Handbook of human factors and ergonomics methods

Tai Lieu Chat Luong


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Handbook of Human
Factors
Half Title Page
and Ergonomics Methods


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Handbook of HumanTitle
Factors
Page
and Ergonomics Methods

Neville Stanton
Alan Hedge
Karel Brookhuis
Eduardo Salas
Hal Hendrick

CRC PR E S S
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The handbook of human factors and ergonomics methods / edited by Neville Stanton … [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-415-28700-6 (alk. paper)
1. Human engineering—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Stanton, Neville, 1960–
.
TA166.H275 2004
620.8′2—dc21

2003012359
CIP

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Preface
I must confess to a love of human factors and ergonomics methods. This is a love bordering on obsession.
Ever since I was taught how to use hierarchical task analysis (HTA) almost 20 years ago, I have been
hooked. Since that time, I have learned how to use dozens of methods. Each time, it is a mini-adventure.
I sometimes wonder if I will understand a new method properly, but when it clicks, I feel euphoric. I
have also spent a good deal of time training others in the use of methods. This is an extremely rewarding
experience, particularly when a trainee presents an analysis of his/her own that shows a clear grasp of
how the method works. I have also enjoyed developing some new methods. For example, in collaboration
with Chris Baber at the University of Birmingham, I have developed an error-prediction methodology
called “task analysis for error identification” (TAFEI). As with HTA, we have sought to underpin TAFEI
with a theory of human performance. We are still discovering new aspects of the TAFEI analysis, and it
gives us both a thrill to see other people reporting their studies using TAFEI.
The inspiration for this handbook came after I wrote A Guide to Methodology in Ergonomics with Mark
Young, which was also published by Taylor & Francis. It was clear to me that, although the human factors
and ergonomics literature is full of references to methods, there are few consistent standards for how
these methods are described and reported. This handbook began in 2000 with a proposal to Taylor &

Francis. Fortunately, Tony Moore smiled on this book. With his go-ahead, I contacted experts in each of
the various domains of ergonomics methods and asked them to edit different sections of the book. I feel
very fortunate that I managed to recruit such an eminent team. To be fair, they did not take much
persuasion, as they also agreed that this project was a worthwhile undertaking. The next step was to ask
experts in the various ergonomics methodologies to summarize their methods in a standardized format.
It was a pleasant surprise to see how willingly the contributors responded.
Now, some 4 years after the initial conception, all of the contributions have been gathered and edited.
On behalf of the editorial team, I hope that you, the reader, will find this to be a useful handbook. We
hope that this book will encourage developers of methods to structure the reporting of their methods
in a consistent manner. Equally important, we hope that this handbook will encourage users of the
methods to be more adventurous.
Neville A. Stanton
August 2004


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Acknowledgments
On behalf of the editorial team, I would like to thank all of the contributors to this handbook for their
professionalism and diligence. I would also like to thank the book commissioning and production team
at Taylor & Francis and CRC Press, especially Tony Moore, Sarah Kramer, Matt Gibbons, Jessica Vakili,
Cindy Carelli, and Naomi Lynch.


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Editors
Neville A. Stanton is a professor of human-centered design at Brunel University in the U.K. He has a
bachelor’s degree in psychology from the University of Hull as well as master and doctoral degrees in
human factors from Aston University. Professor Stanton has published over 70 peer-reviewed journal
papers and 7 books on human-centered design. He was a visiting fellow of the Department of Design at
Cornell University in 1998. He was awarded the Institution of Electrical Engineers Divisional Premium
Award for a paper on engineering psychology and system safety in 1998. The Ergonomics Society awarded
him the Otto Edholm Medal in 2001 for his contribution to basic and applied ergonomics research.
Professor Stanton is on the editorial boards of Ergonomics, Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, and
the International Journal of Human Computer Interaction. Professor Stanton is a chartered psychologist
and a fellow of the British Psychological Society, a fellow of the Ergonomics Society, and a fellow of the
Royal Society for the Arts.
Eduardo Salas is a professor of psychology at the University of Central Florida, where he also holds an
appointment as program director for the Human Systems Integration Research Department at the
Institute for Simulation and Training. He is also the director of UCF’s Ph.D. Applied Experimental &
Human Factors Program. Previously, he served as a senior research psychologist and head of the Training
Technology Development Branch of the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division for 15 years.
During this period, Dr. Salas served as a principal investigator for numerous R&D programs focusing
on teamwork, team training, decision making under stress, and performance assessment.
Dr. Salas has coauthored over 200 journal articles and book chapters and has coedited 11 books. He
has served on the editorial boards of the Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology, Military
Psychology, Interamerican Journal of Psychology, Applied Psychology: an International Journal, International
Journal of Aviation Psychology, Group Dynamics, and the Journal of Organizational Behavior.
His expertise includes helping organizations to foster teamwork, to design and implement team
training strategies, to facilitate training effectiveness, to manage decision making under stress, to develop
performance measurement tools, and to design learning environments. He is currently working on
designing tools and techniques to minimize human errors in aviation, law enforcement, and medical
environments. He has served as a consultant in a variety of manufacturing settings, pharmaceutical

