Handbook of water and wastewater treatment 3e

Handbook of
Third Edition
Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Operations

Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Handbook of
Third Edition
Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Operations
Frank R. Spellman
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20130305
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v
Contents
Foreword xxxvii
Preface to Third

Edition xxxix
Preface to First and Second Editions xli
To the Reader xliii
Author xlv
Water: The New Oil? xlvii
SECTION I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview
Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Sick Water 3
1.3 Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs? 5
1.4 The Paradigm Shift 6
1.4.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done 6
1.5 Multiple-Barrier Concept 8
1.5.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach and Wastewater Operations 8

1.6 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations 9
1.6.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations 9
1.6.2 Privatization and/or Reengineering 11
1.6.3 Benchmarking 12
1.6.3.1 What Benchmarking Is 13
1.6.3.2 Potential Results of Benchmarking 13
1.6.3.3 Targets 13
1.6.3.4 Benchmarking Process 13
1.6.3.5 Benchmarking Steps 13
1.6.3.6 Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use 14
1.6.3.7 Baseline Audit 15
1.6.4 Technical vs. Professional Management 17
1.6.5 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability 18
1.6.5.1 Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure 19
1.6.5.2 Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure 19
1.6.5.3 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap 20
1.6.5.4 Energy Efciency: Water/Wastewater Treatment Operations 20
Chapter Review Questions 20
References and Recommended Reading 21
Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Setting the Record Straight 24
2.3 Computer-Literate Jack or Jill 24
2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders 25
2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions 25
2.6 Operator Certication and Licensure 26
Chapter Review Questions 27
References and Suggested Readings 27
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Upgrading Security 29

3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Consequences of 9/11 29
3.3 Security Hardware/Devices 31
3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices 31
3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures 31
3.3.1.2 Alarms 32
3.3.1.3 Backow Prevention Devices 33
3.3.1.4 Barriers 34
3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems 36
3.3.1.6 Card Identication/Access/Tracking Systems 37
3.3.1.7 Fences 38
3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection 39
3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks 39
3.3.1.10 Hatch Security 39
3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors 40
3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control 40
3.3.1.13 Locks 40
3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors 41
3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks 41
3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages 41
3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers 42
3.3.1.18 Security for Side-Hinged Doors 42
3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices 43
3.3.1.20 Security for Vents 44
3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring 44
3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices 45
3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination 45
3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System 46
3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensor: Adapted BOD Analyzer 46
3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensor: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer 46

3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System 47
3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer 47
3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs 48
3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment 48
3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets 49
3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters 50
3.3.3 Communication and Integration 50
3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers 50
3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios 50
3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications 51
3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices 51
3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software 51
3.3.4.2 Firewalls 52
3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software 52
3.4 SCADA 53
3.4.1 What Is SCADA? 54
3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems 54
3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities 54
3.4.4 Increasing Risk 56
3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities 56
3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems 57
3.4.7 Securing Control Systems 57
3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security 58
Chapter Review Questions 61
References and Recommended Reading 61
viiContents
Chapter 4 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Pumping System Energy Conservation Measures 63
4.2.1 Pumping System Design 64

4.2.2 Pump Motors 65
4.2.2.1 Motor Efciency and Efciency Standards 66
4.2.2.2 Motor Management Programs 66
4.2.2.3 Innovative and Emerging Technologies 67
4.2.3 Power Factor 67
4.2.4 Variable Frequency Drives 69
4.2.4.1 Energy Savings 69
4.2.4.2 Applications 69
4.2.4.3 Strategies for Wastewater Pumping Stations 69
4.3 Design and Control of Aeration Systems 69
4.3.1 ECMs for Aeration Systems 70
4.3.1.1 ECMs for Diffused Aeration Systems 70
4.3.1.2 ECMs for Mechanical Aerators 72
4.3.2 Control of the Aeration Process 72
4.3.2.1 Automated DO Control 72
4.3.3 Emerging Technologies Using Control Parameters Other than DO 85
4.3.3.1 Respirometry 85
4.3.3.2 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance 85
4.3.3.3 Critical Oxygen Point Control Determination 86
4.3.3.4 Off-Gas Analysis 86
4.3.4 Innovative and Emerging Control Strategies for Biological Nitrogen Removal 86
4.3.4.1 SymBio
®
86
4.3.4.2 Bioprocess Intelligent Optimization System (BIOS) 87
4.4 Blowers 87
4.4.1 High-Speed Gearless (Turbo) Blowers 89
4.4.2 Single-Stage Centrifugal Blowers with Inlet Guide Vanes and Variable Diffuser Vanes 89
4.4.3 New Diffuser Technology 90
4.4.3.1 Fine Bubble Aeration 90

