Hành động ngôn từ xin lỗi và hồi đáp trong hội thoại tiếng anh và tiếng việt ttta

THE UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

NGÔ THỊ HIỀN TRANG

APOLOGIES AND RESPONSES IN
ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE CONVERSATIONS

Major: THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Code: 922.02.01

DOCTORAL THESIS
IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
(A SUMMARY)

Da Nang, 2023


This thesis has been completed at University of Foreign Language
Studies, The University of Da Nang

Supervisor: Assoc.Prof.Dr.Lưu Quý Khương

Examiner 1: PGS.TS. Phạm Thị Hồng Nhung
Examiner 2: PGS.TS. Nguyễn Tất Thắng
Examiner 3: TS. Võ Duy Đức

The thesis was orally defended at the Examining Committee
Major: The English Language
Time:
Venue: University of Foreign Language Studies - The

University of Da Nang

This thesis is available for the purpose of reference at:
- Center for Information Technology and Learning Resources,
University of Foreign Language Studies – The University of Da
Nang.
- The University of Da Nang – Center for Learning Information
Resources and Communication.
- National Library of Viet Nam.


ABSTRACT
Whenever an apology is made, interlocutors expect a return
act of making responses. These pragmatic acts of apologizing and
responding to apologies are common activities in communication
among interlocutors because using only either of these two crucial
speech acts can hardly establish fully effective communication. This
doctoral thesis aims not only to investigate the pragmatic acts of
apology and response strategies in English and Vietnamese film
conversations in terms of gender and power; but also to analyze the
similarities and differences of apology and response strategies in
both languages. The theoretical framework of this study was specified in
the light of sociopragmatics. That is, the conversation analysis by
Schegloff (2007), pragmatic act theory by Mey (2006, 2013), the apology
strategy taxonomy by Trosborg (2011), the response strategy taxonomy
by Holmes (1990, 1995), and the direct and indirect speech act theory by
Searle (1975) were employed to achieve the aims. This study took a
qualitative descriptive and contrastive design with the support of
quantitative information. It collected data from conversations
extracted from socio-psychological film scripts and subtitles in

English and Vietnamese which were released from 2015 to 2020.
The results revealed the exchanges of apology and response
strategies in terms of the influences of gender and power in each
language. This thesis also showed that two languages shared the
similarities and differentiate both languages. The thesis is hoped to
make a contribution to the field of linguistics since it uncovered
exchanges of a pair of speech acts of apologies and responses. It also
extended the apology taxonomy by Trosborg (2011) by adding mixed
apology strategy and response taxonomy by Holmes (1990, 1995)
with ironic acceptance, refusal plus, unsatisfied questions, direct
apologizing and mixed apology response strategy. The findings also
provided practical assistance to learners of English and Vietnamese
as foreign languages.


1

CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale
People need to contact and exchange information with each
other; in other words, people need to communicate. When we make a
mistake or hurt others unintentionally or deliberately, we apologize
for hurting the apologizees. However, in order to achieve
successful communication, people are required to understand the
apologies that the apologizers make and know how to respond
appropriately. If there is no response to the apologies, the
communication is not considered to be fully accomplished. Since a
conversation contains utterances among speakers and listeners which
means there is an interpersonal relationship, pragmatic act is
employed to set light to this thesis. The reasons why this thesis was

conducted are due to the fact that there seemed very few previous
studies investigating response strategies separately, the pragmatic
acts of apology and response strategies in the light of
sociopragmatics, and how gender and social power impacted the
apology and response strategies used by the characters in film
conversations. Additionally, most previous studies depended on a
DCT; by contrast, this thesis took advantage of the film transcript as
a source of data, and adopted a qualitative method with the support
of quantitative information. Therefore, the doctoral thesis entitled
“Apologies and Responses in
English and Vietnamese
Conversation” is chosen as the topic of my research.
1.2. Aims and Objectives of the Study
This study aims to discover the pragmatic acts of apology and
response strategies in English and Vietnamese film conversations,
especially those under the influences of gender and power; and to
point out the similarities and differences of apology and response
strategies in both languages. To achieve the above aims of the
research, the following objectives are set:
- to discover apology and response strategies in English film
conversations, especially those under the influences of gender and


