(Luận văn) impacts of migration and migrant’s gender on children’s school enrollment and child work in viet nam

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UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS

INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES

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HO CHIMINH CITY

THE HAGUE

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VIETNAM

THE NETHERLANDS

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VIETNAM - NETHERLANDS

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PROGRAMME FOR M.A IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS

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IMPACTS OF MIGRATION AND MIGRANT’S GENDER
ON CHILDREN’S SCHOOL ENROLLMENT AND CHILD
WORK IN VIET NAM

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VÕ THỊ THU HOÀI

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BY

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MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS

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HO CHI MINH CITY, APRIL 2014
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UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS

INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES
THE HAGUE

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HO CHIMINHCITY

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VIETNAM

THE NETHERLANDS

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VIETNAM - NETHERLANDS

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PROGRAMME FOR M.A IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS

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IMPACTS OF MIGRATION AND MIGRANT’S GENDER
ON CHILDREN’S SCHOOL ENROLLMENT AND CHILD
WORK IN VIET NAM

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A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

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MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS

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VÕ THỊ THU HOÀI

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By

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Dr. TRAN TIEN KHAI

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Academic Supervisor


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CERTIFICATION

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“I certify that the substance of this dissertation has not already been submitted for any

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degree and is not currently submitted for any other degree

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I certify that to the best of my knowledge and help received in preparing this dissertation

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and all source used, have been acknowledged in this dissertation”

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VO THI THU HOAI

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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This thesis would have not been fulfilled without special assistances from some

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individuals, group, family who have contributed to my studying process.

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Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr.

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Tran Tien Khai who continuously support of my M.A thesis by his patience, enthusiasm

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thesis.

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and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me all the time to research and writing the

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Secondly, I would like to thank Dr. Truong Dang Thuy because of his dedicated

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support in research method during the time of this thesis. All of his help strongly to find

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the solution and improves this paper.

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Besides, my sincere thanks also go to Dr. Nguyen Trong Hoai, Dr. Pham Khanh Nam

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who supervised and motivated the Class MDE 17 to finish the course on time.

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It is grateful to thank my classmates of MDE17 MDE18, VNP staffs for

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stimulating discussions, for the fun time we had together.

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Last and not the least, I would like to express my grateful thank to my family
who are always beside me, give me the birth and support me throughout my life

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April, 2014

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VO THI THU HOAI

Email:

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ABSTRACT

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Accompany with development trend in over the world, migration flow plays important

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role in Vietnamese economy. It contributes to the significant income and raises the living

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standard for household in the country, specially, in rural areas. This paper tries to

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measure the impact of migration on children’s schooling enrollment and child work,

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addition to, determine how migrant’s gender matter in this impact. The context is applied

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in rural areas in Vietnam with the dataset of VHLSS 2010 by Instrument variable method

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to deal with the problem of endogeneity of migration. From the first stage of migrant

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indicator, it indicates that instrument historical migration network and number of male

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adults will impact on migrant indicator significantly and these instruments are the strong

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instruments. The results show that the presence of migrant in the household will make the

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children take part in school more, at the same time make children work less. Besides, not

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like others researches, gender of migrant and time of migrant using in household don’t
have meaning with children’s welfare.

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Keywords: migration, migrant’s gender, children’s school enrollment, child work

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TABLE OF CONTENT

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ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... v

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1

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1.1.

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Research Objectives ....................................................................................................... 3

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1.2.

Problem statement.......................................................................................................... 1

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Research question ........................................................................................................... 3

1.4.

Research scope ................................................................................................................ 3

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Structure of the research ............................................................................................... 3

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1.3.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 5

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Definition of key concept ............................................................................................... 5

2.2.

Theoretical literature ..................................................................................................... 5

2.3.

Empirical literature...................................................................................................... 12

2.4.

Conceptual framework ................................................................................................ 16

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2.1.

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................ 18
Endogeneity problem ................................................................................................... 18

3.2.

Endogeneity of migration ............................................................................................ 18

3.3.

Estimated equation ....................................................................................................... 20

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3.1.

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Validity of Instrument variable: .......................................................................... 20

3.3.2.