4.4.3.2 Fine Bubble Aeration Application Examples 90
4.4.4 Preventing Diffuser Fouling 91
4.5 Innovative and Emerging Energy Conservation Measures 91
4.5.1 UV Disinfection 92
4.5.1.1 Design 93
4.5.1.2 Operation and Maintenance 94
4.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors 94
4.5.3 Anoxic and Anaerobic Zone Mixing 95
4.5.3.1 Hyperbolic Mixing 95
4.5.3.2 Pulsed Large Bubble Mixing 96
Chapter Review Question 97
References and Recommended Reading 97
Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology 99
5.1 Setting the Stage 99
5.2 Treatment Process Models 99
5.2.1 Additional Wastewater Treatment Models 99
5.2.1.1 Green Bay, Wisconsin, Metropolitan Sewerage District 99
5.2.1.2 Sheboygan, Michigan, Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant 101
5.2.1.3 Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant 102
5.2.1.4 City of Bartlett, Tennessee, Wastewater Treatment Plant 103
5.2.1.5 Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Western Branch WWTP,
Prince Georges County, Maryland 104
viii Contents
5.2.1.6 San Jose/Santa Clara, California, Water Pollution Control Plant 105
5.2.1.7 Waco, Texas, Metropolitan Area Regional
Sewer System Wastewater Treatment Facility 107
5.3 Key Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations Used in Water and Wastewater Operations 108
5.3.1 Denitions 109
5.3.2 Acronyms and Abbreviations 115
Chapter Review Questions 116

References and Recommended Reading 117
SECTION II Water/Wastewater Operations: Math, Physics, and Technical Aspects
Chapter 6 Water/Wastewater Math Operations 121
6.1 Introduction 121
6.2 Calculation Steps 121
6.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols 121
6.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations 121
6.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median 121
6.4.2 Units and Conversions 124
6.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions 124
6.4.2.2 Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million) 125
6.4.3 Area and Volume 125
6.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head 125
6.4.5 Flow Conversions 127
6.4.6 Flow Calculations 128
6.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates 128
6.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank 128
6.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank 129
6.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline 129
6.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations 129
6.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations 130
6.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations 130
6.4.7 Detention Time 130
6.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time 131
6.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days 131
6.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours 131
6.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes 131
6.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations 132
6.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart 132
6.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage 132

6.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage 133
6.4.10 Percent Removal 134
6.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor 134
6.4.12 Specic Gravity 135
6.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 135
6.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation 135
6.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate 135
6.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength 135
6.4.15 Filtration 136
6.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration 136
6.4.15.2 Filter Backwash 136
6.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations 136
6.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity 136
6.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations 138
6.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations 138
6.4.17 Complex Conversions 139
ixContents
6.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity 139
6.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration 139
6.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate 140
6.5 Applied Math Operations 140
6.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance 140
6.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks 140
6.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal 141
6.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance 141
6.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efciency 142
6.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efciency 142
6.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 142
6.6 Water Math Concepts 142
6.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations 142

6.6.2 Water Source Calculations 142
6.6.2.1 Well Drawdown 142
6.6.2.2 Well Yield 143
6.6.2.3 Specic Yield 143
6.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection 143
6.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations 144
6.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pumps 144
6.6.3 Water Storage Calculations 144
6.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing Calculations 145
6.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations 145
6.6.5.1 Coagulation 145
6.6.5.2 Flocculation 146
6.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations 146
6.6.6 Chemical Usage Calculations 150
6.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations 151
6.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume 151
6.6.7.2 Detention Time 151
6.6.7.3 Surface Loading Rate 151
6.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity 152
6.6.7.5 Weir Overow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) 152
6.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids 153
6.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) 153
6.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day) 155
6.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) 155
6.6.8 Filtration Calculations 155
6.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) 156
6.6.8.2 Filtration Rate 157
6.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV) 157
6.6.8.4 Backwash Rate 158
6.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate 159

