mutarotation is also temperature dependent;
increases from 1.5 to 3 times occur for every
1O
0
C
rise in temperature.
Other Reactions
Sugars in solution are unstable and
undergo a number of reactions. In addition to
mutarotation, which is the first reaction to
occur when a sugar is dissolved, enolization
and isomerization, dehydration and fragmen-
tation, anhydride formation and polymeriza-
tion may all take place. These reactions are
outlined in Figure

4-13,
using glucose as an
example. Compounds (1) and (2) are the a
and (3 forms in equilibrium during mutarota-
tion with the
aldehyde
form (5). Heating
results in dehydration of the IC conforma-
tion of
(3-D
glucopyranose (3) and formation
of levoglucosan (4), followed by the
sequence of reactions described under cara-
melization. Enolization is the formation of
an enediol (6). These enediols are unstable
and can rearrange in several ways. Since the
reactions are reversible, the starting material
can be regenerated. Other possibilities
include formation of
keto-D-fructose
(10)
and
(3-D-fructopyranose
(11),
and aldehydo-
D-mannose (8) and
oc-D-mannopyranose
(9).
Another possibility is for the double bond to
move down the carbon chain to form another

enediol (7). This compound can give rise to
saccharinic acids (containing one carboxyl
group) and to
5-(hydroxy)-methylfurfural
(13).
All these reactions are greatly influ-
enced by pH. Mutarotation, enolization, and
formation of
succharic
acid (containing two
carboxyl groups) are favored by alkaline pH,
formation of anhydrides, and furaldehydes
by acid pH.
It appears from the aforementioned reac-
tions that on holding a glucose solution at
alkaline pH, a mixture of glucose, mannose,
Figure 4-13 Reactions of Reducing Sugars in Solution. Source: From R.S.
Shallenberger
and G.G.
Birch, Sugar
Chemistry,
1975, AVI Publishing Co.
POLYMERIZATION
SACCHARINIC
ACIDS
POLYMERIZATION
DIMERIZATION
HYDROLYSIS
and fructose will be formed and, in general,
any one sugar will yield a mixture of sugars.

When an acid solution of sugar of high con-
centration is left at ambient temperature,
reversion takes place. This is the formation
of disaccharides. The predominant linkages
in the newly formed disaccharides are
a-D-
1—>6,
and
(3-D-l—»6.
A list of reversion di-
saccharides observed by Thompson et
al.
(1954) in a 0.082N hydrochloric acid solu-
tion or in
D-glucose
is shown in Table
4-5.
Caramelization
The formation of the caramel pigment can
be considered a nonenzymatic browning
reaction in the absence of nitrogenous com-
pounds. When sugars are subjected to heat in
the absence of water or are heated in concen-
trated solution, a series of reactions occurs
that finally leads to caramel formation. The
initial stage is the formation of anhydro sug-
ars (Shallenberger and Birch 1975). Glucose
yields glucosan
(1,2-anhydro-oc-D-glucose)
and levoglucosan

(1,6-anhydro-p-D-glu-
cose);
these have widely differing specific
rotation, +69° and -67°, respectively. These
compounds may dimerize to form a number
of reversion disaccharides, including gentio-
biose and sophorose, which are also formed
when glucose is melted.
Caramelization of sucrose requires a tem-
perature of about
20O
0
C.
At
16O
0
C,
sucrose
melts and forms glucose and fructose anhy-
dride
(levulosan).
At
20O
0
C,
the reaction
sequence consists of three distinct stages well
separated in time. The first step requires 35
minutes of heating and involves a weight loss
of 4.5 percent, corresponding to a loss of one

molecule of water per molecule of sucrose.
This could involve formation of compounds
such as
isosacchrosan.
Pictet and Strieker
(1924) showed that the composition of this
compound is
1,3';
2,2'-dianhydro-a-D-gluco-
pyranosyl-p-D-glucopyranosyl-(3-D-fructo-
furanose (Figure 4-14). After an additional 55
minutes of heating, the weight loss amounts to
9 percent and the pigment formed is named
caramelan. This corresponds approximately to
the following equation:
2C
12
H
22
O
11
- 4H
2
O —>
C
24
H
36
O
18