IVs methods ........................................................................................................... 20

3.3.3.

Estimated equation: .............................................................................................. 24

3.3.4.

Method to run IVs regression .............................................................................. 26

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3.4.

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3.3.1.

Data ................................................................................................................................ 28

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Source of data ........................................................................................................ 28

3.4.2.

Variables description and measurement: ........................................................... 29

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3.4.1.

CHAPTER 4: OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION IN CASE OF VIETNAM ........................... 36
Socio-economic setting and migration in Vietnam .................................................... 36

Internal migration ................................................................................................. 37

4.2.

Characteristics of migrant ........................................................................................... 39
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4.1.2.

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Migration aboard .................................................................................................. 36

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4.1.1.

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4.1.


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4.2.1.

International migrant ........................................................................................... 39

4.2.2.

Internal migrant .................................................................................................... 44

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CHAPTER 5: EMPERICAL ANALYSIS ................................................................................ 46
Descriptions of variables.............................................................................................. 46

5.2.

Estimation results ......................................................................................................... 51

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5.1.

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Interpretation of results ............................................................................................... 57

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5.3.

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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................... 63

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6.1. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 63

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6.2. Recommendations: ........................................................................................................... 64

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6.3. Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 65

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REFERENCE .............................................................................................................................. 67

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APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................. 70

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LIST OF FIGURES

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Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework about impact of migration and migrant’s gender on
children’s welfare.................................................................................................................. 1717

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Figure 3.1: Histogram of expenditure per capita a year .......................................................... 31

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Figure 3.2: Histogram of natural logarithm of expenditure per capita a year ........................ 31

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Figure 4.1: International migration trend from 2000 to 2010 (Department of oversea
database) ................................................................................................................................... 40

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Figure 4.2: Number of male and female international migrant from 2006-2010 (IOM).......... 41

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Figure 4.3: Main destinations of international migrant from 2000-2010 (IOM) ..................... 42

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Figure 4.4: Structure of international migration labor of Viet Nam from 2006-2010 (IOM,
2011).......................................................................................................................................... 43

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LIST OF TABLES

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Table 3.1: Description and measurement of variables ............................................................. 32

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Table 5.1: T-test between household with non-migrant and household with migrant .............. 48

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Table 5.2: T-test between household with male migrant and household with female migrant . 50

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Table 5.3: Factors affecting migration indicator in the household (results of first stage
regression of Instrumental variables) ....................................................................................... 53

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Table 5.4: Factors affecting children’s school enrollment and child work (results of second
stage regression of Instrumental variables) .............................................................................. 56

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ABBREVIATIONS

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Best linear unbiased estimates

DID:

Difference in difference

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BLUE:

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General statistic office

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GSO:

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International Organization for Migration

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IOM:

Instrumental variables

OLS:

Ordinary least square

PSM:

Propensity score matching methods.

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IVs:

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VHLSS: Vietnam Household Living Standard Survey

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United Nations

UNDP:

United Nations Development Programme

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United Stages

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UN:

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

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1.1. Problem statement

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According to analysis of International Organization for Migration (IOM), there were

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more than 215 million external migrants (live outside of their countries because of many

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reasons) and over 700 million internal migrants (within country) in 2009. The remittance

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has increased gradually in recent years, besides that, remittance flow in developing

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countries was estimated to have totaled $401 billion in 2012. Global remittance included

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developed countries were estimated about $529 billion (World Bank, 2012). Remittance

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plays an important in economic development by reducing poverty, leading to higher
living standard of human such as health, education, access technologies…improving

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access to formal financial sector, better preparedness for disasters, …etc. Moreover, in

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coming decades, under the pressure of demographic forces, globalization and climate

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change, migration will increase sharply. It needs to have advanced data to research about

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the impacts of migration and remittances on human life and economy. From that, the

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policy maker can have the correct direction for migration sector in the future.