2

power;
- to identify apology and response strategies in Vietnamese film
conversations, especially those under the influences of gender and
power;
- to analyze similarities and differences in apology and response

strategies in English and Vietnamese film conversations, especially
those under the influences of gender and power.
1.3. Scope of the Study
Initially, the thesis based on theoretical foundations of
sociopragmatics including Mey (2006, 2013)’s pragmatic acts,
Schegloff (1974)’ adjacency pairs of speech or pragmatic acts of
apologies and responses, Searle (1975)’s direct and indirect speech
act, Hall (1997) and Hofstede (2011)’s cultural dimensions,
Trosborg’s (2011) apology taxonomy, and Holmes’s (1990, 1995)
apology response taxonomy. The conceptual framework was then
developed from these theoretical foundations to conduct this thesis.
Secondly, apology can be performed in verbal and non-verbal
communication in order to express the repentance of speakers.
However, in this thesis, focus is laid on verbal apologies and apology
responses only. Both direct and indirect apology and response
strategies used in film conversations in English and Vietnamese were
both focused on. In the third place, even though social variables
include education, age, region, occupation, gender, and power, this
thesis took into account the last two variables which are gender and
power. Gender in this thesis was biologically understood to include
male and female. The pairs of apologies and responses were used in
conversations among male and male, male and female, female and
female, and female and male. In terms of power among the
characters in film conversations, it was assigned three values
between apologizers and apologizees: higher power apologizers,
lower power apologizers, and equal power apologizers. Furthermore,
exchanges of adjacency pairs of apology and apology response
consisted of minimal adjacency pairs of apology and apology

3

response strategies for analysis. Regarding the dominant research
design, this thesis was a descriptive contrastive study using the
qualitative method with the support of quantitative information.
Additionally, the conversations were extracted from sociopsychological film scripts and subtitles in both languages. These
socio-psychological films have been produced since 2015 to
represent the most updated ways of using apology and response
strategies and keep up with the tendency of communication. The
number of socio-psychological films in English and Vietnamese
were 46 and 43, respectively; in particular, the English films which
were created and released in the United States of America where
English is spoken as a first language.
1.4. Contributions of the Study
This study can, to some extent, make some contributions to
knowledge from the theoretical and practical perspectives. Initially,
regarding the contribution to linguistics, this doctoral thesis
combined and connected the two single speech acts namely
apologizing and responding into the pragmatic acts. Either the speech
act of apologizing or the speech act of responding which was
developed by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969) has been widely
investigated in different languages. These studies focused on the
single speech act or conventional speech act. According to Austin
(1962) and Searle (1969), the act of apologizing occurred after the
speakers violated, offended, or hurt the hearers. Whereas, the act of
apology responding was accomplished when the hearer accepted or
rejected the apologies. As opposed to the conventional speech acts,
in daily life communication, that the act of apologizing is done does
not mean the speakers have done the violating action to the hearers.
The speakers, for instance, may apologize since they have to take

responsibilities as those who have higher powers, or they as males
want to appease their female partners in romantic relationships.
Therefore, there was a shift from single speech acts into a pair of
speech acts, or from conventional speech acts into pragmatic acts


4

under the umbrella of sociopragmatics to clarify the interpersonal
relationship among interlocutors when apologizing and responding to
apologies in this thesis. In particular, depending on the contexts,
interlocutors take advantage of different apology and response
strategies. The investigation into the pragmatic acts of apology and
response strategies in the light of sociopragmatics is expected to
contribute to the field of linguistics. A detailed description of what
kinds of apology strategies and response strategies to apologies in
terms of gender and power in English and Vietnamese in particular
contexts are discovered. A full analysis of the similarities and
differences of apologies and their responses in both language in
terms of gender and power would depict a more comprehensive
picture of the pragmatic act of apology and response strategies.
Concerning
practical
significance,
in
daily-life
communication, whenever the speakers apologize, they do hope to be
responded whether the hearers accept or reject their apologies.
Depending on different contexts that the interlocutors involve,
gender, and power, the hearers make use appropriate apology