6.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) 159
6.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) 159
6.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) 160
6.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing 160
6.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume 160
6.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion 161
6.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations 161
6.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection 161
6.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) 161
6.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 162
6.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate 164
6.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate 165
6.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions 165
6.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite 165
x Contents
6.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations 166
6.6.11 Fluoridation Calculations 166
6.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation 166
6.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds 166
6.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels 167
6.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations 168
6.6.12 Water Softening Calculations 172
6.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO
3
172
6.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO
3
172
6.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness 172
6.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness 173

6.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination 174
6.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness 174
6.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation 175
6.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates 176
6.6.12.9 Ion-Exchange Capacity 176
6.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity 177
6.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required) 177
6.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration 178
6.7 Wastewater Math Concepts 178
6.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations 178
6.7.1.1 Screening 178
6.7.1.2 Grit Removal 179
6.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations 181
6.7.2.1 Process Control 181
6.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overow Rate) 182
6.7.2.3 Weir Overow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) 182
6.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day) 182
6.7.3 Trickling Filter Process Calculations 183
6.7.3.1 Hydraulic Loading 183
6.7.3.2 Organic Loading Rate 184
6.7.3.3 Recirculation Flow 184
6.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactor Calculations 184
6.7.4.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate 185
6.7.4.2 Soluble BOD 185
6.7.4.3 Organic Loading Rate 186
6.7.4.4 Total Media Area 186
6.7.5 Activated Biosolids Calculations 186
6.7.5.1 Moving Averages 186
6.7.5.2 BOD or COD Loading 187
6.7.5.3 Solids Inventory 187

6.7.5.4 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) 187
6.7.5.5 Gould Sludge Age 189
6.7.5.6 Mean Cell Residence Time 189
6.7.5.7 Estimating Return Rates from SSV
60
190
6.7.5.8 Sludge Volume Index 190
6.7.5.9 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids 191
6.7.5.10 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance 191
6.7.5.11 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time 191
6.7.6 Treatment Ponds Calculations 192
6.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters 192
6.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control 192
6.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) 192
6.7.6.4 BOD Loading 193
6.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate 193
6.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efciency 193
xiContents
6.7.6.7 Population Loading 193
6.7.6.8 Hydraulic Loading (In./Day) (Overow Rate) 193
6.7.7 Chemical Dosing Calculations 193
6.7.7.1 Chemical Feed Rate 194
6.7.7.2 Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 194
6.7.7.3 Hypochlorite Dosage 195
6.7.8 Chemical Solution Calculations 196
6.7.8.1 Solution Chemical Feeder Setting (gpd) 196
6.7.8.2 Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting 197
6.7.8.3 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (mL/min) 197
6.7.8.4 Chemical Feed Calibration 197
6.7.8.5 Average Use 198

6.7.8.6 Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping 199
6.7.8.7 Primary and Secondary Solids Production 199
6.7.8.8 Primary Clarier Solids Production 199
6.7.8.9 Secondary Clarier Solids Production 199
6.7.8.10 Percent Solids 200
6.7.8.11 Biosolids Pumping 200
6.7.8.12 Biosolids Thickening 201
6.7.8.13 Centrifuge Thickening 203
6.7.8.14 Biosolids Digestion/Stabilization 203
6.7.8.15 Aerobic Digestion Process Control 203
6.7.8.16 Anaerobic Digestion Process Control 204
6.7.9 Biosolids Dewatering and Disposal Calculations 205
6.7.9.1 Pressure Filtration 206
6.7.9.2 Plate and Frame Press 206
6.7.9.3 Belt Filter Press 206
6.7.9.4 Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering 208
6.7.9.5 Sand Drying Beds 209
6.7.10 Biosolids Disposal Calculations 210
6.7.10.1 Land Application 210
6.7.10.2 Biosolids to Compost 212
6.7.10.3 Composting Calculations 212
6.8 Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations 212
6.8.1 Faucet Flow Estimation 212
6.8.2 Service Line Flushing Time 213
6.8.3 Composite Sampling 213
6.8.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 214
6.8.4.1 BOD
5
(Unseeded) 214
6.8.4.2 BOD