laboratories, and industrial and governmental organizations. Dr. Salas is a fellow of the American
Psychological Association (SIOP and Division 21) and the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, and
he is a recipient of the Meritorious Civil Service Award from the Department of the Navy. He received
his Ph.D. degree (1984) in industrial and organizational psychology from Old Dominion University.
Hal W. Hendrick, Ph.D., CPE, DABFE, is emeritus professor of human factors and ergonomics at the
University of Southern California and principal of Hendrick and Associates, an ergonomics and industrial
and organizational psychology consulting firm. He is a certified professional ergonomist, diplomate of
the American Board of Forensic Examiners, and holds a Ph.D. in industrial psychology and an M.S. in
human factors from Purdue University, with a minor in industrial engineering. He is a past chair of USC’s
Human Factors Department, former executive director of the university’s Institute of Safety and Systems
Management, and a former dean at the University of Denver. He earlier was an associate professor at the
U.S. Air Force Academy, where he helped develop the psychology major and developed the Cooperative
MS Program in Human Factors with Purdue University. Hal is a past president of the Human Factors
and Ergonomics Society (HFES), the International Ergonomics Association, and the Board of Certification
in Professional Ergonomics. He is a fellow of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA), HFES,


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American Psychological Association, and American Psychological Society. He is a recipient of the USC
outstanding teaching award and both the HFES Jack A. Kraft Innovator Award and Alexander C. Williams,
Jr., Design Award. He is the author or coauthor of over 180 professional publications, including 3 books,
and editor or coeditor of 11 books. Hal conceptualized and initiated the subdiscipline of macroergonomics.
Alan Hedge is a professor in the Department of Design and Environmental Analysis at Cornell University.
His work focuses on the effects of workplace design on the health, comfort, and performance of people.
Recent projects have investigated alternative input device design, ergonomic chairs, and other furniture
workstation elements that can reduce musculoskeletal disorder risk factors. He also researches indoor
environmental design issues, especially air quality, ventilation, and the sick-building syndrome as well
as office lighting and computer-vision syndrome. He has coauthored a book, Keeping Buildings Healthy,
25 chapters, and over 150 professional publications. He is active in several professional societies.

Karel Brookhuis studied psychology at Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, specializing in experimental psychology, in 1980. He then became a research fellow (Ph.D. student) at the Institute for Experimental
Psychology, with a specialization in psychophysiology. In 1983 he became a senior researcher at the Traffic
Research Centre, which later merged into the Centre for Environmental and Traffic Psychology, at the
University of Groningen. In 1986 he became head of the Department of Biopsychological Aspects of
Driving Behaviour, later renamed the Department of Task Performance and Cognition. In 1994 he was
appointed as a research manager, responsible for the centre’s research planning and quality control. After
the centre was closed on January 1, 2000, he became associate professor (UHD) in the Department of
Experimental and Work Psychology. Since 2001, Brookhuis has served as a part-time full professor at the
Section of Transport Policy and Logistics of the Technical University of Delft.


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Contributors
Torbjörn Åkerstedt

Gunnar Borg

Lee Cooper

National Institute for Psychosocial
Factors and Health
Stockholm, Sweden

Stockholm University
Department of Psychology
Stockholm, Sweden

University of Birmingham
Computing Engineering

Birmingham, U.K.

W.G. Allread

Wolfram Boucsein

Nigel Corlett

Ohio State University
Institute for Ergonomics
Columbus, OH

Dee H. Andrews
U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory
Warfighter Training Research
Division
Mesa, AZ

John Annett
University of Warwick
Department of Psychology
Coventry, U.K.

Amelia A. Armstrong
Klein Associates Inc.
Fairborn, OH

Christopher Baber
University of Birmingham
Computing Engineering

Birmingham, U.K.

David P. Baker
American Institutes for Research
Washington, D.C.

Natale Battevi
EPM-CEMOC
Milan, Italy

J. Matthew Beaubien
American Institutes for Research
Washington, D.C.

Artem Belopolsky

University of Wuppertal
Physiological Psychology
Wuppertal, Germany

Clint A. Bowers
University of Central Florida
Department of Psychology
Orlando, FL

University of Nottingham
Institute for Occupational
Ergonomics
Nottingham, U.K.

Dana M. Costar
American Institutes for Research
Washington, D.C.