response strategies to reply apology strategies. Additionally, with
the aim to analyze the similarities and differences of apologies,
apology strategies, and responses to apologies in terms of gender and
power in English and Vietnamese, the study provides learners of
English and Vietnamese with intercultural knowledge and a
comprehensive understanding of apologies and apology-related
issues in the two languages, which help them to give appropriate
apologies in communicating with local speakers and with either
English or Vietnamese. In addition, it suggests some ideas for either
Vietnamese teachers of English or English teachers to give apologies
to Vietnamese learners of English, and for either Vietnamese learners
of English or learners of Vietnamese to give apologies to Vietnamese
teachers of English and English teachers. To put another way, the
thesis is intended to provide an insight into a fascinating aspect
found especially in Vietnamese as well as make a modest


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contribution to language classroom management to better the
relationship between teachers and learners. The results of the thesis
have certain practical values in explaining the effective use of
apologies and their responses in English and Vietnamese for better
social language interactions.
1.5. DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS
Some key terms are defined differently by different scholars;
nonetheless, in this thesis, the ones below defined by the researcher
are employed. These glosses are thus consistent with the aims and
context of the thesis:
(i). Apologizer is the one who apologizes and causes the act

of apologizing.
(ii). Apologizee is to whom the apology is made and is
attached to the act of apologizing, or the recipient of the apologies.
(iii). Apologizing is a speech act to remedize the social
relationship among the apologizers and the apologizees verbally.
(iv). Apology responding as a speech act of reacting to the
act of apologizing verbally.
(v). Apologizing and responding in conversations are
considered to a pair of speech acts or a pragmatic act where there is
an interpersonal relationship among apologizers and apologizees.
(vi). Strategies are the techniques which are chosen for
interpersonal communication by the apologizers and apologizees
depending on two social variables namely gender and power.
CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEWAND
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. Previous Studies Related to Apologies and Responses
Looking into apology and response strategies, these studies
have some gaps as follows:
1. These previous studies focused more on direct apology
strategies. This thesis investigated both direct and indirect apology
strategies.


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2. There have been studies related to response strategies to
other speech acts; however, there seemed few research studies on
response strategies to apologies recorded. This thesis examined
response strategies to apologies.
3. Regarding research of a pair of speech acts, there was

one study in Vietnamese which investigated the pragmatic act of
asking for permissions and responses by Nguyen (2016). Not
many research studies on the pragmatic acts of apology and
response strategies were found due to the time limit and the
incompleteness of the researcher’s research competence. This
thesis, hence, focused on the apology and response strategies as a
pair of speech act or pragmatic acts.
4. Most previous studies depended on a DCT. This thesis
collected data from socio-psychological film conversations in both
languages.
5. Many previous studies on pragmatics, cross-cultural,
intercultural, and interlanguage have been conducted; however, very
few studies under the umbrella of sociopragmatics on the apology
and response strategies were found. This research examined how
gender and power impacted the apology and response strategies used
by the characters in film conversations.
2.2. Theoretical Background
2.2.1. Sociopragmatics in Speech Acts
Under the influence of these factors, the speaker can choose
different strategies to apologize and respond to apologies. In the
scope of this thesis, two social variables including gender, and social
power are the focuses for the research to investigate into.
2.2.2. Conversation and Film Conversation
The definition of Finegan et al (1994) about the conversation
to some extent suits the aims of this thesis the most. Finegan et al.
(1994) define a conversation as a series of speech acts, including
greetings, questions, congrats, remarks, invites, requests, and