5
(Seeded) 215
6.8.4.3 BOD 7-Day Moving Average 215
6.8.5 Moles and Molarity 215
6.8.5.1 Moles 215
6.8.5.2 Normality 216
6.8.6 Settleability (Activated Biosolids) 216
6.8.7 Settleable Solids 216
6.8.8 Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids 217
6.8.9 Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids 218
6.8.10 Biosolids Volume Index and Biosolids Density Index 218
Chapter Review Questions 219
References and Suggested Reading 229
Chapter 7 Science Fundamentals 231
7.1 Introduction 231
7.2 Force and Motion 231
xii Contents
7.2.1 Position and Time 231
7.2.2 Speed and Velocity 231
7.3 Acceleration 233
7.3.1 Acceleration of Gravity 233
7.4 Force 233
7.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion 234
7.5.1 Newton’s First Law 234
7.5.2 Newton’s Second Law 234
7.5.3 Newton’s Third Law 234
7.6 Work 234
7.7 Energy 235
7.7.1 Potential Energy 235
7.7.2 Kinetic Energy 235

7.8 Momentum 235
7.9 Circular Motion 236
7.10 Angular Motion 236
7.11 Angular Velocity 236
7.12 Angular Acceleration 237
7.13 Torque 237
7.14 Angular Momentum 237
7.15 Gravity 237
7.16 Thermal Properties 237
7.16.1 Specic Heat 238
7.17 States of Matter 238
7.17.1 Gas Laws 238
7.17.2 Liquids and Solutions 238
7.18 Wave Motion and Sound 239
7.18.1 Waves 239
7.18.1.1 Wave Characteristics 239
7.18.1.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 239
7.18.2 Physics of Sound 239
7.18.2.1 Octave Bands 240
7.18.2.2 Sound Pressure 240
7.19 Light 241
7.19.1 Speed of Light 241
7.19.2 Sources of Light 241
7.19.3 Luminous Intensity of Light 241
7.19.4 Laws of Reection and Refraction 242
7.19.4.1 Laws of Reection 242
7.19.4.2 Laws of Refraction 242
7.19.5 Polarization 243
7.20 Color 243
Chapter Review Questions 243

Chapter 8 Blueprint Reading 245
8.1 Blueprints: The Universal Language 245
8.1.1 Blueprint Standards 246
8.1.1.1 Standards-Setting Organizations 246
8.1.1.2 ANSI Standards for Blueprint Sheets 246
8.1.2 Finding Information 247
8.1.2.1 Detail Drawings 247
8.1.2.2 Assembly Drawings 247
8.1.3 Title Block 247
8.1.4 Drawing Notes 250
8.1.4.1 General Notes 250
8.1.4.2 Local Notes 250
xiiiContents
8.2 Units of Measurement 252
8.2.1 Fractions and Decimal Fractions 252
8.3 Alphabet of Lines 253
8.3.1 Just a Bunch of Drawn Lines? 253
8.3.2 Visible Lines 254
8.3.3 Hidden Lines 254
8.3.4 Section Lines 254
8.3.5 Center Lines 254
8.3.6 Dimension and Extension Lines 254
8.3.7 Leaders 254
8.3.8 Cutting Plane or Viewing Plane Lines 254
8.3.9 Break Lines 254
8.3.10 Phantom Lines 256
8.3.11 Line Gauge 256
8.3.12 Views 256
8.3.12.1 Orthographic Projections 256
8.3.12.2 One-View Drawings 259

8.3.12.3 Two-View Drawings 259
8.3.12.4 Three-View Drawings 259
8.3.12.5 Auxiliary Views 260
8.4 Dimensions and Shop Notes 262
8.4.1 Dimensioning 262
8.4.2 Decimal and Size Dimensions 262
8.4.3 Denition of Dimensioning Terms 263
8.4.3.1 Nominal Size 263
8.4.3.2 Basic Size 263
8.4.3.3 Allowance 263
8.4.3.4 Design Size 263
8.4.3.5 Limits 263
8.4.3.6 Tolerance 264
8.4.3.7 Datum 264
8.4.4 Types of Dimensions 264
8.4.4.1 Linear Dimensions 264
8.4.4.2 Angular Dimensions 264
8.4.4.3 Reference Dimensions 265
8.4.4.4 Tabular Dimensions 265
8.4.4.5 Arrowless Dimensions 265
8.4.5 Shop Notes 265
8.5 Machine Drawings 266
8.5.1 Centrifugal Pump Drawing 266
8.5.1.1 Centrifugal Pump Attributes 266
8.5.1.2 How a Centrifugal Pump Works 266
8.5.1.3 Centrifugal Pump Components 267
8.5.2 Packing Gland Drawing 267
8.5.3 Submersible Pump Drawing 267
8.5.4 Turbine Pump Drawing 268
8.6 Sheet Metal Drawings 268