Peter R. Boyce
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Lighting Research Center
Troy, NY

Karel A. Brookhuis
University of Groningen
Experimental & Work Psychology
Groningen, the Netherlands

Ogden Brown, Jr.
University of Denver
Denver, CO

Peter Buckle
University of Surrey
Robens Center for Health
Ergonomics
Guildford, U.K.

C. Shawn Burke
University of Central Florida
Institute for Simulation & Training
Orlando, FL

Pamela Dalton

Monell Chemical Senses Center
Philadelphia, PA

Renée E. DeRouin
University of Central Florida
Institute for Simulation & Training
Orlando, FL

Dick de Waard
University of Groningen
Experimental & Work Psychology
Groningen, the Netherlands

David F. Dinges
University of Pennsylvania
School of Medicine
Philadelphia, PA

James E. Driskell
Florida Maxima Corporation
Winter Park, FL

Pascale Carayon
University of Wisconsin
Center for Quality & Productivity
Improvement
Madison, WI

University of Illinois
Department of Psychology

Champaign, IL

Daniela Colombini

Jennifer Blume

Nancy J. Cooke

National Space Biomedical
Research Institute
Houston, TX

Arizona State University East
Applied Psychology Program
Mesa, AZ

EPM-CEMOC
Milan, Italy

Robin Dunkin-Chadwick
NIOSH
Division of Applied Research
& Technology
Cincinnati, OH

J.R. Easter
Aegis Research Corporation
Pittsburgh, PA

W.C. Elm

Aegis Research Corporation
Pittsburgh, PA


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Eileen B. Entin

Bianka B. Hahn

R.F. Soames Job

Aptima, Inc.
Wodburn, MA

Klein Associates Inc.
Fairborn, OH

University of Sydney
School of Psychology
Sydney, Australia

Elliot E. Entin

Thomas R. Hales

Aptima, Inc.
Wodburn, MA

NIOSH

Division of Applied Research
& Technology
Cincinnati, OH

Gary W. Evans
Cornell University
Department of Design &
Environmental Analysis
Ithaca, NY

Stephen M. Fiore
University of Central Florida
Institute for Simulation & Training
Orlando, FL

M.M. Fleischer
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA

Jennifer E. Fowlkes
Chi Systems, Inc.
Orlando, FL

Philippe Geslin
Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique (INRA)
Toulouse, France
and
Université de Neuchâtel Institut
d’ethnologie

Neuchâtel, Switzerland

Matthias Göbel
Berlin University of Technology
Department of Human Factors
Engineering and Product
Ergonomics
Berlin, Germany

Thad Godish
Ball State University
Department of Natural Resources
Muncie, IN

Gerald F. Goodwin
U.S. Army Research Institute
Alexandria, VA

Paul Grossman
Freiburg Institute for Mindfulness
Research
Freiburg, Germany

J.W. Gualtieri
Aegis Research Corporation
Pittsburgh, PA

George Havenith
Loughborough University
Department of Human Sciences

Loughborough, U.K.

Debra G. Jones
SA Technologies, Inc.
Marietta, GA

David B. Kaber
North Carolina State University
Department of Industrial
Engineering
Raleigh, NC

Alan Hedge

Jussi Kantola

Cornell University
Department of Design &
Environmental Analysis
Ithaca, NY

University of Louisville
Center for Industrial Ergonomics
Louisville, KY

Hal W. Hendrick
Hendrick and Associates
Greenwood Village, CO

University of Louisville

Center for Industrial Ergonomics
Louisville, KY

Sue Hignett

Kristina Kemmlert

Loughborough University
Department of Human Sciences
Loughborough, U.K.

National Institute for Working Life
Solna, Sweden

Vincent H. Hildebrandt
TNO Work & Employment
Hoofddorp, the Netherlands
and
Body@Work Research Center on
Physical Activity, Work and
Health TNO Vumc
Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Hermann Hinrichs
University of Magdeburg
Clinic for Neurology
Magdeburg, Germany

Peter Hoonakker
University of Wisconsin

Center for Quality & Productivity
Improvement
Madison, WI

Karen Jacobs
Boston University Programs
in Occupational Therapy
Boston, MA

Florian Jentsch
University of Central Florida
Department of Psychology
Orlando, FL

Waldemar Karwowski

Mark Kirby
University of Huddersfield
School of Computing and
Engineering
Huddersfield, U.K.

Gary Klein
Klein Associates Inc.
Fairborn, OH

Brian M. Kleiner
Virginia Polytechnical Institute
and State University
Grado Department of Industrial

and Systems Engineering
Blacksburg, VA

David W. Klinger
Klein Associates Inc.
Fairborn, OH

Arthur F. Kramer
University of Illinois
Department of Psychology
Champaign, IL

Guangyan Li
Human Engineering Limited
Bristol, U.K.