The pigment caramelan is soluble in water
and ethanol and has a bitter taste. Its melting
point is
138
0
C.
A further 55 minutes of heat-
ing leads to the formation of
caramelen.
This
compound corresponds to a weight loss of
Source:
From A. Thompson et
al.,
Acid Reversion Products from
D-Glucose,
J.
Am.
Chem.
Soc.,
Vol. 76, pp.
1309-
1311,
1954.
Table
4-5
Reversion Disaccharides of Glucose in
0.082A/
HCI
p,

p-trehalose
(p-D-glucopyranosyl
p-D-glucopyranoside)
p-sophorose
(2-O-p-D-glucopyranosyl-p-D-glucopyranose)
p-maltose
(4-O-oc-D-glycopyranosyl-p-D-glycopyranose)
oc-cellobiose (4-O-p-D-glucopyranosyl-oc-D-glucopyranose)
p-cellobiose
(4-O-p-D-glucopyranosyl-p-D-glucopyranose)
p-isomaltose
(6-O-a-D-glucopyranosyl-p-D-glucopyranose)
oc-gentiobiose (6-O-p-D-glucopyranosyl-oc-D-glucopyranose)
p-gentiobiose(G-O-p-D-glucopyranosyl-p-D-glucopyranose)
0.1%
0.2%
0.4%
0.1%
0.3%
4.2%
0.1%
3.4%
Figure
4-14
Structure
of
Isosacchrosan.
Source:
From
R.S.

Shallenberger
and G.G.
Birch,
Sugar
Chemistry,
1975, AVI
Publishing
Co.
about 14 percent, which is about eight mole-
cules of water from three molecules of
sucrose, as follows:
3C
12
H
22
O
11
-
8H
2
O
—»
C
36
H
50
O
25
Caramelen is soluble in water only and
melts at

154
0
C.
Additional heating results in
the formation of a very dark, nearly insoluble
pigment of average molecular composition
C
125
H
188
O
80
.
This material is called humin or
caramelin.
The typical caramel flavor is the result of a
number of sugar fragmentation and dehydra-
tion products, including diacetyl, acetic acid,
formic acid, and two degradation products
reported to have typical caramel flavor by
lurch
and Tatum (1970), namely, acetylfor-
moin (4-hydroxy-2,3,5-hexane-trione) and 4-
hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone.
Crystallization
An important characteristic of sugars is
their ability to form crystals. In the commer-
cial production of sugars, crystallization is
an important step in the purification of sugar.
The purer a solution of a sugar, the easier it

will crystallize. Nonreducing oligosaccha-
rides
crystallize relatively easily. The fact
that certain reducing sugars crystallize with
more difficulty has been ascribed to the pres-
ence of anomers and ring isomers in solu-
tion, which makes these sugars intrinsically
"impure" (Shallenberger and Birch 1975).
Mixtures of sugars crystallize less easily than
single sugars. In certain foods, crystallization
is undesirable, such as the crystallization of
lactose in sweetened condensed milk or ice
cream.
Factors that influence growth of sucrose
crystals have been listed by
Smythe
(1971).
They include supersaturation of the solution,
temperature, relative velocity of crystal and
solution, nature and concentration of impuri-
ties,
and nature of the crystal surface. Crystal
growth of sucrose consists of two steps:
(1)
the mass transfer of sucrose molecules to the
surface of the crystal, which is a first-order
process; and (2) the incorporation of the mol-
ecules in the crystal surface, a second-order
process. Under usual conditions, overall
growth rate is a function of the rate of both

processes, with neither being rate-control-
ling. The effect of impurities can be of two
kinds.
Viscosity can increase, thus reducing
the rate of mass transfer, or impurities can
involve adsorption on specific surfaces of the
crystal, thereby reducing the rate of surface
incorporation.
The crystal structure of sucrose has been
established by X-ray diffraction and neutron
diffraction studies. The packing of sucrose
molecules in the crystal lattice is determined
mainly by hydrogen bond formation between
hydroxyl groups of the fructose moiety. As
an example of the type of packing of mole-
cules in a sucrose crystal, a projection of the
crystal structure along the a axis is shown in
Figure 4-15. The dotted square represents
one unit cell. The crystal faces indicated in
this figure follow planes between adjacent
sucrose molecules in such a way that the
furanose
and pyranose rings are not inter-
sected.
Lactose can occur in two crystalline
forms,
the
a-hydrate
and the p-anhydrous
forms and can occur in an amorphous or

