Wastewater treatment occurrence and fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (pahs) (advances in water and wastewater transport and treatment)

Wastewater
Treatment

Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Tai Lieu Chat Luong

Edited by

Amy J. Forsgren



Wastewater
Treatment

Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)


Advances in Water and Wastewater
Transport and Treatment
A SERIES

Series Editor
Amy J. Forsgren
Xylem, Sweden
Wastewater Treatment: Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Amy J. Forsgren

Harmful Algae Blooms in Drinking Water: Removal of
Cyanobacterial Cells and Toxins
Harold W. Walker

ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION


Wastewater
Treatment

Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Edited by

Amy J. Forsgren


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To Rachel Carson, whose book Silent Spring was a major driving force
behind the creation of the USEPA, and to Frances Oldham Kelsey, the
scientist who put a human face on the words teratogen and mutagen



Contents
Contributors.............................................................................................................ix
Acronyms.................................................................................................................xi
1.Introduction...................................................................................................... 1
Amy J. Forsgren

2. PAHs in Natural Waters: Natural and Anthropogenic Sources,
and Environmental Behavior...................................................................... 11
Jan Kochany
3. Quantitative Changes of PAHs in Water and in Wastewater
during Treatment Processes........................................................................ 47
Maria Włodarczyk-Makuła and Agnieszka Popenda
4. PAHs in Water Resources and Environmental Matrices
in Tunisia...................................................................................................71
Olfa Mahjoub and Imen Haddaoui
5. Occurrence, Removal, and Fate of PAHs and VOCs in Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants: A Literature Review.............................. 91
Aleksandra Jelic, Evina Katsou, Simos Malamis, David Bolzonella,
and Francesco Fatone
6. Occurrence, Fate, and Removal of PAHs and VOCs in WWTPs
Using Activated Sludge Processes and Membrane Bioreactors:
Results from Italy and Greece.................................................................. 113
Evina Katsou, Simos Malamis, Daniel Mamais, David Bolzonella,
and Francesco Fatone
7. PAHs in Wastewater and Removal Efficiency in Conventional
Wastewater Treatment Plants.................................................................... 141
Vincenzo Torretta
8. PAHs in Wastewater during Dry and Wet Weather............................. 157
Kenya L. Goodson, Robert Pitt, and Shirley Clark

vii


viii

Contents

9. In Situ PAH Sensors.................................................................................... 175
Woo Hyoung Lee, Xuefei Guo, Daoli Zhao, Andrea Campiglia,
Jared Church, and Xiangmeng Ma
10. PAHs in Sewage Sludge, Soils, and Sediments..................................... 211
Amy J. Forsgren


Contributors
David Bolzonella
Department of Biotechnology
University of Verona
Verona, Italy

Imen Haddaoui
Higher Institute of Agronomic
Sciences of Chatt Meriem
Tunis, Tunisia

Andrea Campiglia
Department of Chemistry
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida

Woo Hyoung Lee
Department of Civil, Environmental,
and Construction Engineering
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida

Jared Church
Department of Civil,
Environmental, and
Construction Engineering
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida

Aleksandra Jelic
Department of Biotechnology
University of Verona
Verona, Italy

Shirley Clark
Penn State Harrisburg
Middletown, Pennsylvania

Evina Katsou
Department of Biotechnology
University of Verona
Verona, Italy

Francesco Fatone
Department of Biotechnology
University of Verona
Verona, Italy

Jan Kochany
Environmental Consultant
Mississauga, Ontario, Canada

Amy J. Forsgren
Xylem Inc.
Sundbyberg, Sweden
Kenya L. Goodson
Nspiregreen, LLC
Washington, DC
Xuefei Guo
Department of Chemistry
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio

Xiangmeng Ma
Department of Civil,
Environmental, and
Construction Engineering
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida
Olfa Mahjoub
National Research Institute for
Rural Engineering, Water, and
Forestry (INRGREF)
Tunis, Tunisia

ix


x

Simos Malamis
Department of Biotechnology

University of Verona
Verona, Italy
Daniel Mamais
Department of Water Resources and
Environmental Engineering
School of Civil Engineering
National Technical University of
Athens
Athens, Greece
Robert Pitt
Department of Civil, Construction,
and Environmental Engineering
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
Agnieszka Popenda
Department of Chemistry
Water and Wastewater Technology
Częstochowa University of
Technology
Częstochowa, Poland

Contributors

Vincenzo Torretta
Università degli Studi dell’Insubria
Varese, Italy
Maria Włodarczyk-Makuła
Department of Chemistry
Water and Wastewater Technology
Częstochowa University of

Technology
Częstochowa, Poland
Daoli Zhao
Department of Chemistry
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio


Acronyms
ATSDR
U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry
BaP, B(α)P
Benzo[a]pyrene, also known as benzo[α]pyrene
BOD5
5-day biochemical oxygen demand
BSA
Bovine serum albumin
BTEX
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene
CAS
Chemical Abstract Services
CASP
Conventional activated sludge process
CBOD5
5-day carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand
CNT
Carbon nanotube
COD
Chemical oxygen demand
CT

Coal tar
DMSO
Dimethyl sulfoxide
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
DO
Dissolved oxygen
dw, d.w.
Dry weight
EC
European Commission (EU’s executive body)
EEA
European Environmental Agency
EEM
Excitation-emission matrix
EF
Emission factor
EFSA
European Food Safety Authority
E.I.
Equivalent inhabitant
ELISA
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
EPA
See USEPA
EQS
Environmental Quality Standards (European Union)
ERM
Effect range median
EU

European Union
EU-SCF
European Union, Scientific Committee for Food
FAOFood and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
FATE
Fate and Treatability Estimator (model)
FISFluoroimmunosensor
FOP
Fiber optic probe
FS
Final sludge
FWHM
Full width at half maximum
GC
Gas chromatography
GC-MS or GS/MS Gas chromatography with mass spectroscopy
GC/MS-MS
Gas chromatography with tandem mass spectroscopy
GPC
Gel permeation chromatography
HAP
Hazardous air pollutant
HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus
HMSO
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, UK
xi


xii

Acronyms

HMW
High molecular weight
HOMO
Highest occupied molecular orbital
HPLC
High-performance liquid chromatography
HPLC-DADHigh-performance liquid chromatography with diodearray detection
HPLC-FIHigh-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection
HRT
Hydraulic retention time
I&I
Infiltration and inflow
IARC
International Agency for Research on Cancer
ICCD
Intensified charge-coupled device
ISO
International Organization for Standardization
JEFCA
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
JRC-IRMMJoint Research Centre, Institute for Reference Materials
and Measurements (EC)
LETRSS
Laser-excited time-resolved Shpol’skii spectroscopy
LLE
Liquid-liquid extraction
LMW

Low molecular weight
LOD
Limit of detection
LOQ
Limit of quantification
LUMO
Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
MBR
Membrane bioreactor
MCL
Maximum contaminant level
MCM
Million cubic meters
MDL
Method detection limit
MGD
Million gallons per day
MGP
Manufactured gas plant
MITI
Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Japan)
MLSS
Mixed liquor suspended solids
NFNanofiltration
NH3-N
Ammoniacal nitrogen
NPDES
National Pollutant Discharge Eliminations System
(United States)
NWMP

National Waste Minimization Program (USEPA)
OECDOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OLR
Organic loading rate
PAH
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PANH
Polycyclic aromatic nitrogen heterocycle
PAS
Photoelectric aerosol sensor
PCB
Polychlorinated biphenyl
PFE
Pressurized fluid extraction
POP
Persistent organic pollutant
ppb
Parts per billion
ppt
Parts per trillion
PrTPrethickening