7

apologies, to carry out their functions. We alternate speaking turns,
respond to inquiries, announce the start and end of conversations,
and correct mistakes as necessary.
2.2.3. Exchange in Adjacency Pair of Speech Acts
In conversation analysis, every speech act needs response and
adjacency pair in this thesis is response. Response utterances occur
when the H responds to the S. According to Nguyen (1998, 2008),
Nguyen (2001), and Nguyen (2002), the function of responding
speech act is regarded as an illocutionary act of response utterances.
Responses can be divided into two groups: positive response and
negative response.
2.2.4. Speech Act and Pragmatic Act Theory
This section of speech act would be discussed since the act
of apologizing and apology responding belong to the speech act
theory; however, the limitation of speech act is that this theory
focuses only on the speaker’s act. This thesis aims to investigate the
sociopragmatic features of apology and response strategies in
English and Vietnamese conversations where there is interaction or
interpersonal relationship between speakers and hearers. Therefore,
the pragmatic act theory was resorted to as one of the theoretical
frameworks to achieve the research aim.
2.2.5. Language and Culture
This thesis builds on the interaction between English and
Vietnamese cultures and for the analysis of speech acts of apologies
and responses. The discussion of the findings later on in this thesis is
based on the high and low context cultures developed by Hall
(1997); the two dimensions of Hofstede (2011) namely individualism
and collectivism, as well as masculinity and femininity.
2.2.6. Conceptual Framework of the Study

This chapter discussed the theoretical framework of the whole
thesis. It was specified to be under the umbrella of sociopragmatics.


8

Subsequently, based on the conversation analysis by Schegloff (2007),
pragmatic act theory by Mey (2006, 2013), the apology strategy
taxonomy by Trosborg (2011), response strategy taxonomy by Homes
(1990, 1995), and direct and indirect theory speech act by
Searle(1975).

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the thesis


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CHAPTER THREE. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research Design
This thesis was designed as the descriptive contrastive
research which used the qualitative method with the support of
quantitative information.
3.2. Data Collection
3.2.1. Sources of Data
Socio-psychological films were chosen because they had a
number of everyday conversations among members in family,
friends, lovers, and colleagues with many exchanges of apology and
response strategies in the different contexts of socio-psychological
films.
3.2.2. Population, Samples, and Sampling

In total, there were 1207 exchanges containing apology and
response strategies. To be specific, 557 exchanges in English and
650 exchanges in Vietnamese films were randomly collected from 46
English and 43 Vietnamese socio-psychological films. The number
of films from 2015 to 2020 were chosen purposely to be sociopsychological films as the study’s population since the researcher
aimed to investigate the apology and response strategies among
family members, lovers, friends, and colleagues. The exchanges of
apology and response strategies as samples were chosen randomly
from these films can reveal variations of different apology and
response strategies.
3.2.3. Data Collection Instruments
Based on the objectives and research questions, a set of three
data collection instruments was chosen namely observation through
the use of checklists in observation sheets, document reading of film
scripts and subtitles as existing data, and human instrument.
3.2.4. Data Collection Procedure
Step 1: Websites providing free download film scripts in English


10

were searched by the researcher. Subsequently, the researcher looked for
film websites which provide subtitles.
Step 2: Film scripts in English and Vietnamese were downloaded and
collected from these aforementioned websites.
Step 3: The researcher clarified conversations which consisted of
apologies and apology responses. In a conversation, there maybe several
exchanges; however, the researcher only picked up the adjacency pair
which included a pair of apology and apology response strategies. Then,
the researcher counted the total number of adjacency pairs. After that, the

researcher identified the types of apology strategies and apology response
strategies separately. Finally, the researcher classified the adjacency pairs
of what particular apology strategies often matched with what specific
apology response strategies. Therefore, I collected minimal adjacency
pairs through strategies of apologies and apology response strategies.
Step 4: Regarding direct apology strategies, and direct acceptance
and rejection in apology response strategies, the researcher used Microsoft
word 2019 to find the performative markers of these strategies in film
scripts and subtitles in both languages. Based on the direct strategies
collected, the researcher could also picked up any corresponding apology
response strategies. Also, based on the direct acceptance and rejection in
apology response strategies collected, the researcher collected the
preceding apology strategies. By this way, the researcher collected
minimal adjacency pairs of direct strategies and any types of apology
response strategies, and adjacency pairs of any types of apology strategies
and the direct acceptance and rejection in apology response strategies.
Step 5: As for the remaining strategies of apologies and apology
responses, the researcher had to read through the film scripts and subtitles
in both languages to sort out minimal adjacency pairs which consisted of
apologies and apology response strategies.
3.3. Data Analysis
In this thesis, the program Microsoft Excel 2019, the latest
version of Microsoft Excel was chosen to analyze the data of this
thesis. With this new Microsoft Excel software, the data statistics