8.6.1 Sheet Metal 268
8.6.2 Dimension Calculations 268
8.6.2.1 Calculations for Allowances in Bend 268
8.6.2.2 Set-Back Table 268
8.6.2.3 Formulae Used to Determine Developed Length 269
8.6.3 Hems and Joints 270
8.7 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings 270
8.7.1 Standard Hydraulic System 270
8.7.2 Standard Pneumatic System 271
8.7.3 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems: Similarities and Differences 271
xiv Contents
8.7.4 Types of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings 271
8.7.5 Graphic Symbols for Fluid Power Systems 272
8.7.5.1 Symbols for Methods of Operation (Controls) 272
8.7.5.2 Symbols for Rotary Devices 272
8.7.5.3 Symbols for Lines 272
8.7.5.4 Symbols for Valves 272
8.7.5.5 Symbols for Miscellaneous Units 274
8.7.6 Supplementary Information Accompanying Graphic Drawings 274
8.7.6.1 Sequence of Operations 274
8.7.6.2 Solenoid Chart 274
8.7.6.3 Bill of Materials 275
8.8 Welding Blueprints and Symbols 275
8.8.1 Welding Processes 275
8.8.2 Types of Welded Joints 276
8.8.2.1 Butt Joints 276
8.8.2.2 Lap Joints 276
8.8.2.3 Tee Joints 276
8.8.2.4 Edge Joints 276
8.8.2.5 Corner Joints 276

8.8.3 Basic Weld Symbols 276
8.8.3.1 Symbols for Arc and Gas Welds 276
8.8.3.2 Symbols for Resistance Welds 276
8.8.3.3 Symbols for Supplementary Welds 277
8.8.4 The Welding Symbol 277
8.8.4.1 Reference Line 277
8.8.4.2 Arrowhead 277
8.8.4.3 Weld Symbol 278
8.8.4.4 Dimensions 278
8.8.4.5 Special Symbols 279
8.8.4.6 Tail 280
8.9 Electrical Drawings 280
8.9.1 Troubleshooting and Electrical Drawings 280
8.9.2 Electrical Symbols 280
8.9.2.1 Electrical Voltage and Power 280
8.9.2.2 What Is Voltage? 280
8.9.2.3 How Is Voltage Produced? 281
8.9.2.4 How Is Electricity Delivered to the Plant? 281
8.9.2.5 Electric Power 281
8.9.2.6 Types of Electrical Drawings 281
8.9.2.7 Types of Architectural Drawings 282
8.9.2.8 Circuit Drawings 282
8.9.2.9 Ladder Drawing 283
8.10 AC&R Drawings 284
8.10.1 Refrigeration 284
8.10.1.1 Basic Principles of Refrigeration 284
8.10.1.2 Refrigeration System Components 284
8.10.1.3 Refrigeration System Operation 284
8.10.1.4 Using Refrigeration Drawings in Troubleshooting 285
8.10.1.5 Refrigeration Component Drawings 286

8.10.2 Air Conditioning 286
8.10.2.1 Operation of a Simple Air Conditioning System 286
8.10.1.2 Design of Air Conditioning Systems 287
8.10.1.3 Air Conditioning Drawings 287
8.11 Schematics and Symbols 287
8.11.1 How to Use Schematic Diagrams 288
8.11.2 Schematic Circuit Layout 288
8.11.3 Schematic Symbols 289
xvContents
8.11.3.1 Lines on a Schematic 289
8.11.3.2 Lines Connect Symbols 289
8.11.4 Schematic Diagram: An Example 289
8.11.4.1 A Schematic by Any Other Name Is a Line Diagram 289
8.11.5 Schematics and Troubleshooting 291
8.12 Electrical Schematics 291
8.12.1 Electrical Symbols 292
8.12.1.1 Schematic Lines 292
8.12.1.2 Electrical System Power Supplies 292
8.12.1.3 Electronics Power Supplies 293
8.12.1.4 Electrical Loads 294
8.12.1.5 Switches 294
8.12.1.6 Inductors (Coils) 295
8.12.1.7 Transformers 295
8.12.1.8 Fuses 295
8.12.1.9 Circuit Breakers 295
8.12.1.10 Electrical Contacts 296
8.12.1.11 Resistors 296
8.12.2 Reading Plant Schematics 296
8.13 General Piping Systems and System Schematics 298
8.13.1 Piping Systems 299