Acronyms

xiii

PS
Primary sludge
PVC

Polyvinyl chloride
PW
Produced water
PWS
Prince William Sound, Alaska
QCM
Quartz crystal microbalance
RCV
Rapid cyclic voltammetry
RIVMNational Institute for Public Health and Environment
(Netherlands)
RO
Reverse osmosis
RTF
Room temperature fluorescence
SAM
Self-assembled monolayer
SCE
Saturated calomel electrode
SCF
Sludge concentration factor
SERS
Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
SFE
Supercritical fluid extraction
SIM
Selective ion method
sOUR
Specific oxygen uptake rate
SPE

Solid-phase extraction
SPNE
Solid-phase nanoextraction
SPR
Surface plasmon resonance
SRT
Solids retention time
SS
Secondary sludge
SWCNT
Single-walled carbon nanotube
TCA
Tricarboxylic acid
TKN
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
TLCR
Total lifetime carcinogenic risk
TREEM
Time-resolved excitation-emission matrix
TSS
Total suspended solid
USEPA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
UVUltraviolet
UVF
Ultraviolet fluorescence (spectroscopy)
UV-VIS
Ultraviolet-visible absorption
VOC
Volatile organic carbon

VSC
Volatile sulfide compound
VSS
Volatile suspended solid
WFD
Water Framework Directive (EU)
WHO
World Health Organization
WTM
Wavelength time matrix
WWTP
Wastewater treatment plant



1
Introduction
Amy J. Forsgren
Xylem Inc., Sundbyberg, Sweden

CONTENTS
1.1 What Are PAHs?............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Why Are PAHs a Concern?...........................................................................2
1.3 Which PAHs Are a Concern?........................................................................ 2
1.4 Why Wastewater Treatment Plants?.............................................................5
1.4.1 Collection into the WWTP Influent..................................................6
1.4.2 PAHs Generated by WWTPs.............................................................6
1.5 Why This Matters...........................................................................................7
References..................................................................................................................7

1.1  What Are PAHs?
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of organic compounds
that are made up of two or more fused aromatic rings. PAHs are created
primarily by incomplete combustion of organic matter: the burning of fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, or biomass such as garbage or sewage sludge,
or forest fires.
The variety of combustion/pyrolysis processes and the vast number of
organic matter that can be burned add up to a plethora of PAH compounds
that can be formed and released. The European Food Safety Authority estimates that there are about 500 PAHs that have been detected in ambient air
(EFSA 2008).
Is this a new problem? Well, yes and no. PAHs can occur naturally—
e.g., during forest fires or by volcanoes—or as a result of human activity.
There are  a lot of data indicating that human activity is the major source.
Vikelsoe et al. (2002) have studied sediment cores in Denmark dating back
to 1914. They report low levels of contamination before World War II, after
which a significant rise occurs. Studies of sediment cores at Admiralty Bay,
Antarctica, have shown that the highest concentrations of PAHs occurred
in the last 30 years. This is attributed to (1) increased industrial activity in
South America and (2) more research stations in the area (Martins et al. 2010).
1


2

Wastewater Treatment

1.2  Why Are PAHs a Concern?
PAHs are high-concern pollutants because they are persistent—they stay in
the environment for a long period—and because some of them have been
identified as carcinogens, mutagens, or teratogens. One PAH, benzo(a)pyrene

or B[a]P, has the dubious distinction of being the first chemical identified as
a carcinogen (Sternbeck 2011).
Whether people exposed to PAHs will suffer harmful effects, and
what those harmful effects will be, depends, of course, on many factors
(ATSDR 1995):
The dose and duration of PAH exposure
The pathway by which the person is exposed—breathing, eating,
drinking, skin contact
Other chemicals to which the person is exposed
Individual characteristics, such as age, sex, state of health, and nutritional status
There is an extensive literature on the accumulation of PAHs in mussels
and fish (EFSA 2008). Conventional wisdom is that PAHs are accumulated in
terrestrial and aquatic plants, fish, and invertebrates, but that many animals
are able to metabolize and eliminate PAHs. Bioconcentration factors—the
concentration in tissues compared to the concentration in media—are very
high for fish and crustaceans, often in the 10 to 10,000 range. Studies of PAH
bioconcentration in higher organisms are not so plentiful, and indeed, conventional wisdom has not deemed it to be particularly needed.
A Canadian study, however, published in August 2014 has seen mutations
in cormorant chicks that are linked to PAHs (King et al. 2014). This is disturbing and calls for more study.