11

were, to some extent, carried out easily, accurately, and time-saving.
This thesis adopted the apology strategy taxonomy by Trosborg

(2011) and response strategy taxonomy by Holmes (1990, 1995) with
the theory of direct and indirect speech act by Searle (1975).
This thesis data analysis procedure included description and
contrast analysis:
Step l: Identifying and classifying 4 types of exchanges
including [direct apology strategies - direct response strategies],
[indirect apology strategies - direct response strategies], [direct
apology strategies - indirect response strategies], and [indirect
apology strategies - indirect response strategies] in contexts.
Step 2: Identifying and classifying subcategories of each type of
four exchanges in contexts. At this point, the adoptation of apology
strategy taxonomy by Trosborg (2011) and response strategy taxonomy
by Holmes (1990, 1995) set light for apology strategies and response
strategies used in exchanges to be identified and described. Subsequently,
the researcher clarified that a specific apology strategy matched with a
particular corresponding response strategy. Each exchange of apology and
apology response strategies was analysed in the context of the
conversation in which it was uttered.
Step 3: Analyzing the exchanges in terms of gender which were
divided into 4 groups: male – male, male – female, female – female, and
female – male.
Step 4: Analyzing the exchanges in terms of power which were
divided into 3 groups: higher power apologizer, lower power apologizer,
and equal power apologizer.
Step 5: Counting and calculating the occurrence of 4 exchange
types and subtypes in terms of gender and power with the application of
MCE2019 to present these information. Reliability checks for the internal
consistency of the information were conducted in this step. The
information was then illustrated in tables, and percentages with the help of
MCE2019.

Step 6: Presenting the calculation results into tables and figures to
interpret the findings.


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Step 7: Describing the results for research question 1 and 2.
Step 8: Comparing and contrasting to find out the similarities and
differences in exchanges of apology and response strategies in terms of
gender and power in both languages where English and Vietnamese were
source languages.
Step 9: Drawing the conclusions and suggesting implications for
language research, and language teaching and learning.
3.4. Analytical Framework of the Study

Figure 2. Analytical Framework


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CHAPTER FOUR. APOLOGY AND RESPONSE
STRATEGIES IN ENGLISH FILM CONVERSATIONS
This chapter has so far examined the sociopragmatic features
of apology and response strategies in English socio-psychological
film conversations in terms of gender and social power including (1)
the exchanges of apology and apology response strategies, (2) the
gender influences on the exchanges of apology and apology response
strategies, and (3) the power influences on the exchanges of apology
and apology response strategies in English conversations.
CHAPTER FIVE. APOLOGY AND RESPONSE

STRATEGIES IN VIETNAMESE FILM CONVERSATIONS
Chapter Five has discovered the sociopragmatic features of
apology and response strategies in Vietnamese socio-psychological
film conversations in terms of gender and social power including (1)
the exchanges of apology and apology response strategies, (2) the
gender influences on the exchanges of apology and apology response
strategies, and (3) the power influences on the exchanges of apology
and apology response strategies in Vietnamese conversations.
CHAPTER SIX. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
IN APOLOGY AND RESPONSES IN ENGLISH
AND
VIETNAMESE FILM CONVERSATIONS
6.1. Similarities in Apology and Response Strategies in English
and Vietnamese Film Conversations
6.1.1. Similarities in Apology and Response Strategies in Film
Conversations
6.1.1.1. Direct and Indirect Apology Strategies
In general, in most of the conversations that this doctoral
thesis has collected, English and Vietnamese people had similar
needs when they made an apology. English and Vietnamese
employed apology strategies at different rates. The first similarity


14

that should be mentioned is the aim of the apologizing act which the
apologizers made in order to ask the apologizees to forgive their
offenses. Secondly, both languages made use of three types of
apology strategies including direct strategies, indirect strategies,
and mixed apology strategy. Looking at Figure 6.1, the former

covered three sub-categories which were expression of regret, offer
of apology, and request for forgiveness. The latter, on the other hand,
dealt with acknowledgment of responsibility, explanation or account,
evasive strategies, opting out, and remedial support. In both
languages, a new apology strategy was discerned and dubbed mixed
apology strategy since there was an integration of several AS when
making apologies to show their attitudes towards the offense they
made. There were two trends of using this apology strategy. The
apogogizers could employ some ASs in one turn, or in several
different turns. Furthermore, the sub-categrized strategy entitled
expression of regret in direct strategies was the most frequently used
AS in both languages.