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From economic renovation in 1986, Viet Nam had many remarks in development

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process. Among them, shifting from centrally-planned economy to a socialist-oriented

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market economy for industrialization, modernization was a long step in policies and

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economic aspect. Beside the diversification and multilateral development of open-door

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economic, more and more Vietnamese aboard to live and work. External migration

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contributes to economy and raises the living standard of remaining people. In 2012, Viet
Nam was rated in seventh among the biggest receiving remittances countries ($ 10

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billion) with about 4 million oversea Vietnamese. From 1991, it was accounted about 60-

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people. According to United Nations Development Programme (2009), estimated amount

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important role in Vietnam’s economy, but also affects to the demographic of Vietnamese

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70% remittances comparing to foreign investment. Remittance not only plays an


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of money which migrant send back to their family reaches 5.5 billion dollars in 2007. In

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parallel with that, internal migration from rural to urban has become a general upward

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trend in Viet Nam a few last year. Not only male, the share of female migrants has

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strongly dominated and played an important role in migrant worker (a half of internal

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migration in 2009). Most migrants have close relationship with their origin families

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through sending remittances and affecting demographic characteristics of members in the

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household. It is so useful for examining the impacts of migration on children’s welfare. In

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reality, education investment for children occupies a big part of expenditure amount in a

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household. So, the matter is whether migration contributes to school enrollment of
children or not and how children in migrant household will differ with no migrant

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household’s children. From that, need deeper research about whether gender of migrant

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and time of migrant living in household can impact directly to school enrollment. Some

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suggestions can be concluded in reality which need to be confirmed are: (1) Migrant help
children have more school enrollment; (2) if household has female migrant, the level of

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school enrollment of children is better than household having male migrant. Two issues,

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school enrollment and child work, of course, are interconnected closely. When migration

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affects to children’s school enrollment, it will affect to child work also. Besides that, there

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were many reports and papers such as Cuong (2008), Pfau and Long (2006) research

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about migration and remittance before. Meanwhile impact of migration and migrant’s

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and need more papers having the deep view about this aspect.

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gender on children’s school enrollment and child work in Vietnam has not been studied

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By applying data of Vietnam household living standard survey (VHLSS) 2010, this
paper is expected to use a suitable regression to investigate the impacts of migration and

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migrant’s gender on children’s school enrollment and child work in Viet Nam for that

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similar previous research, that is time of migrant spending in household will be used to

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time clearly. After that, a main key factor of migrant which wasn’t recommended in the


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find out how migrant’s monitor effect children’s welfare. Finally, it hopes that the results

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of research will be helpful for migration policy.

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1.2. Research Objectives

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The aiming objectives of this research are to meet the following objectives:

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a) To examine the impacts of migration and migrant’s gender on children’s school

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enrollment and child work

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b) To make recommendations for government about the policies and programs

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which tend to promote the effectiveness of migration in children development

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as well as human capital investment.

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1.3. Research question

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The research will try to address some questions like that:

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a) How do migration and migrant’s gender significantly affect children’s school

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enrollment?

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b) How do migration and migrant’s gender significantly affect child work?

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1.4. Research scope

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As we know, in rural areas most of the family face to the poor and not sure to

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guarantee a complete life. Clearly, the impact level of migration mostly happens strongly

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in rural areas where economic situation play a key important role in outcome of people.

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Therefore, the research focuses on impact of migration and migrant’s gender on

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children’s welfare in rural areas in 2010. It aims to rural-urban and rural-aboard migration

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flow.

This research will be classified into 6 main parts. The first part introduces overview

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about the research, raising the problem and objectives as well as scope of the research.

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1.5. Structure of the research

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The second part is the literature is the solid basis theory and previous empirical

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experience before relating to research. The third part shows methodology, estimated

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equation in the research. It also talks about the data which used for methodology. The

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next part is to know how social-economic characteristic of Vietnam impact on migration

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and overview of migration case in Vietnam. The fifth part show the result of model after

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running the regression, and explain the result appear in the model. The final part is

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conclusion and recommendation, limitation need to take experience in the research.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1.

Definition of key concept

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Children: United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child considers children as

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a human being under 18 years old. Even in some definitions, child includes the fetus and

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the unborn. It is important to note that in most paper, the author will define children by

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their own purpose by disaggregating children group into specified group. For the purpose
of this research relating to school and labor supply of child so children which is

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concerned in the thesis is limited schooling ages from 6 to 18 years old child. This

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definition will be used throughout the paper.