glassy state. The most common form is the
a-hydrate
(C
12
H
22
O
11
-H
2
O),
which can be
obtained by crystallization from a supersatu-
rated solution below
93.5
0
C.
When crystalli-
zation is carried out above
93.5
0
C,
the
crystals formed are of p-anhydrous type.
Some properties of these forms have been
listed by Jenness and Patton (1959) (Table
4-6).
Under normal conditions the
oc-
hydrate form is the stable one, and other

solid forms spontaneously change to that
form provided sufficient water is present. At
equilibrium and at room temperature, the P-
form is much more soluble and the amount
of
a-form
is small. However, because of its
lower solubility, the a-hydrate crystallizes
out and the equilibrium shifts to convert p-
into
a-hydrate. The solubility of the two
forms and the equilibrium mixture is repre-
sented in Figure
4-16.
The solubility of lactose is less than that of
most other sugars, which may present prob-
lems in a number of foods containing lac-
Table
4-6
Some Physical Properties of the Two Common Forms of Lactose
Property
Melting
point
1
Specific
rotation
2
[a]^°
Solubility
(g/100

mL) Water at
2O
0
C
Water
at
10O
0
C
Specific
gravity
(2O
0
C)
Specific
heat
Heat
of combustion
(cal/g~
1
)
a-Hydrate
202
0
C
(dec.)
+89.4°
8
70
1.54

0.299
3761.6
ft-
An
hydride
252
0
C
(dec.)
+35°
55
95
1.59
0.285
3932.7
1
Values vary with rate of
heating,
a-hydrate losses
H
2
O
(12O
0
C).
2
Values on anhydrous
basis,
both forms mutarotate to
+55.4°.

Source:
From R. Jenness and S.
Patton,
Principles
of
Dairy
Chemistry,
1959,
John Wiley and
Sons.
Figure 4-15 Projection of a Sucrose Crystal Along the a Axis. Source: From
B.M.
Smythe, Sucrose
Crystal Growth, Sugar
Technol
Rev.,
Vol. 1, pp. 191-231, 1971.
tose.
When milk is concentrated
3:1,
the
concentration of lactose approaches its final
solubility. When this product is cooled or
when sucrose is added, crystals of
a-hydrate
may develop. Such lactose crystals are very
hard and sharp; when left undisturbed they
may develop to a large size, causing a sensa-
tion of grittiness or sandiness in the mouth.
This same phenomenon limits the amount of

milk solids that can be incorporated into ice
cream.
The crystals of a-hydrate lactose usually
occur in a prism or tomahawk shape. The
latter is the basic shape and all other shapes
are derived from it by different relative
growth rates of the various faces. The shape
of an a-hydrate lactose crystal is shown in
Figure 4-17. The crystal has been character-
ized by X-ray diffraction, and the following
constants for the dimensions of the unit cell
and one of the axial angles have been estab-
lished: a = 0.798 nm, b =
2.168
nm, c =
0.4836 nm, and (3 = 109°
47'.
The crystallo-
graphic description of the crystal faces is
indicated in Figure
4-17.
These faces grow
at different rates; the more a face is oriented
toward the (3 direction, the slower it grows
and the (OTO) face does not grow at all.
Amorphous or glassy lactose is formed
when lactose-containing solutions are dried
quickly. The dry lactose is noncrystalline and
contains the same ratio of
alpha/beta

as the
Figure
4-16
Solubility of Lactose in Water.
Source: From
E.O.
Whittier,
Lactose and Its
Utilization: A Review,
/.
Dairy
ScL,
Vol. 27, p.
505,
1944.
Figure 4-17
Crystallographic
Representation of
a Tomahawk Crystal of
a-Lactose
Monohy-
drate. Source: From A. Van Kreveld and A.S.
Michaels, Measurement of Crystal Growth of
a=Lactose, J. Dairy ScL, Vol. 48, pp. 259-265,
1965.
Temperature
(
0
C.)
Initial

solubility
of
Of-form
Final
solubility
at
equilibrium
Initial
solubility
of
P-form
x
Direct
determinations
o
Calculated assuming
equilibrium constants
and no
interference
by
other
form
Usual
range
of
super-
saturation
Solubility
(g. anhydrous
lactose/100