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Jean MacMillan

Brian Mullen

Michelle M. Robertson

Aptima, Inc.
Wodburn, MA

Syracuse University
Syracuse, NY

Liberty Mutual Research Institute
for Safety
Hopkinton, MA

Ann Majchrzak

Mitsuo Nagamachi

University of Southern California
Marshall School of Business
Los Angeles, CA

Hiroshima International University
Hiroshima, Japan

Melissa M. Mallis
NASA Ames Research Center
Fatigue Countermeasures Group
Moffett Field, CA

W.S. Marras
Ohio State University
Institute for Ergonomics
Columbus, OH

Philip Marsden
University of Huddersfield
School of Computing and
Engineering

Huddersfield, U.K.

Laura Martin-Milham
University of Central Florida
Institute for Simulation & Training
Orlando, FL

Lorraine E. Maxwell

Leah Newman
Pennsylvania State University
The Harold & Inge Marcus
Department of Industrial &
Manufacturing Engineering
University Park, PA

Enrico Occhipinti
EPM-CEMOC
Milan, Italy

Brian Peacock
National Space Biomedical
Research Institute
Houston, TX

S.S. Potter

COPE Occupational Health and
Ergonomics Services Ltd.
Nottingham, U.K.

University of Central Florida
Institute for Simulation & Training
Orlando, FL

Olga Menoni

Renate Rau

Texas A&M University
School of Rural Public Health
Bryan, TX

Lambertus (Ben) J.M.
Mulder
University of Groningen
Experimental & Work Psychology
Groningen, the Netherlands

E.M. Roth
Roth Cognitive Engineering
Brookline, MA

Eduardo Salas

Steven L. Sauter

Heather A. Priest

J. Steven Moore

University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA

Daniela Panciera
EPM-CEMOC
Milan, Italy

Lynn McAtamney

J. Mokray

D. Roitman

University of Central Florida
Department of Psychology
Orlando, FL

Aegis Research Corporation
Pittsburgh, PA

University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA

Consultant in Ergonomics
Rochester, NY

Aptima, Inc.
Wodburn, MA

Michael J. Paley

Cornell University
Design & Environmental Analysis
Ithaca, NY

EPM-CEMOC
Milan, Italy

Suzanne H. Rodgers

NIOSH
Division of Applied Research
& Technology
Cincinnati, OH

Steven M. Shope
US Positioning Group, LLC
Mesa, AZ

Monique Smeets
Utrecht University
Department of Social Sciences
Utrecht, the Netherlands

Tonya L. Smith-Jackson

University of Technology
Occupational Health Psychology
Dresden, Germany

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University
Grado Department of Industrial
and Systems Engineering
Blacksburg, VA

Mark S. Rea

Kimberly A. Smith-Jentsch

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Lighting Research Center
Troy, NY

University of Central Florida
Department of Psychology
Orlando, FL

Maria Grazia Ricci

Stover H. Snook

EPM-CEMOC
Milan, Italy

Harvard School of Public Health
Boston, MA

Hannu Rintamäki

Neville A. Stanton

Oulu Regional Institute of
Occupational Health
Oulu, Finland

Brunel University
School of Engineering
London, U.K.


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Naomi G. Swanson

Guy Walker

Christopher D. Wickens

NIOSH
Division of Applied Research
& Technology
Cincinnati, OH

Brunel University
School of Engineering
London, U.K.

Jørn Toftum

Donald E. Wasserman

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign
Institute of Aviation
Aviation Human Factors Division
Savoy, IL

Technical University of Denmark
International Centre for Indoor
Environment & Energy
Lyngby, Denmark

Rendell R. Torres
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
School of Architecture
Troy, NY

Susan Vallance
Johnson Engineering
Houston, TX

Gordon A. Vos
Texas A&M University
School of Rural Public Health
Bryan, TX

University of Tennessee
Institute for the Study of Human
Vibration

Knoxville, TN

Jack F. Wasserman
University of Tennessee
Institute for the Study of Human
Vibration
Knoxville, TN

Thomas R. Waters
NIOSH
Division of Applied Research
& Technology
Cincinnati, OH

Cornelis J.E. Wientjes
NATO Research & Technology
Agency
Brussels, Belgium

David Wilder
University of Tennessee
Institute for the Study of Human
Vibration
Knoxville, TN

Mark S. Young
University of New South Wales
Department of Aviation
Sydney, Australia

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Contents

1

Human Factors and Ergonomics Methods Neville A. Stanton . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Physical Methods

2

Physical Methods Alan Hedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

PLIBEL — The Method Assigned for Identification of
Ergonomic Hazards Kristina Kemmlert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

4

Musculoskeletal Discomfort Surveys Used at NIOSH
Steven L. Sauter, Naomi G. Swanson, Thomas R. Waters,
Thomas R. Hales, and Robin Dunkin-Chadwick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