Direct and indirect apology strategies
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
EOR OOA RFF AOR English
EOA Ev.SVietnamese
Op.O Re.S MAS

Figure 6.1. Frequency of direct and indirect apology strategies in
English and Vietnamese film conversations

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Another similarity that should be taken into consideration is
that both direct and indirect apology strategies and response
strategies in conversations in English and Vietnamese were analyzed;
however, only direct apology and response utterances which
comprised of performative markers. Table 6.1 compares the data of
the distribution of patterns and lexicogrammatical realizations of
apology utterances in English versus Vietnamese conversations.
Table 6.1. Distribution of patterns and lexicogrammatical
realizations of apology utterances in English versus Vietnamese
conversations
No.
1
2
3
4

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Patterns
Apologizing
Apologizing + Apologizer
Apologizing
+
Apologizer
+
Preposition + Explanation
Apologizing
+
Apologizer
+
Demonstrative+
Conjunction
+
Explanation
Apologizing + Apologizee
Apologizing + Explanation
Apologizing
+
Preposition
+
Explanation
Apologizing
+
Preposition
+
Apologizee
Apologizer + Apologizing

Apologizer
+
Apologizing
+
Apologizee
Apologizer + Aplogizing + Condition
sentence
Apologizer
+
Apologizing+
Preposition + Explanation
Apologizer
+
Apologizing
+
Explanation
Apologizer + Verb + Apologizing
Apologizer + Verb + Intensifier
+Apologizing
Apologizer + Verb + Intensifier +

English
n
%
39 16.81
25 10.78
5
2.15

Vietnamese

n
%
12
3.38
19
5.35
30
8.45

1

0.43

0

0

15
1
17

6.47
0.43
7.33

55
7
14

15.49

1.97
3.94

1

0.43

0

0

3
1

1.29
0.43

59
83

16.62
23.38

1

0.43

5

1.41

26

11.2

25

7.04

7

3.02

0

0

44
24

18.98
10.34

9
10

2.54
2.82

1

0.43

20

5.64


16

17
18
19
20
21
22

Apologizing
+
Preposition
+
Explanation
Apologizer + Verb + Apologizing +
Explanation
Apologizer + Verb + Apologizing+
Apologizee
Apologizer
+
Emphatic
form

+Apologizing
Apologizer
+
Intensifier
+Apologizing+ Explanation
Apologizee + Modal verb +
Apologizing + Apologizer
Verb+Apologizer+Apologizing
TOTAL

12

5.18

0

0

2

0.86

0

0

1

0.43

0

0

3

1.29

0

0

3

1.29

0

0

0
232

0
100

7
355

1.97

100

Regarding patterns and lexicogrammatical realizations of
apology utterances, 13 lexicogrammatical realizations in both
languages were identified including the patterns 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10,
11, 12, 14, 15, and 16 as seen in Table 6.1.
Table 6.2. Performatives’ distribution of apology utterances in
English versus Vietnamese conversations
Performatives expressions
n
149
3
20
21
16
11
2
1
7
232

%
64.22
1.29
8.62
9.05
6.9
4.74
0.86
0.43

3.02
100

English
Sorry
Apology
Apologize
Pardon
Excuse
Forgive
Fault
Regret
Afraid

Vietnamese
Lỗi
Xin lỗi
Thứ lỗi
Tha lỗi
Tha thứ
Thứ tha
Tiếc
Hối hận

n
31
227
16
6
41

3
5
11

%
9.12
66.76
4.71
1.76
12.06
0.88
1.47
3.24

340

100

A shift to performatives’ distribution of apology utterances
in English versus Vietnamese illustrated in Table 6.2, both languages
employed performative expressions to express their apologies.
6.1.1.2. Direct and Indirect Response Strategies
What stands out from Figure 6.2 noticing the frequency of