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Migration: General familiar definition of migration is the movement of human from

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one place to another. According to International Organization for Migration, there is not

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the universally definition exists. The term migrant can be applied for personal, family
moving to another place for a better life without intervention of external forces. Migration

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can be permanent, if that person will never return to his/her origin places, or for a long

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term he/she move to other places and live in that destination over at least 12 months. A

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short term migrant is the person who moves to other place at least 3 months but less than

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1 year. Under definitions, traveler in short term or business persons will not be considered

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as migrant. However, migrant includes certain kinds of short-term migrant such as

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seasonal worker, farm-worker. In the context of this paper, migrants are the people who

2.2.

Theoretical literature

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have permanent residence in other places different from origin.

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work in another place over 6 last months and it doesn’t count permanent migrants who

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2.2.1. Lewis model (1954)

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Because of the disparity between two sectors, if evaluate the productivity and human

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In Lewis’s theory, traditional agriculture and industrial sector exists simultaneously.


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resource of each sector, traditional agriculture which has surplus labor and low

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productivity will move in to industrial sector which has high productivity and high

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technology level. Lewis shows that 30% of income difference between two sectors will

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make the labor move to the higher income. For a long time, the gap of income between

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them is lower, the wage in agricultural sector will equal to the wage of industrial sector.

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At that time the attractiveness to promote the movement will be disappear.

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Although, theory of Lewis is considered as the basis model of development but it was

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also criticized by other economists. Lewis thought that the relationship of reinvestment or

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capital accumulation and number of jobs is positive. Clearly, when investing to the

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technology, the labor force will be reduced. Moreover, Lewis shows the supply of labor in

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agriculture is elastic and limitless. According to Todaro (2003), surplus of labor in rural is

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limited and quite small. Thirdly, Lewis assumed that in the industrial sectors, wage will

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be constant instead of increase over time. In addition, diminishing return of industrial

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sector need to be argued, in while, in real the return of industrial sector also increase in

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some specific fields.

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2.2.2. The push pull theory of migration (1966)

Push pull theory (Lee, 1966) is neoclassical theory which explains why people move

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for rural-rural, rural- urban, urban-urban and international migration. It emphasizes the
trends of people move from low to high income area or from densely to sparsely

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population area or because of fluctuation of business cycle.

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Decision to migrate and process of migration can be summarized by 4 main factors:

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Characteristics of origin, characteristics of destination, intervening obstacles (cost, border,

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etc…) and nature of people. Among them we separate it into two kind of factor, push

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a better life such as economic opportunities, political repression, infrastructure, access to

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factors include demographic grow low living standards, people lack of conditions to have


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clean water, sanitation, etc (in the origin area)...Pull factors include demand of labor, land,

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economic opportunities, political freedom, good infrastructure in the destination and so on

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(in the destination). A potential migrant will consider the balance of all the attractive and

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interactive factors and attractive factors of destination along with difficulties of

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intervening obstacle and nature of human to decide migration.

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Some weak-points of theory could be given such as it couldn’t say why the reason to

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move. It judged that economic growth is the main reason for people moving and unable to

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predict the movement in the future. It also didn’t account the fact that some people have

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less ability to have migrating decision, people also differ in their ability to act of

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migrating decision although they want to migrate.

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Todaro model (Todaro, 1969)

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2.2.3.

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Corresponding to macroeconomic theory is microeconomic, Todaro model is

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considered as a predecessor of theory for rural migration, Todaro model is the basic
theory not only for internal migration but also international migration because of valuable

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cores. Todaro explained that the persistent of internal migration is to face the

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unemployment in the destination places. The existence of underemployment and
unemployment of urban areas affects the probability of rural migration when they have

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difficulties in finding a job over there. In contrast to other previous paper when
considering labor transfer process include one- stage, Todaro showed that this process

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include two-stage. First stage is the movement of unskilled rural worker to urban areas

when there is the permanent movement in modern sector jobs.