g. water)
original product. This holds true for spray or
roller drying of milk products and also dur-
ing drying for moisture determination. The
glassy lactose is extremely hygroscopic and
takes up moisture from the atmosphere.
When the moisture content reaches about 8
percent, the lactose molecules recrystallize
and form
a-hydrate
crystals. As these crys-
tals grow, powdered products may cake and
become lumpy.
Both lactose and sucrose have been shown
to crystallize in an amorphous form at mois-
ture contents close to the glass transition
temperature (Roos and
Karel
1991a,b;
Roos
and Karel 1992). When amorphous lactose is
held at constant water content, crystallization
releases water to the remaining amorphous
material, which depresses the glass transition
temperature and accelerates crystallization.
These authors have done extensive studies on
the glass transition of amorphous carbohy-
drate solutions (Roos 1993; Roos and Karel
199Id).
Seeding is a commonly used procedure to

prevent the slow crystallization of lactose
and the resulting sandiness in some dairy
products. Finely ground lactose crystals are
introduced into the concentrated product,
and these provide numerous crystal nuclei.
Many small crystals are formed rapidly;
therefore, there is no opportunity for crystals
to slowly grow in the supersaturated solution
until they
would
become noticeable in the
mouth.
Starch Hydrolyzates—Corn Sweeteners
Starch can be hydrolyzed by acid or
enzymes or by a combination of acid and
enzyme treatments. A large variety of prod-
ucts can be obtained from starch hydrolysis
using various starches such as corn, wheat,
potato,
and cassava (tapioca) starch. Glucose
syrups,
known in the United States as corn
syrup,
are hydrolysis products of starch with
varying amounts of glucose monomer,
dimer, oligosaccharides, and polysaccha-
rides.
Depending on the method of hydroly-
sis used, different compositions with a broad
range of functional properties can be

obtained. The degree of hydrolysis is
expressed as dextrose equivalent (DE),
defined as the amount of reducing sugars
present as dextrose and calculated as a per-
centage of the total dry matter. Glucose syr-
ups have a DE greater than 20 and less than
80.
Below DE 20 the products are referred to
as maltodextrins and above DE 80 as hydro-
lyzates.
The properties of maltodextrins are
influenced by the nature of the starch used;
those of hydrolyzates are not affected by the
type of starch.
The initial step in starch hydrolysis
involves the use of a heat-stable
endo-ot-
amylase. This enzyme randomly attacks
a-1,
4 glycosidic bonds resulting in rapid decrease
in viscosity. These enzymes can be used at
temperatures as high as
105
0
C.
This reaction
produces maltodextrins (Figure
4-18),
which
can be used as important functional food

ingredients—fillers,
stabilizers, and thicken-
ers.
The next step is
saccharification
by using
a series of enzymes that hydrolyze either the
a-1,4
linkages of amylose or the
a-1,6
link-
ages of the branched amylopectin. The action
of the various starch-degrading enzymes is
shown in Figure
4-19
(Olsen
1995).
In addi-
tion to products containing high levels of glu-
cose (95 to 97 percent), sweeteners with DE
of 40 to 45 (maltose), 50 to 55 (high mal-
tose),
and 55 to 70 (high conversion syrup)
can be produced. High dextrose syrups can
be obtained by saccharification with
amylo-
glucosidase. At the beginning of the reaction
dextrose formation is rapid but gradually
slows down. This slowdown is caused by for-
mation of branched dextrins and because at

high dextrose level the repolymerization of
dextrose into
isomaltose
occurs.
The
isomerization
of glucose to fructose
opened the way for starch hydrolyzates to
replace cane or beet sugar (Dziezak 1987).
This process is done with glucose isomerase
in immobilized enzyme reactors. The con-
version is reversible and the equilibrium is at
50 percent conversion. High-fructose corn
syrups are produced with 42 or 55 percent
fructose. These sweeteners have taken over
one-third of the sugar market in the United
States
(Olsen
1995).
The acid conversion process has a practical
limit of 55 DE; above this value, dark color
and bitter taste become prominent. Depend-
ing on the process used and the reaction con-
ditions employed, a variety of products can
be obtained as shown in Table
4-7
(Com-
merford
1974). There is a fairly constant
relationship between the composition of