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direct and indirect response strategies in English and Vietnamese
film conversations, the first similarity worth mentioning is that both
languages realized three categories of response strategies which were

direct response strategies, indirect response strategies, and mixed
response strategy. There were acceptance and rejection in the former
while acknowledgement and evasion were in the latter. Furthermore,
the apologizees tended to take advantage of several ARSs to respond
the apologizers in some situations; therefore, mixed response
strategy was named by the researcher to show the attitudes of either
accepting, refusing, acknowledging, or evasing. There were two
trends of using this apology. The apogogizees could employ some
ARSs in one turn, or in several different turns. Thirdly, both
languages observed the more occurrence of direct response
strategies in comparison with indirect response strategies, and the
least of mixed response strategies. The frequency of ARSs in both
languages revealed that acceptance in direct response strategies was
the most frequently used AR, and it also beheld quite the same
proportion in both languages.

Direct and indirect apology strategies
50
40
30
20
10
0

English

Vietnamese

Figure 6.2. Frequency of direct and indirect response strategies in
English and Vietnamese film conversations

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As regard to patterns and lexico-grammatical realizations of
response utterances, the first feature in common is that response
utterances in both languages can be categorized into four different
patterns including direct positive responses, indirect positive
responses, indirect positive responses, and indirect negative
responses.
Table 6.3. Distribution of patterns and lexico-grammatical
realizations of response utterances in English versus Vietnamese
Lexicogrammatical
realizations

English

Response
patterns

Vietnames
e

n

%

n

Yes, OK, okey,

alright, it’s alright

112

31.
02

Direct
positive
responses

125

Never mind, no
problem, it’s
nothing, not at all

83

22.
99

Indirect
positive
responses

90

No, I can’t/ I will
not, I can’t forgive

you

65

18.
01

Direct
negative
responses

122

Sorry, I’m sorry

67

18.
56

Indirect
negative
responses

30

%
29.
41

21.
18

Lexicogrammatical
realizations
vâng, dạ, đồng
ý, được rồi

khơng sao,
khơng có gì,
khơng chi
mơ,chuyện
nhỏ

71

khơng, khơng
đời nào, không
bao giờ, không
bỏ qua, không
thể nào

7.06

xin lỗi, rất tiếc

28.


19

No, I’m sorry, I
can’t/ couldn’t.

34

9.
42

I’m sorry that I
can’t forgive you.

Mixed
apology
responses

58

13.
64

Rất tiếc, tôi
không thể bỏ
qua.
Vâng, chuyện
nhỏ ý mà.

Oh, yeah. It
doesn’t matter, you
know.

Dạ, khơng có
chi mơ.
Xin lỗi, khơng
bao giờ có
chuyện tơi tha
lỗi cho anh.
361

10
0

TOTAL

425

100

One more pattern added was mixed apology responses since
the apologizees combined both positive and negative responses. It
could be the combination between direct and indirect positive
repsonses, or direct and indirect negative responses. Moreover, both
English and Vietnamese people prefered using direct positve
responses. Direct positive responses were used if the apologizees
wanted to accept the apologies from the apologizers explicitly.
6.1.1.3. Exchanges of Apology and Response Strategies
Even if utterances of apologies and responses are distinctive in
terms of patterns and lexico-grammatical realizations, the purposes of
apologizing and responding acts in English and Vietnamese are not
different. The apologizers apologized and expected a positive response
from the apologizees to forgive mistakes that the apologizers had made or

were about to.
A glance at the frequency of exchanges of apology and response
strategies in English and Vietnamese film conversations in Figure 6.3,
another similarity is that in a pragmatic act, each apology strategy could
match with three different apology response strategies in different
frequencies. Specifically, apologizers could initiate the exchanges or
adjacency pairs with either direct strategies, or indirect strategies, or