5

The Dutch Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (DMQ)
Vincent H. Hildebrandt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

6

Quick Exposure Checklist (QEC) for the Assessment of Workplace
Risks for Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSDs)
Guangyan Li and Peter Buckle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

7

Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) Lynn McAtamney and Nigel Corlett . . . 7-1

8

Rapid Entire Body Assessment Lynn McAtamney and Sue Hignett . . . . . 8-1

9

The Strain Index J. Steven Moore and Gordon A. Vos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

10

Posture Checklist Using Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) Technology
Karen Jacobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

11

Scaling Experiences during Work: Perceived Exertion and Difficulty
Gunnar Borg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

12

Muscle Fatigue Assessment: Functional Job Analysis Technique
Suzanne H. Rodgers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

13

Psychophysical Tables: Lifting, Lowering, Pushing, Pulling, and Carrying
Stover H. Snook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1

14

Lumbar Motion Monitor W.S. Marras and W.G. Allread . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

15

The Occupational Repetitive Action (OCRA) Methods: OCRA Index and
OCRA Checklist Enrico Occhipinti and Daniela Colombini . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1

2-1


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16

Assessment of Exposure to Manual Patient Handling in Hospital Wards:
MAPO Index (Movement and Assistance of Hospital Patients)
Olga Menoni, Maria Grazia Ricci, Daniela Panciera, and Natale Battevi 16-1

Psychophysiological Methods

17

Psychophysiological Methods Karel A. Brookhuis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1

18

Electrodermal Measurement Wolfram Boucsein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1

19

Electromyography (EMG) Matthias Göbel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1

20

Estimating Mental Effort Using Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability
Lambertus (Ben) J.M. Mulder, Dick de Waard, and Karel A. Brookhuis . . . . . . . 20-1

21

Ambulatory EEG Methods and Sleepiness Torbjörn Åkerstedt . . . . . . . . 21-1

22

Assessing Brain Function and Mental Chronometry with Event-Related
Potentials (ERP) Arthur F. Kramer and Artem Belopolsky. . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1

23

MEG and fMRI Hermann Hinrichs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1

24

Ambulatory Assessment of Blood Pressure to Evaluate Workload
Renate Rau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1

25

Monitoring Alertness by Eyelid Closure
Melissa M. Mallis and David F. Dinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1

26

Measurement of Respiration in Applied Human Factors and
Ergonomics Research Cornelis J.E. Wientjes and Paul Grossman . . . . . . . 26-1

Behavioral and Cognitive Methods

27

Behavioral and Cognitive Methods Neville A. Stanton . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1

28

Observation Neville A. Stanton, Christopher Baber, and Mark S. Young . . . 28-1

29

Applying Interviews to Usability Assessment
Mark S. Young and Neville A. Stanton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1

30

Verbal Protocol Analysis Guy Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1

31

Repertory Grid for Product Evaluation Christopher Baber . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1

32

Focus Groups Lee Cooper and Christopher Baber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1

33

Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) John Annett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1

34

Allocation of Functions Philip Marsden and Mark Kirby . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1


TF1539_C00.fm Page xvii Wednesday, December 13, 2006 7:15 AM

35

Critical Decision Method Gary Klein and Amelia A. Armstrong . . . . . . . 35-1

36

Applied Cognitive Work Analysis (ACWA) W.C. Elm, E.M. Roth,
S.S. Potter, J.W. Gualtieri, and J.R. Easter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1

37

Systematic Human Error Reduction and Prediction Approach (SHERPA)
Neville A. Stanton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1

38

Task Analysis for Error Identification Neville A. Stanton and
Christopher Baber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1

39

Mental Workload Mark S. Young and Neville A. Stanton . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1

40

Multiple Resource Time Sharing Models Christopher D. Wickens . . . . . . 40-1

41

Critical Path Analysis for Multimodal Activity Christopher Baber . . . . . 41-1

42

Situation Awareness Measurement and the Situation Awareness
Global Assessment Technique Debra G. Jones and David B. Kaber . . . . . 42-1

Team Methods

43

Team Methods Eduardo Salas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1

44

Team Training Eduardo Salas and Heather A. Priest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1

45

Distributed Simulation Training for Teams Dee H. Andrews . . . . . . . . . 45-1

46

Synthetic Task Environments for Teams: CERTT’s UAV-STE
Nancy J. Cooke and Steven M. Shope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1

47

Event-Based Approach to Training (EBAT) Jennifer E. Fowlkes
and C. Shawn Burke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1

48

Team Building Eduardo Salas, Heather A. Priest, and
Renée E. DeRouin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1

49

Measuring Team Knowledge Nancy J. Cooke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-1