acid-converted corn syrup and its DE. The
composition of syrups made by acid-enzyme
or dual-enzyme processes cannot be as easily
predicted from DE.
Maltodextrins
(DE below 20) have compo-
sitions that reflect the nature of the starch
used. This depends on the
amylose/amy-
lopectin ratio of the starch. A maltodextrin
with DE 12 shows retrogradation in solution,
producing cloudiness. A maltodextrin from
waxy corn at the same DE does not show ret-
rogradation because of the higher level of
oc-
1,
6 branches. As the DE decreases, the dif-
ferences become more pronounced. A vari-
ety of
maltodextrins
with different functional
properties, such as gel formation, can be
MALTODEXTRIN
STARCH
SLURRY
cc-AMYLASE
LIQUEFACTION
MALTODEXTRIN
GLUCOAMYLASE/
PULLULANASE

SACCHARIFICATION
GLUCOSE/
ISOMERASE
PURIFICATION
ISOMERIZATION
REFINING
MALTOSESYRUPS
GLUCOSESYRUPS
MIXED SYRUPS
FRUCTOSESYRUPS
Figure 4-18 Major Steps in Enzymic Starch Conversion. Source: Reprinted from H.S. Olsen, Enzymic
Production of Glucose Syrups, in Handbook of Starch Hydrolysis Products and Their
Derivatives,
M.W.
Kearsley
and S.Z. Dziedzic, eds., p. 30, © 1995, Aspen Publishers, Inc.
obtained by using different starch raw mate-
rials.
Maltodextrins
of varying molecular weights
are plasticized by water and decrease the glass
transition temperature. Maltodextrins retard
the crystallization of amorphous sucrose and
at high concentrations totally inhibit sucrose
crystallization (Roos and
Karel
199Ic).
Maltodextrins with low DE and with little
or no remaining polysaccharide can be pro-
duced by using two enzymes.

Alpha-amylase
randomly hydrolyzes 1
—»
4 linkages to
reduce the viscosity of the suspension.
Pullu-
lanase is specific for 1
—»
6 linkages and acts
as a debranching enzyme. The application of
these two enzymes makes it possible to pro-
duce maltodextrins in high yield (Kennedy et
al.
1985).
Polyols
Polyols or sugar alcohols occur in nature
and are produced industrially from the corre-
sponding saccharides by catalytic hydroge-
nation. Sorbitol, the most widely distributed
natural polyol, is found in many fruits such
Figure 4-19 Schematic Representation of the Action of Starch-Degrading Enzymes. (A) Amylose and
amylopectin,
(B) action of
a-amylase
on
amylose
and
amylopectin,
(C) action of a debranching
enzyme on amylose and amylopectin, (D) action of

amyloglucosidase
and debranching enzyme on
amylose and amylopectin. Source: Reprinted from H.S.
Olsen,
Enzymic Production of Glucose Syr-
ups, in Handbook of Starch Hydrolysis Products and Their
Derivatives,
M.
W.
Kearsley and
S.Z.
Dziedzic, eds., p. 36, © 1995, Aspen Publishers, Inc.
C
D
Amylose
Amylopectin
B
A
as plums, berries, cherries, apples, and pears.
It is a component of fruit juices, fruit wines,
and other fruit products. It is commercially
produced by catalytic hydrogenation of D-
glucose. Mannitol, the reduced form of D-
mannose, is found as a component of mush-
rooms, celery, and olives. Xylitol is obtained
from
saccharification
of
xylan-containing
plant materials; it is a pentitol, being the

reduced form of xylose. Sorbitol, mannitol,
and xylitol are
monosaccharide-derived
polyols with properties that make them valu-
able for specific applications in foods: they
are suitable for diabetics, they are
noncario-
genic, they possess reduced physiological
caloric value, and they are useful as sweeten-
ers that are
nonfermentable
by yeasts.
In recent years disaccharide alcohols have
become important. These include isomalt,
maltitol, lactitol, and hydrogenated starch
hydrolyzates (HSH). Maltitol is hydroge-
nated maltose with the structure shown in
Figure 4-20. It has the highest sweetness of
the disaccharidepolyols compared to sugar
(Table 4-8) (Heume and Rapaille 1996). It
has a low negative heat of solution and,
therefore, gives no cooling effect in contrast
to sorbitol and xylitol. It also has a very high
viscosity in solution. Sorbitol and maltitol
are derived from starch by the production
process illustrated in Figure 4-21. Lactitol
is a disaccharide alcohol,
1,4-galactosyl-
glucitol, produced by hydrogenation of lac-
tose.