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and spend time in one “urban traditional” sectors. The second-stage is the phenomenon

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industrial expansion, productivity growth, differential in earning capacity of urban versus

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also relevant with international migration. The interdependence of mixing effect from

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Although Todaro only concerned about internal migration but income hypothesis is


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rural activities leads to the migration and occupational distribution in urban places. When

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evaluating the determinant of urban labor supply it needs to concern about the rural-

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urban expected income. Differential income will be adjusted so unemployment rate will

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be a problem with urban supply when rural worker migrate to find a job with expected

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income. From that it said that raising income by creation employment in rural area

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s will help reducing out-migration in rural areas. So the policy which government can

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support is development programs make rural life more attractive. One more important

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matter affect the decision making of migrant is the balance between the risks and the

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probabilities of unemployed in one period with certain wage and the opportunities to have

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a permanent job. It also depends on the behavioral and spirit of migrant who prefer which

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Chain migration theory

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2.2.4.

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fundamental role among them.

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Chain migration is the relationship between the previous migrants and current
migrants through the movement of migrant from this place to other place follows previous

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migrants. Previous migrants will establish the transportation, accommodation,

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information…so make it convenient for migrant to migrate. Follows migrants path
therefore, knowledge of destination increase, obstacles decrease so attractiveness of

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destination increase. Lee’s (1966) argued that migration facilitates information of

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destination back to origin. Moreover, Böcker (1994) emphasized migration network

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reduce the risks as well as material and psychological cost for next migrants.

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Chain migration and the expectation of migration may increase illegal immigration or

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migrant will find destination not as attractive as expected. On the other hand, this theory

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doesn’t offer the insight into the mechanism which migration network can lead to weaken

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lead to increase migration.

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migration system. It also didn’t indicate that counteract of external and internal processes

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To evaluate the influence of any economic-social factors or program of the

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government on standard living of individuals, household, communities, a familiar method

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is impact evaluation. The core method of impact evaluation which Khandker et al (2010)

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concerned in his research was to choose a good comparison group with treatment group.

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Two groups have the similar characteristics but the difference is the intervention elements

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of treatment group and comparison group. The below equation represents a direct effect

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of T on the program Y in context subject i with or without intervention:

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Y_i= * X_i+ * T_i +ε_i

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Where T is the dummy variable with the value 1 if subject with intervention, 0 if

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subject without intervention

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X: the observed characteristics of subject and other characteristics affect subject i.

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ε: Error term representing unobserved characteristics which affect Y.

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The accuracy of impact evaluation depends on the reasonable assumptions as well as

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exogenous factors. Khandker et al(2010) also represented some various economics

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2.2.4.1. Randomized evaluation method

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methods to address selection bias and calculating the effect of interventions.

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Randomized evaluation identifies a group that has the same observed characteristics

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and assigning randomly interference to evaluate the effectiveness of one project or

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program. Randomized evaluation method is used to address an array of well-known bias.
It can resolve the selection problem that plagues treatment effect estimates. Researcher is

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allowed to design behavioral parameters that are difficult to estimate by other methods.

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costly including expensive and take much time. Moreover, it have little or no external

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policymaker. But randomized evaluation is quite rare because the way to collect data

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The results of randomized evaluation are transparent and typically and highly credible to


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validity, usually estimated impacts are local. Randomized evaluation also prone to biases

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so misleading inference, and feasible in practice.

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2.2.4.2. Propensity score matching methods (PSM)

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Propensity score matching estimates an average treatment from observable data and

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help to match treatment with similar control units observationally. So to compare the

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intervention effects between treatment and control group which bases on the observed

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characteristics. The key advantage of PSM is to use linear combination of covariates for a

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single score, so it can balance treatment and control group on a large number of covariates

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without losing a large number of observations. But PSM only counts observable

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covariates only, all factors affect treatment but they can’t be observable, can’t be

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mentioned in the method. Another issue is that PSM requires large sample so maybe

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overlap between treatment and control group. From that, biases may be created after

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matching because of missing unobservable variables and overlapping data. PSM has

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another disadvantage when assuming no unobserved differences and this is often

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implausible.

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2.2.4.3. Difference- in-Differences or double difference methods (DID)

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Difference-in-Difference examines the effect of intervention of program by taking out

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the different between control and treatment group before and after intervening. DID is

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easy to calculate standard errors by control variables which may reduce the residual

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variance. DID eliminates fixed difference not related to treatment and can study treatment

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with different treatment intensity. But DID method assume that the unobserved

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heterogeneity does not change in time but clearly when the trend change, it will make

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react differently. DID will easily overestimate or underestimate the true effect.