50

Team Communications Analysis Florian Jentsch and Clint A. Bowers . . . 50-1

51

Questionnaires for Distributed Assessment of Team Mutual Awareness
Jean MacMillan, Michael J. Paley, Eileen B. Entin, and Elliot E. Entin . . . 51-1

52

Team Decision Requirement Exercise: Making Team Decision
Requirements Explicit David W. Klinger and Bianka B. Hahn . . . . . . . . . 52-1

53

Targeted Acceptable Responses to Generated Events or Tasks (TARGETs)
Jennifer E. Fowlkes and C. Shawn Burke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-1


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54

Behavioral Observation Scales (BOS) J. Matthew Beaubien, Gerald F. Goodwin,
Dana M. Costar, David P. Baker, and Kimberly A. Smith-Jentsch . . . . . . . 54-1

55

Team Situation Assessment Training for Adaptive Coordination
Laura Martin-Milham and Stephen M. Fiore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-1

56

Team Task Analysis C. Shawn Burke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-1

57

Team Workload Clint A. Bowers and Florian Jentsch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-1

58

Social Network Analysis James E. Driskell and Brian Mullen . . . . . . . . . . 58-1

Environmental Methods

59

Environmental Methods Alan Hedge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1

60

Thermal Conditions Measurement George Havenith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-1

61

Cold Stress Indices Hannu Rintamäki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-1

62

Heat Stress Indices Alan Hedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-1

63

Thermal Comfort Indices Jørn Toftum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-1

64

Indoor Air Quality: Chemical Exposures Alan Hedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1

65

Indoor Air Quality: Biological/Particulate-Phase Contaminant
Exposure Assessment Methods Thad Godish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-1

66

Olfactometry: The Human Nose as Detection Instrument
Pamela Dalton and Monique Smeets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-1

67

The Context and Foundation of Lighting Practice
Mark S. Rea and Peter R. Boyce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-1

68

Photometric Characterization of the Luminous Environment
Mark S. Rea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1

69

Evaluating Office Lighting Peter R. Boyce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-1

70

Rapid Sound-Quality Assessment of Background Noise
Rendell R. Torres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-1

71

Noise Reaction Indices and Assessment R.F. Soames Job . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-1

72

Noise and Human Behavior Gary W. Evans and Lorraine E. Maxwell . . 72-1

73

Occupational Vibration: A Concise Perspective Jack F. Wasserman,
Donald E. Wasserman, and David Wilder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-1


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74

Habitability Measurement in Space Vehicles and Earth Analogs
Brian Peacock, Jennifer Blume, and Susan Vallance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-1

Macroergonomic Methods

75

Macroergonomic Methods Hal W. Hendrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-1

76

Macroergonomic Organizational Questionnaire Survey (MOQS)
Pascale Carayon and Peter Hoonakker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-1

77

Interview Method Leah Newman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-1

78

Focus Groups Leah Newman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-1

79

Laboratory Experiment Brian M. Kleiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-1

80

Field Study and Field Experiment Hal W. Hendrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-1

81

Participatory Ergonomics (PE) Ogden Brown, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-1

82

Cognitive Walk-Through Method (CWM) Tonya L. Smith-Jackson . . . . . 82-1

83

Kansei Engineering Mitsuo Nagamachi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-1

84

HITOP Analysis™ Ann Majchrzak, M.M. Fleischer, D. Roitman,
and J. Mokray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-1

85

TOP-Modeler© Ann Majchrzak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-1

86

The CIMOP System© Waldemar Karwowski and Jussi Kantola . . . . . . . . 86-1

87

Anthropotechnology Philippe Geslin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-1

88

Systems Analysis Tool (SAT) Michelle M. Robertson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1

89

Macroergonomic Analysis of Structure (MAS) Hal W. Hendrick . . . . . . . 89-1

90

Macroergonomic Analysis and Design (MEAD) Brian M. Kleiner . . . . . . 90-1

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1


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TF1539_book.fm Page 1 Wednesday, July 28, 2004 10:36 AM

1
Human Factors and
Ergonomics Methods
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

Neville A. Stanton
Brunel University

Aims of the Handbook .....................................................
Layout of the Handbook ..................................................
Layout of Each Entry ........................................................
Other Methods Books.......................................................
Challenges for Human Factors and Ergonomics
Methods .............................................................................
References .....................................................................................