1.3  Which PAHs Are a Concern?
In the literature, it is frequently noted that one of the difficulties in comparing different reports of PAH measurements is that there is a lack of consistency about which PAHs are included in the measurements taken. Table 1.1
illustrates one reason for this lack of consistency: various agencies have different recommendations for which PAHs to monitor.
Another contributing reason may be that the type of biomass being
burned, and how it is burned, will dramatically affect the composition of the
PAHs created. Table 1.2 gives examples of the varying relative amounts of
four PAHs, estimated as ratios of benzo(a)pyrene.


CAS Number

83-32-9
208-96-8
120-12-7
56-55-3
191-24-2
50-32-08
192-97-2
205-99-2
205-82-3
207-08-9
205-12-9
208-01-9
27208-37-3
53-70-3
192-65-4
189-64-0
189-55-9
191-30-0
206-44-0
86-73-7
193-39-5
3697-24-3

Chemical

Acenaphthene
Acenaphthylene
Anthracene
Benz(a)anthracene

Benzo(g,h,i)perylene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzo(e)pyrene
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(j)fluoranthene
Benzo(k)fluoranthene
Benzo(c)fluorene
Chrysene
Cyclopenta(c,d)pyrene
Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
Dibenzo(a,e)pyrene
Dibenzo(a,h)pyrene
Dibenzo(a,i)pyrene
Dibenzo(a,l)pyrene
Fluoranthene
Fluorene
Indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene
5-Methylchrysene
X

X
X
X

X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

ATSDR

X

X

X

X
X
X

EPA, Priority
Chemical List

X

X

X

X
X
X
X
X
X

EPA, Σ16 PAHs

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X

EU-SCF, 2002

PAHs Frequently Monitored according to Recommendations/Requirements by Various Agencies

TABLE 1.1

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

EU-SCF, 2005

(Continued)

X

X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X

X

JECFA

Introduction
3


91-20-3
85-01-8
129-00-0

CAS Number
X

X
X

EPA, Σ16 PAHs
X
X

EPA, Priority
Chemical List
X
X

ATSDR

EU-SCF, 2002

EU-SCF, 2005

JECFA

Source: Compiled from EPA, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, EPA Fact Sheet, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste, Washington, DC, January 2008; ATSDR, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) ToxFAQ, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, 1996, JRCIRMM, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Factsheet: 3rd Edition, JRC 60146-2010, European Commission, Joint Research
Centre, Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, Geel, Belgium, 2010; EFSA, The EFSA Journal, 724, 1–114, 2008; EC,
European Commission, Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food, 2002, />en.pdf (accessed August 30, 2014); EC, Official Journal of the European Commission, L34, 43, 2005; Wenzl et al., TrAC Trends in Analytical
Chemistry, 25(7), 716–725, 2006.
Note: CAS, Chemical Abstracts Service; EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; EU-SCF, EU Scientific Committee for Food; ATSDR,
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry; JECFA, Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives.

Naphthalene
Phenanthrene
Pyrene

Chemical

PAHs Frequently Monitored according to Recommendations/Requirements by Various Agencies

TABLE 1.1 (Continued)

4
Wastewater Treatment


5

Introduction

TABLE 1.2
PAH Profiles for Various Sources, Estimated as a Ratio to B[a]P
Source
Coal
combustion
(industrial
and domestic)
Wood
combustion
(industrial
and domestic)
Natural fires/

agricultural
biomass
burning
Anode baking
Passenger cars,
conventional
Passenger cars,
closed-loop
catalyst
Passenger cars,
diesel, direct
injection
Passenger cars,
diesel, indirect
injection
Heavy-duty
vehicles

Stationary
or Mobile?