8.13.2 Joints 299
8.13.2.1 Screwed Joints 299
8.13.2.2 Welded Joints 299
8.13.2.3 Flanged Joints 299
8.13.2.4 Bell-and-Spigot Joints 299
8.13.2.5 Soldered Joints 300
8.13.2.6 Joints and Fitting Symbols 300
8.13.3 Valves 300
8.13.3.1 Valves: Denition and Function 300
8.13.3.2 Valve Construction 301
8.13.4 Types of Valves 301
8.13.4.1 Ball Valve 301
8.13.4.2 Cock Valves 302
8.13.4.3 Gate Valves 302
8.13.4.4 Globe Valves 302
8.13.4.5 Check Valves 303
8.14 Hydraulic and Pneumatic System Schematic Symbols 303
8.14.1 Fluid Power Systems 303
8.14.2 Symbols Used for Hydraulic and Pneumatic Components 304
8.14.3 AC&R System Schematic Symbols 304
8.14.4 Schematic Symbols Used in Refrigeration Systems 305
8.14.4.1 Refrigeration Piping Symbols 305
8.14.4.2 Refrigeration Fittings Symbols 305
8.14.4.3 Refrigeration Valve Symbols 305
8.14.4.4 Refrigeration Accessory Symbols 306
8.14.4.5 Refrigeration Component Symbols 306
8.14.4.5 Schematic Symbols Used in AC&R Air Distribution System 306
Chapter Review Questions 307
References and Suggested Reading 308
Chapter 9 Water Hydraulics 309

9.1 What Is Water Hydraulics? 309
9.2 Basic Concepts 309
9.2.1 Stevin’s Law 310
9.3 Density and Specic Gravity 311
xvi Contents
9.4 Force and Pressure 312
9.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure 312
9.4.2 Effects of Water under Pressure 313
9.5 Head 313
9.5.1 Static Head 314
9.5.2 Friction Head 314
9.5.3 Velocity Head 314
9.5.4 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 314
9.5.5 Pressure and Head 314
9.5.6 Head and Pressure 314
9.6 Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion 314
9.6.1 Area and Velocity 315
9.6.2 Pressure and Velocity 316
9.7 Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem 316
9.7.1 Conservation of Energy 316
9.7.2 Energy Head 316
9.7.3 Piezometric Surface 316
9.7.4 Head Loss 317
9.7.5 Hydraulic Grade Line 317
9.7.6 Bernoulli’s Theorem 317
9.7.7 Bernoulli’s Equation 318
9.8 Well and Wet Well Hydraulics 319
9.8.1 Well Hydraulics 319
9.8.2 Wet Well Hydraulics 320
9.9 Friction Head Loss 320

9.9.1 Flow in Pipelines 320
9.9.2 Major Head Loss 321
9.9.3 Calculating Major Head Loss 322
9.9.4 C Factor 322
9.9.5 Slope 323
9.9.6 Minor Head Loss 323
9.10 Basic Piping Hydraulics 323
9.10.1 Piping Networks 323
9.11 Open-Channel Flow 324
9.11.1 Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 325
9.11.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 325
9.11.1.2 Uniform and Varied Flow 325
9.11.1.3 Critical Flow 325
9.11.2 Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow 325
9.11.2.1 Hydraulic Radius 325
9.11.2.2 Hydraulic Depth 326
9.11.2.3 Slope 326
9.11.3 Open-Channel Flow Calculations 326
9.12 Flow Measurement 327
9.12.1 Flow Measurement the Old-Fashioned Way 328
9.12.2 Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement 328
9.12.3 Flow Measuring Devices 328
9.12.3.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters 329
9.12.3.2 Magnetic Flowmeters 331
9.12.3.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 331
9.12.3.4 Velocity Flowmeters 332
9.12.3.5 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 333
9.12.4 Open-Channel Flow Measurement 333
9.12.4.1 Weirs 334
9.12.4.2 Flumes 335