It has low sweetness and a lower
energy value than other polyols. It has a cal-
orie value of 2
kcal/g
and is noncariogenic
(Blankers 1995). It can be used in combina-
tion with intense sweeteners like aspartame
or
acesulfame-K
to produce sweetening
Table
4-7
Composition of Representative Corn Syrups
Saccharines
(%)
Type
of
Conversion
Acid
Acid
Acid-enzyme
Acid
Acid
Acid-enzyme
Acid-enzyme
Dextrose
Equivalent
30
42
43

54
60
63
71
Mono-
10.4
18.5
5.5
29.7
36.2
38.8
43.7
Di-
9.3
13.9
46.2
17.8
19.5
28.1
36.7
Tr/-
8.6
11.6
12.3
13.2
13.2
13.7
3.7
Tetra-
8.2

9.9
3.2
9.6
8.7
4.1
3.2
Penta-
7.2
8.4
1.8
7.3
6.3
4.5
0.8
Hexa-
6.0
6.6
1.5
5.3
4.4
2.6
4.3
Hepta-
5.2
5.7
4.3
3.2
Higher
45.1
25.4

29.5
1
12.8
8.5
8.2
1
7.6
1
1
Includes heptasaccharides.
Source:
From J.D.
Commerford,
Corn Sweetener Industry, in
Symposium:
Sweeteners,
I.E.
lnglett,
ed.,
1974,
AVI
Publishing
Co.
Figure
4-20
Structure
of
Maltitol
Table
4-8

Relative Sweetness of Polyols and
Sucrose
Solutions at
2O
0
C
Compound
Relative
Sweetness
Xylitol 80-100
Sorbitol
50-60
Mannitol
50-60
Maltitol
80-90
Lactitol
30-40
lsomalt
50-60
Sucrose
100
Source:
Reprinted from H. Schiweck and S.C. Zies-
enitz,
Physiological Properties of Polyols in Comparison
with
Easily Metabolizable Saccharides, in
Advances
in

Sweeteners,
T.H. Grenby, ed., p. 87,
©1996,
Aspen
Publishers,
Inc.
power similar to sucrose. These combina-
tions provide a milky, sweet taste that allows
good perception of other flavors. lsomalt,
also known as hydrogenated
isomaltulose
or
hydrogenated palatinose, is manufactured in
a two-step process: (1) the enzymatic trans-
glycosylation of the nonreducing sucrose to
the reducing sugar isomaltulose; and (2)
hydrogenation, which produces
isomalt—an
equimolar mixture of
D-glucopyranosyl-oc-
(l-l)-D-mannitol
and
D-glucopyranosyl-oc-
(l-6)-D-sorbitol.
Isomalt is extremely stable
and has a pure, sweet taste. Because it is only
half as sweet as sucrose, it can be used as a
versatile bulk sweetener (Ziesenitz
1996).
POLYSACCHARIDES

Starch
Starch is a polymer of
D-glucose
and is
found as a storage carbohydrate in plants. It
occurs as small granules with the size range
and appearance characteristic to each plant
species. The granules can be shown by ordi-
Figure 4-21 Production Process for the Conver-
sion of Starch to Sorbitol and Maltitol. Source:
Reprinted from H. Schiweck and S.C. Ziesenitz,
Physiological Properties of Polyols in Compari-
son with Easily Metabolizable Saccharides,
Advances in Sweeteners, T.H. Grenby,
ed.,
p. 90,
© 1996, Aspen Publishers, Inc.
Figure
4-22
Appearance of Starch Granules as
Seen in the Microscope
CORN
POTATO
RICE
SAGO
TAPIOCA
WHEAT
SORBITOL
MALTITOL
crystallization

or solidification
MALTITOL
SYRUP
SORBITOL
SYRUP
hydrogenation/filtration/ion
exchange/evaporation
DEXTROSE
GLUCOSE
SYRUP
MALTOSE SYRUP
enzymatic
hydrolysis
STARCH
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