Benzo(b)
Fluoranthene

Benzo(k)
Fluoranthene

Benzo(a)
Pyrene

Indeno(1,2,3-cd)
Pyrene

Stationary

0.05

0.01

1.0

0.8

Stationary

1.2

0.4

1.0

0.1

Stationary

0.6

0.3

1.0

0.4

Stationary
Mobile

2.2a
1.2

a

0.9

1.0
1.0

0.5
1.0

Mobile

0.9

1.2

1.0

1.4

Mobile

0.9

1.0

1.0

1.1

Mobile

0.9

0.8

1.0

0.9

Mobile

5.6

8.2

1.0

1.4

Source:EFSA, The EFSA Journal, 724, 1–114, 2008.

a Combined result for the two PAHs.

1.4  Why Wastewater Treatment Plants?
With the exception of sludge incineration, wastewater treatment plants do
not create PAHs. PAHs are brought into the wastewater treatment plant
(WWTP) in the raw influent stream.
PAHs are created by many mobile and stationary sources; in large urban
areas with millions of motor vehicles, the number of sources generating
PAHs can easily number in the millions. Through the sewer systems, PAHs
are collected and directed into the WWTP influent stream. Some PAHs will
be broken down in the WWTP processes, some water-soluble PAHs will exit
in the treated effluent stream, and some will adsorb onto particles and be
concentrated in the sludge stream.


6

Wastewater Treatment

The WWTP is thus a major point source for collection, concentration, and
discharge of PAHs. Control devices, equipment, and methods implemented
here for PAH remediation can have a significant environmental impact.
1.4.1  Collection into the WWTP Influent
PAHs are created during combustion; for the most part, they enter the
atmosphere in the gas phase, become adsorbed onto particles, and eventually
are deposited on land or in water. PAHs generated by automobiles deposit
very quickly, on the road or close to it. Rain then washes them, as road runoff or street dust, into the storm sewers, where they make their way to the
WWTP. For urban watersheds, this is a major source: Takada et  al. (1991)
measured Tokyo street dust and found that it can contain PAHs on the order
of a few µg/g. In Los Angeles, California, the average traffic is greater than

81 million vehicle-miles per day. This translates to a yearly estimate of 740 kg
of PAHs discharged to the waters of the southern California Bight (Stein et al.
2006)—and that is not counting the PAHs that end up in the sewage sludge.
Research has shown repeatedly that sewage sludge is a very efficient
sorbent for all lipophilic contaminants that find their way into the sewage
system (Strandberg et  al. 2001). PAHs have a lipophilic nature, and thus
are concentrated strongly in the sewage sludge. There is increasing environmental concern over fates of pollutants in the solid wastes generated by
­wastewater treatment processes.
1.4.2  PAHs Generated by WWTPs
PAHs are generated during incineration of organic matter, including sewage
sludge incineration (Mininni et al. 2004; Sun 2011). For more discussion on
this, please see Chapter 10.
Other mechanisms by which WWTPs can generate PAHs have been
­proposed, but the amounts seem to be insignificant compared to those generated by incineration.
Off-gases from aeration basins are potentially another source of PAHs
generated by WWTPs. Two mechanisms can be expected: volatile species,
including low molecular weight PAHs, partitioning into the aeration gas,
or particulate matter (with adsorbed PAHs) being thrown into the atmosphere by bubbles bursting at the liquid surface. Upadhyay et  al. (2013)
have ­measured particulate matter emissions from aeration basins, with
and without odor control, at WWTPs in Arizona. They demonstrated that
aerosolization of wastewater occurs, but that aeration basins are not a significant source of particulate matter mass or PAHs associated with particulates (though they found that the finer particles travel beyond the WWTP
boundaries, with possible implications for carrying disease-causing agents).
Manoli and Samara (2008) also estimate that the amount of PAHs released
into the atmosphere via this route is small; only an estimated 1 to 2% of