1-1
1-3
1-5
1-5
1-6
1-8

1.1 Aims of the Handbook
The main aim of this handbook is to provide a comprehensive, authoritative, and practical account of
human factors and ergonomics methods. It is intended to encourage people to make full use of human
factors and ergonomics methods in system design. Research has suggested that even professional ergonomists tend to restrict themselves to two or three of their favorite methods, despite variations in the
problems that they address (Baber and Mirza, 1988; Stanton and Young, 1998). If this book leads people
to explore human factors and ergonomics methods that are new to them, then it will have achieved its goal.
The page constraints of this handbook meant that coverage of the main areas of ergonomics had to
be limited to some 83 methods. The scope of coverage, outlined in Table 1.1, was determined by what
ergonomists do.
From these definitions, it can be gleaned that the domain of human factors and ergonomics includes:
•
•
•
•

•
•

Human capabilities and limitations
Human–machine interaction
Teamwork
Tools, machines, and material design
Environmental factors
Work and organizational design

These definitions also put an emphasis (sometimes implicit) on analysis of human performance, safety,
and satisfaction. It is no wonder, then, that human factors and ergonomics is a discipline with a strong
tradition in the development and application of methods.
Hancock and Diaz (2002) argue that, as a scientific discipline, ergonomics holds the moral high ground,
with the aim of bettering the human condition. They suggest that this may be at conflict with other aims
of improving system effectiveness and efficiency. No one would argue with the aims of improved comfort,
satisfaction, and well-being, but the drawing of boundaries between the improvements for individuals
and improvements for the whole system might cause some heated debate. Wilson (1995) suggests that
the twin interdependent aims of ergonomics might not be easy to resolve, but ergonomists have a duty
to both individual jobholders and the employing organization. Ethical concerns about the issue of divided
0-415-28700-6/05/$0.00+$1.50
© 2005 by CRC Press LLC

1-1


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Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Methods

TABLE 1.1

Definitions of Human Factors and Ergonomics

Author
Murrell, 1965

Grandjean, 1980

Meister, 1989

Sanders and McCormick, 1993

Hancock, 1997

Definition of Human Factors and Ergonomics
…the scientific study of the relationship between man and his working environment.
In this sense, the term environment is taken to cover not only the ambient
environment in which he may work but also his tools and materials, his methods of
work and the organization of the work, either as an individual or within a working
group. All these are related to the nature of man himself; to his abilities, capacities
and limitations.
…is a study of man’s behavior in relation to his work. The object of this research is
man at work in relation to his spatial environment…the most important principle
of ergonomics: Fitting the task to the man. Ergonomics is interdisciplinarian: it bases
its theories on physiology, psychology, anthropometry, and various aspects of
engineering.
…is the study of how humans accomplish work-related tasks in the context of humanmachine system operation and how behavioral and nonbehavioral variables affect

that accomplishment.
…discovers and applies information about human behavior, abilities, limitations, and
other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, tasks, jobs, and environments
for productive, safe, comfortable, and effective human use.
…is that branch of science which seeks to turn human–machine antagonism into
human–machine synergy.

Source: Dempsey, P.G., Wolgalter, M.S., and Hancock, P.A. (2000), Theor. Issues Ergonomics Sci., 1, 3–10. With permission.

responsibilities might only be dealt with satisfactorily by making it clear to all concerned where one’s
loyalties lie.
The International Encyclopedia of Human Factors and Ergonomics (Karwowski, 2001) has an entire
section devoted to methods and techniques. Many of the other sections of the encyclopedia also provide
references to, if not actual examples of, ergonomics methods. In short, the importance of human factors
and ergonomics methods cannot be overstated. These methods offer the ergonomist a structured
approach to the analysis and evaluation of design problems. The ergonomist's approach can be described
using the scientist-practitioner model. As a scientist, the ergonomist is:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Extending the work of others
Testing theories of human–machine performance
Developing hypotheses
Questioning everything
Using rigorous data-collection and data-analysis techniques

Ensuring repeatability of results
Disseminating the finding of studies

As a practitioner, the ergonomist is:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Addressing real-world problems
Seeking the best compromise under difficult circumstances
Looking to offer the most cost-effective solution
Developing demonstrators and prototype solutions
Analyzing and evaluating the effects of change
Developing benchmarks for best practice
Communicating findings to interested parties

Most ergonomists will work somewhere between the poles of scientist and practitioner, varying the
emphasis of their approach depending upon the problems that they face. Human factors and ergonomist
methods are useful in the scientist-practitioner model because of the structure, and the potential for
repeatability, that they offer. There is an implicit guarantee in the use of methods that, provided they are


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1-3

Human Factors and Ergonomics Methods

used properly, they will produce certain types of useful products. It has been suggested that human factors
and ergonomist methods are a route to making the discipline accessible to all (Diaper, 1989; Wilson,
1995). Despite the rigor offered by methods, however, there is still plenty of scope for the role of
experience. Stanton and Annett (2000) summarized the most frequently asked questions raised by users
of ergonomics methods as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

How deep should the analysis be?
Which methods of data collection should be used?
How should the analysis be presented?
Where is the use of the method appropriate?
How much time and effort does each method require?
How much and what type of expertise is needed to use the method?
What tools are there to support the use of the method?
How reliable and valid is the method?