Chapter Review Questions 335
References and Recommended Readings 336
xviiContents
Chapter 10 Fundamentals of Electricity 337
10.1 Nature of Electricity 338
10.2 Structure of Matter 338
10.3 Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators 340
10.4 Static Electricity 340
10.4.1 Charged Bodies 340
10.4.2 Coulomb’s Law 341
10.4.3 Electrostatic Fields 341
10.5 Magnetism 341
10.5.1 Magnetic Materials 342
10.5.2 Magnetic Earth 343
10.6 Difference in Potential 343
10.6.1 Water Analogy 343
10.6.2 Principal Methods for Producing a Voltage 344
10.7 Current 344
10.8 Resistance 345
10.9 Battery-Supplied Electricity 345
10.9.1 Voltaic Cell 345
10.9.2 Primary and Secondary Cells 346
10.9.3 Battery 346
10.9.4 Battery Operation 346
10.9.5 Combining Cells 346
10.9.6 Types of Batteries 347
10.9.6.1 Dry Cell 347
10.9.6.2 Lead–Acid Battery 347
10.9.6.3 Alkaline Cell 348
10.9.6.4 Nickel–Cadmium Cell 348

10.9.6.5 Mercury Cell 348
10.9.7 Battery Characteristics 348
10.10 Simple Electrical Circuit 348
10.10.1 Schematic Representations 349
10.11 Ohm’s Law 350
10.12 Electrical Power 351
10.12.1 Electrical Power Calculations 352
10.13 Electrical Energy (Kilowatt-Hours) 352
10.14 Series DC Circuit Characteristics 353
10.14.1 Series Circuit Resistance 353
10.14.2 Series Circuit Current 354
10.14.3 Series Circuit Voltage 354
10.14.4 Series Circuit Power 355
10.14.5 Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits 356
10.14.6 General Series Circuit Analysis 356
10.14.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 357
10.14.8 Polarity of Voltage Drops 357
10.14.9 Series Aiding and Opposing Sources 358
10.14.10 Kirchhoff’s Law and Multiple Source Solutions 358
10.15 Ground 358
10.16 Open and Short Circuits 359
10.17 Parallel DC Circuits 359
10.17.1 Parallel Circuit Characteristics 359
10.17.2 Voltage in Parallel Circuits 359
10.17.3 Current in Parallel Circuits 360
10.17.4 Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law 361
10.17.5 Parallel Circuit Resistance 362
10.17.6 Reciprocal Method 363
10.17.7 Product over the Sum Method 364
xviii Contents

10.17.8 Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit 364
10.17.9 Power in Parallel Circuits 364
10.17.10 Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits 364
10.18 Series–Parallel Circuits 365
10.18.1 Solving a Series–Parallel Circuit 365
10.19 Conductors 365
10.19.1 Unit Size of Conductors 365
10.19.2 Square Mil 365
10.19.3 Circular Mil 366
10.19.4 Circular-Mil-Foot 366
10.19.5 Resistivity 367
10.19.6 Wire Measurement 367
10.19.7 Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size 368
10.19.8 Copper vs. Other Metal Conductors 368
10.19.9 Temperature Coefcient 369
10.19.10 Conductor Insulation 369
10.19.11 Conductors, Splices, and Terminal Connections 369
10.19.12 Soldering Operations 370
10.19.13 Solderless Connections 370
10.19.14 Insulating Tape 370
10.20 Electromagnetism 370
10.20.1 Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor 370
10.20.2 Polarity of a Single Conductor 371
10.20.3 Field around Two Parallel Conductors 371
10.20.4 Magnetic Field of a Coil 372
10.20.5 Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil 372
10.20.6 Strength of an Electromagnetic Field 372
10.20.7 Magnetic Units 372
10.20.8 Properties of Magnetic Materials 373
10.20.8.1 Permeability 373

10.20.8.2 Hysteresis 373
10.20.9 Electromagnets 373
10.21 AC Theory 373
10.21.1 Basic AC Generator 374
10.21.2 Cycle 374
10.21.3 Frequency, Period, and Wavelength 375
10.21.4 Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current 376
10.21.5 Peak Amplitude 376
10.21.6 Peak-to-Peak Amplitude 376
10.21.7 Instantaneous Amplitude 376
10.21.8 Effective or RMS Value 377
10.21.9 Average Value 377
10.21.10 Resistance in AC Circuits 377
10.21.11 Phase Relationships 378
10.22 Inductance 379
10.22.1 Self-Inductance 380
10.22.2 Mutual Inductance 381
10.22.3 Calculation of Total Inductance 381
10.23 Practical Electrical Applications 382
10.23.1 Electrical Power Generation 382
10.23.1.1 DC Generators 382
10.23.1.2 AC Generators 384
10.23.1.3 Motors 384
10.23.1.4 DC Motors 384
10.23.1.5 AC Motors 385
10.23.2 Transformers 387
xixContents
10.23.3 Power Distribution System Protection 388
10.23.3.1 Fuses 389
10.23.3.2 Circuit Breakers 389