Introduction

7

PAHs are removed by volatization in conventional wastewater treatment
plants. Kappen (2003) has also looked at air samples of the off-gas from aeration tanks. She reports that volatilization of the PAHs present was minimal
and “should not be a concern unless there are unusually high concentrations
of PAHs in the influent.”
There are also some indications that the prevailing aerobic and sunlight
conditions of sedimentation ponds can transform PAHs into oxygenated
PAHs or oxy-PAHs (Kalmykova et  al. 2014). The oxy-PAHs are of interest
because they are toxic to both humans and the environment, persistent, and
more water soluble (and therefore more mobile) than their corresponding
PAHs (Lundstedt et al. 2007). This is an area that deserves more attention.

1.5  Why This Matters
A group of scientists in Ontario Province, Canada, studied double-crested
cormorants in three Canadian colonies, two in Hamilton Harbour and the
third in the cleaner northeastern Lake Erie. Hamilton Harbour is one of the
most polluted sites on the Great Lakes, with very high concentrations of
PAHs in sediments and the air. During the 2 years of their study, industrial
PAH emissions in the area were in the range of thousands of kilograms per
year. Levels of mutations in chicks were up to sixfold higher in Hamilton
Harbour; bile and liver analysis revealed the PAH benzo(a)pyrene. The inference is that the cormorants are exposed to PAHs and metabolizing them, and
the PAHs in turn are causing the observed ­mutations (King et al. 2014).
Their report, published in August 2014, may be the first one documenting
PAH metabolites in wild birds that are caused by ambient chemical contamination, rather than oil spills.
Unfortunately, it may be the first of many.

References
ATSDR. (1995). Toxicological profile for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA.
ATSDR. (1996). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) ToxFAQ. U.S. Department

of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, Atlanta, GA. />EC. (2002). European Commission, Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food,
2002. (accessed
August 30, 2014).


8

Wastewater Treatment

EC. (2005). European Union, Commission Recommendation 2005/108/EC. Official
Journal of the European Commission, L34, 43.
EFSA. (2008). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food: Scientific opinion of the
Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (question no. EFSA-Q-2007-136). The
EFSA Journal, 724, 1–114.
EPA. (2008, January). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. EPA Fact Sheet. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC.
JRC-IRMM. (2010). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) factsheet: 3rd edition.
JRC 60146-2010. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for
Reference Materials and Measurements, Geel, Belgium.
Kalmykova, Y., Moona, N., Strömvall, A.M., and Björklund, K. (2014). Sorption and
degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
alkylphenols, bisphenol A and phthalates in landfill leachate using sand, activated carbon and peat filters. Water Research, 56, 246–257.
Kappen, L.L. (2003). Volatilization and fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
during wastewater treatment. Thesis, College of Engineering, University of
Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH.
King, L.E., de Solla, S.R., Small, J.M., Sverko, E., and Quinn, J. (2014). Microsatellite
DNA mutations in double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) associated
with exposure to PAH-containing industrial air pollution. Environmental Science
and Technology. DOI: 10.1021/es502720a.

Lundstedt, S., White, P.A., Lemieux, C.L., Lynes, K.D., Lambert, I.B., Öberg, L.,
Haglund, P., and Tysklind, M. (2007). Sources, fate, and toxic hazards of oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at PAH-contaminated sites.
AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 36(6), 475–485.
Manoli, E., and Samara, C. (2008). The removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
in the wastewater treatment process: Experimental calculations and model predictions. Environmental Pollution, 151(3), 477–485.
Martins, C.C., Bícego, M.C., Rose, N.L., Taniguchi, S., Lourenỗo, R.A., Figueira, R.C.,
Mahiques, M.M., and Montone, R.C. (2010). Historical record of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and spheroidal carbonaceous particles (SCPs) in
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