It is hoped that the contributions to this book will help answer some of those questions.

1.2 Layout of the Handbook
The handbook is divided into six sections, each section representing a specialized field of ergonomics
with a representative selection of associated methods. The sequence of the sections and a brief description

of their contents are presented in Table 1.2. The six sections are intended to represent all facets of human
factors and ergonomics in systems analysis, design, and evaluation. Three of the methods sections
(Sections I through III) are concerned with the individual person and his or her interaction with the
world (i.e., physical methods, psychophysiological methods, and behavioral–cognitive methods). One of
the methods sections (Section IV) is concerned with the social groupings and their interaction with the
world (i.e., team methods). Another of the methods sections (Section V) is concerned with the effect
TABLE 1.2

Description of the Contents of the Six Methods Sections of the Handbook

Methods Sections in Handbook
Section I: Physical Methods

Section II: Psychophysiological
Methods

Section III: Behavioral–Cognitive
Methods

Section IV: Team Methods

Section V: Environmental Methods

Section VI: Macroergonomics
Methods

Brief Description of Contents
This section deals with the analysis and evaluation of musculoskeletal factors
The topics include: measurement of discomfort, observation of posture, analysis
of workplace risks, measurement of work effort and fatigue, assessing lower back

disorder, and predicting upper-extremity injury risks
This section deals with the analysis and evaluation of human psychophysiology
The topics include: heart rate and heart rate variability, event-related potentials,
galvanic skin response, blood pressure, respiration rate, eyelid movements, and
muscle activity
This section deals with the analysis and evaluation of people, events, artifacts, and
tasks
The topics include: observation and interviews, cognitive task analysis methods,
human error prediction, workload analysis and prediction, and situational
awareness
This section deals with the analysis and evaluation of teams
The topics include: team training and assessment requirements, team building,
team assessment, team communication, team cognition, team decision making,
and team task analysis
This section deals with the analysis and evaluation of environmental factors
The topics include: thermal conditions, indoor air quality, indoor lighting, noise
and acoustic measures, vibration exposure, and habitability
This section deals with the analysis and evaluation of work systems
The topics include: organizational and behavioral research methods,
manufacturing work systems, anthropotechnology, evaluations of work system
intervention, and analysis of the structure and processes of work systems


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Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Methods

that the environment has on people (i.e., environmental methods). Finally, the last of the methods sections

(Section VI) is concerned with the overview of work systems (i.e., macroergonomics methods). These
sets of methods are framed by the classic onion-layer analysis model, working from the individual, to
the team, to the environment, to the work system. In theoretical system terms, the level of analysis can
be set at all four levels, or it may focus at only one or two levels. The system boundaries will depend
upon the purpose of the analysis or evaluation.
Each section of the handbook begins with an introduction written by the editor of that section. The
introduction provides a brief overview of the field along with a description of the methods covered in
the sequence that they appear. The editor responsible for that section determined the contents of each
section. Their brief was to provide a representative set of contemporary methods that they felt were useful
for ergonomic analyses and evaluation. Given the restrictions on page length for the handbook, this was
a tall order. Nonetheless, the final set of chapters does present a good overview of contemporary developments in ergonomics methods and serves as a useful handbook. Some of the methods in Section V,
Environmental Methods, do not follow the template approach, especially in lighting and thermal methods. This is because there is no single method that is favored or complete. Therefore, it would be very
misleading to select any single method.
Wilson (1995) divides ergonomics methods into five basic types of design data:
1. Methods for collecting data about people (e.g., collection of data on physical, physiological, and
psychological capacities)
2. Methods used in system development (e.g., collection of data on current and proposed system
design)
3. Methods to evaluate human–machine system performance (e.g., collection of data on quantitative
and qualitative measures)
4. Methods to assess the demands and effects on people (e.g., collection of data on short-term and
longer-term effects on the well-being of the person performing the tasks being analyzed)
5. Methods used in the development of an ergonomics management program (e.g., strategies for
supporting, managing, and evaluating sustainable ergonomics interventions).
These five basic types of design data have been put into a table to help in assessing their relationship
with the six methods section in this book, as shown in Table 1.3.
As Table 1.3 shows, the methods in this handbook cover all of the five basic types of design data. The
darker shading represents a primary source of design data, and the lighter shading represents a secondary,
or contributory, source of design data.
TABLE 1.3

Mapping Wilson's Five Basic Types of Design Data onto the Method Sections in the Handbook
Data about
People

Physical
Psychophysiological
Behavioral–
Cognitive
Team
Environmental
Macroergonomics

Systems
Development

Human–Machine
Performance

Demand and
Effects on
People

Ergonomics
Management
Programs