20

mixed apology strategies and close the exchanges with either direct
response strategies, or indirect response strategies, or mixed
response strategies. Both languages experienced the popularity of
four pragmatic act exchanges encompassing exchange 1, 2, 4, and 5.
Exchange 3, 6, 7, and 8 were, on the other hand, listed at the bottom
use. It is also noticeable that there was a similarity in the occurrence
of
exchange
1
in
both
language.
Exchanges of apology and response strategies
35
30
25
20
15
10

5
0

English
Vietnamese
Figure 6.3. Exchanges of apology and response strategies in English
and Vietnamese film conversations

6.1.2. Similarities in Gender Influences on Apology and Response
Strategies in Film Conversations
6.1.2.1. Gender Influences on Apology Strategies
In the first place, males in both languages tended to initiate the
adjacency pairs by using apology strategies lower than female. This
result coincided with the findings of the study which was carried out
by Holmes (1995) concluding that female employed apology
strategies by initiating the exchanges among apologizing and
responding more than male. Therefore, female had a tendency to
apologize more than the counterpart. Moreover, apology strategies in
macro types were used with different proportion among male and


21

female. However, there was a tendency that male apologized directly
more than women; whereas, women tended to apologize in indirect
ways more than men. Males in both languages did not prefer using
mixed apology strategies which was lower than females.
6.1.2.2. Gender Influences on Response Strategies
The first similar feature could be that male also had a lower
proportion of responding to apologies compared to the opposite sex.

Therefore, female responded to apologies more than men. It could be
understood that the exchanges of pragmatic acts of apologizing and
responding among women were more than those among men in both
languages. As regard to the distribution of both genders in apology
response strategies, women rejected apologies more than men;
however, they accepted apologies moderately lower than their male
counterparts. Along with acceptance, evasion by female was the only
other one in apology response strategy taxonomy proposed by
Homes (1990, 1995) which had lower percentage than male. In both
languages, females used indirect response strategies and mixed
apology response strategy more than males eventhough the latter
was the least frequently used by both sexes.
6.1.2.3. Gender Influences on Exchanges of Apology and
Response Strategies
Both genders had a tendency to use the exchange 1, 2, 4, and
5 most frequently, and exchange 6, 8 the least with their same
gender. Another similarity is that male did not use exchange 9 with
the same gender in both languages. With respect to mixed-gender
interactions, exchanges 1, 2, 4, and 5 were also on top 4 most
frequently used exchanges across gender interactions; by contrast,
the least used belonged to exchanges 3, 6, 7, and 8. Exchange 1 was
on the top use of M-F in both languages. There was also no record in
the use of exchange 9 in M-F interaction which seemed that male did
not like to exploit mixed apology strategies to female. Among same
gender interactions, F-F apology exchanges were more frequent than


22

M-M apology exchanges while in mixed-gender interactions, M-F

apology exchanges outnumbered F-M apology exchanges .
6.1.3. Similarities in Power Influences on Apology and Response
Strategies
6.1.3.1. Power Influences on Apology Strategies
The social power in this thesis as stated in the scope was
categorized into three groups namely people of a higher power
apologizer to a lower power apologizee (H-L), a lower power
apologizer to a higher power apologizee (L-H), and equal power
apologizer and apologizee (E-E). It is noticeable that higher, lower,
and equal power exhibited different distribution patterns of apology
strategies in both languages. Additionally, people with higher power
tended to apologize the least. By contrast, those with lower power
had a tendency to apologize most frequently. Higher power
apologizers in both languages did not prefer using direct strategies to
apologize to lower power apologizees.
6.1.3.2. Power Influences on Exchanges of Apology and
Response Strategies
In general, in all interactions among H-L, L-H, or E-E,
female apologized to female more than to male. Conversely, male
apologized to each other less frequently than male apologize to
female. Apology exchanges among H-L were not as frequent as
those employed among L-H and E-E, to be specific, listed the least.
On the other hand, E-E seemed to make apology exchanges the most.
6.2. Differences in Apology and Response in English and
Vietnamese Film Conversations
6.2.1. Differences in Apology and Response Strategies
6.2.1.1. Direct and Indirect Apology Strategies
Indirect strategies were used the most in English. Direct
strategies, on the other hand, were on the top use in Vietnamese. The
differentiation between direct strategies and indirect strategies in