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biased for the result. In case unknown characteristics make control and treatment group

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10


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Furthermore, DID require data which have 2 pre-intervention periods of data. The lack of

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data can be applied DID method.

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2.2.4.4. Instrumental variables ( IVs) methods

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Instrumental variables method proves its effectiveness and flexibility when allowing

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the selection bias on unobserved characteristics vary over time. It can correct the bias

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through found instruments which impact on participation status but no relationship with

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unobserved characteristics. IVs can control endogenous in the model effectively, thus it is

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usually used to address the problem of omitted variable bias, unobservable variable, errors

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in variables or measurement errors of endogenous variable by permitting them remain in

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the error term. But IVs can be deal with some problems when instrument correlate with

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errors term, lead to inconsistence. More popularly, authors usually have to face with weak

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instruments and many confounders which results in imprecise and biased result. Due to

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the first-stage equation, that instrument shows the weak predicting ability. In the second-

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state, predict the outcome exactly is limited. So the most important problem of IVs is how

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to choose the good and suitable instrument variables

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vb

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2.2.4.5. Regression discontinuity (RD) design and pipeline method

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Regression discontinuity which is extent from IVs accounts for selection or

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participation on observed and unobserved characteristics. Then, compare participant and

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non-participant groups which base on the closed location around criteria. It can yield an

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unbiased estimate of treatment at the discontinuity. RD also takes advantage when

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assigning the benefit as criteria for design of social policy. But RD only looks at sub-

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establish eligible comparison groups who is suitable to join the program but not receiving

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Pipeline comparison uses variation in the timing of program’s implementation to

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estimating at the discontinuity, fewer observations exist to ensure not bias in the results.

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group of sample and assignment rule, in practice, often not implemented strictly. When


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the intervention. Pipeline comparison can combine RD if treatment is located on the basis

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of exogenous characteristics.

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In this research, I will use instrumental variable method because of endogeneity

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appearing in model. IVs will solve the bias which is caused by endogenous variable by

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finding the instrument variables which associate with participation but no relationship

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with unobserved characteristics. IVs method allows us to count for observed and

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unobserved heterogeneity as well as ensure the result which is not affected by time-

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variant situation. The bias of result will be solved completely when comparing to other

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methods.

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2.3. Empirical literature

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There has been not any quantitative research about the impact of migration and

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gender matters on child’s welfare in Vietnam. But in the world, for years, many theories

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and empirical studies which were relevant to this impact.

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One paper published to quantify the impact of remittances upon school enrollment

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ht

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was a study of Cox-Edwards and Ureta (2003) on the risk of school dropout. The authors

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used cross-sectional data from Encuesta de Hogares de Propósitos Multiples 1997 and

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estimated how remittances influence Salvadorian households’ educational. The authors

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found out, via income effect, remittance relieve the budget constraints, it makes good

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condition for the household afford and allows children spend more time in school. The

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result is that remittances reduce significantly the dropout aged 6 to 24. To be consistent

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with dropout decrease, authors expect the right thing is that remittances contribute

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positively to school enrollment. However, one of concerns becoming the limitation of this

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paper is that the authors didn’t address potential sample selectivity issues and endogeneity

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of remittances.

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Indeed, with the same hypothesis, Hanson and Woodruff (2003) used Mexico’s 2000

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Census data and recognized that there was the complex interaction between remittances

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and migration. Remittances and school enrollment have the positive relationship. In

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Mexico, in migrant family, children (from 10 to 15 year-olds) complete more grades in

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school than others. But the authors also noted that negative labor shocks which affected to

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parents would make the children have to spend more time to work instead of spending

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their time in the school. It implied that there was the spurious negative relationship

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between migration and children schooling enrollment. One concern is to overcome the

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limitation some previous paper, the authors knew to control the endogeneity of
remittances by using IV with historical migration rates and household characteristics

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instrument.

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Acosta (2006) realized that remittances can affect child outcome and labor supply in

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El Savador, the key outcomes for the growth of developing country. The paper proved

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that the estimating of remittance was taken into account for selection and endogeneity

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problem which different from estimates presented in previous studies. To solve relating

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problem, Acosta (2006) used Propensity score matching and instrumental variable method

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to run regression, instrument variable which was used in the paper is migration network
and household migration history (number of international migrants who returns two or

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more one year ago) for remittance receipt. The result showed that remittance had positive
relationship with school enrollment but not for all range of age, only for age from 11-14

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(boys) and 11-17 (girls) year old. Moreover, negative side of remittance is to increase of

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child work for wage. However, concerning adult labor supply, the robust result showed
that female labor supply is lower in recipients of remittance but higher with male labor

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n

supply.

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and it showed that children in migrant’s household attain more time in school and remain

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Mansuri (2006) analyzed the relationship of economic migration undertaken by men


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in school with more accumulating years comparing to non-migrant household. Mansuri

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(2006) used two strategies to address the endogeneity, the first strategy is to use

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instrument variables, the second strategy is to confine attention to migrant household and

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to use information on the year of initial migration to exploit the fact which affect to

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children school enrollment. With instrument variables, the paper found two instruments,

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one is migration network with a level village and another is the number of male adult in

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household with household level. Discrimination happened in Pakistan because girls in

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migrant household headed by female were more likely to drop out of school than boys.

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ua

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Moreover, both boys and girls in migrant household headed by female tend to work more
than migrant household headed by male. Education in Pakistan depended much on

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n

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income flows in the household and traditionally structure of household and social culture.

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On differential impact of gender on wage income, expenditure and production of

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migrant-sending household, Pfeiffer and Taylor (2008) used probit-method and control

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potential endogeneity by using historical migration gender as instrumental variable. They

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saw that impacts of migrant left behind for sending household according to the genders.

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Male migration was more likely to engage production activities than female migration.

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That was explained like the role of female migration in household production activities,
they only participate in a little of work in a subset of production activities. On the other

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hand, female migration had the negative relationship with education, female migration
decrease the investment in education. However, male migration had negative impact. This

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was interpreted that the lack of monitor of female migration on schooling investment or

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the signal from international migrant about the low return of low skilled migrant.

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By contrast, migration can affect school enrollment negatively, one typical example,

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relationship. The argument of the authors is that migration affect school enrollment via

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18 year olds girls and 12 to 18 year olds boys in Mexico have significant negative

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McKenzie and Rapoport (2007) recognized that migration and school enrollment of 16 to


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three ways: the income effect brought by remittances, direct effect of adult migration that

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requires more demand on child work, indirect effect of incentives to invest for education.

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One specific thing of migration in Mexico is that children in migrant household likely to

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self migrate to US via illegal ways. In this context, children in migrant household are

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unlikely better than children in non migrant household. Once remittance became essential

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for survival of population in Mexico, it generated the dependency of household to

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remittances for household members who left behind. Change in consumption, reduce

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labor supply, enjoy more time in relax and more need of remittance in the future. The

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absent of adults in the household may increase the child’s responsibilities in the
household, greater demand for older children to run and support the family. It makes

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difficult to attend school like other normal children.

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To overcome some limitations in previous paper about El Savador, by using panel

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data and controlling household fixed effect method, Acosta (2011) also did another

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research and it found that female migration tend to reduce the child work in domestic and

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non-domestic. But it was not true for male migrant whom seemed to stimulate the child

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work in domestic labor. In addition, male migration seemed not to affect to school

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enrollment of child while female migration had the inverse impact when reducing the
child school enrollment. The reason for the negative impact of female migration on school

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l.c
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enrollment maybe because of the absent of monitoring of female in managing funds or
difference in the use of remittances by gender of the recipient person or the child-adult

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labor substitution.

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According to Nguyen T, and Purnamasari R. (2011), the impact of international

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migration on sending household was affected a lot by migrant’s gender in context of

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reduced child work. Surprisingly, household with some male migrants household seemed

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method for regression the result. As the whole, household with only female migrant

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Indonesia. They used Family Life survey from 1993 to 2007 and instrumental variable