10.23.3.3 Control Devices 389
Chapter Review Questions 389
References and Suggested Reading 390
Chapter 11 Hydraulic Machines: Pumps 391
11.1 Introduction 391
11.2 Basic Pumping Calculations 391
11.2.1 Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline 391
11.2.2 Pressure–Velocity Relationship 392
11.2.3 Static Head 392
11.2.3.1 Static Suction Head 392
11.2.3.2 Static Suction Lift 392
11.2.3.3 Static Discharge Head 393
11.2.4 Friction Head 393
11.2.5 Velocity Head 394
11.2.6 Total Head 394
11.2.7 Conversion of Pressure Head 394
11.2.8 Horsepower 394
11.2.8.1 Hydraulic (Water) Horsepower (WHP) 395
11.2.8.2 Brake Horsepower (BHP) 395
11.2.9 Specic Speed 395
11.2.9.1 Suction Specic Speed 395
11.2.10 Afnity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps 396
11.2.11 Net Positive Suction Head 396
11.2.11.1 Calculating NPSHA 396
11.2.12 Pumps in Series and Parallel 398
11.3 Centrifugal Pumps 398
11.3.1 Description 398
11.3.2 Terminology 399
11.3.3 Pump Theory 400
11.3.4 Pump Characteristics 400

11.3.4.1 Head (Capacity) 400
11.3.4.2 Efciency 400
11.3.4.3 Brake Horsepower Requirements 401
11.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugal Pump 401
11.3.6 Centrifugal Pump Applications 402
11.3.7 Pump Control Systems 402
11.3.7.1 Float Control 403
11.3.7.2 Pneumatic Controls 403
11.3.7.3 Electrode Control Systems 404
11.3.7.4 Other Control Systems 404
11.3.8 Electronic Control Systems 404
11.3.8.1 Flow Equalization System 404
11.3.8.2 Sonar or Other Transmission Type Controllers 404
11.3.8.3 Motor Controllers 405
11.3.8.4 Protective Instrumentation 405
11.3.8.5 Temperature Detectors 405
11.3.8.6 Vibration Monitors 405
11.3.8.7 Supervisory Instrumentation 405
11.3.9 Centrifugal Pump Modications 405
11.3.9.1 Submersible Pumps 406
11.3.9.2 Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps 406
11.3.9.3 Turbine Pumps 407
xx Contents
11.4 Positive-Displacement Pumps 407
11.4.1 Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump 407
11.4.2 Diaphragm Pump 407
11.4.3 Peristaltic Pumps 408
11.5 Chapter Review Questions 408
References and Recommended Reading 408
Chapter 12 Water/Wastewater Conveyance 411

12.1 Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization 411
12.2 Conveyance Systems 411
12.3 Denitions 412
12.4 Fluids vs. Liquids 414
12.5 Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems 414
12.5.1 Scaling 414
12.5.2 Piping System Maintenance 415
12.6 Piping System Accessories 415
12.7 Piping System Temperature Effects and Insulation 416
12.8 Metallic Piping 416
12.8.1 Piping Materials 416
12.8.2 Piping: The Basics 416
12.8.3 Pipe Sizes 417
12.8.3.1 Pipe Wall Thickness 417
12.8.3.2 Piping Classication 417
12.8.4 Types of Piping Systems 418
12.8.4.1 Code for Identication of Pipelines 418
12.8.5 Metallic Piping Materials 418
12.8.6 Characteristics of Metallic Materials 419
12.8.6.1 Cast Iron Pipe 420
12.8.6.2 Ductile Iron Pipe 420
12.8.6.3 Steel Pipe 420
12.8.7 Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping 420
12.8.7.1 Expansion and Flexibility 420
12.8.7.2 Pipe Support Systems 420
12.8.7.3 Valve Selection 420
12.8.7.4 Isolation 420
12.8.7.5 Preventing Backow 420
12.8.7.6 Water Hammer 421
12.8.7.7 Air Binding 421

12.8.7.8 Corrosion Effects 421
12.8.8 Joining Metallic Pipe 421
12.8.8.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joints 422
12.8.8.2 Screwed or Threaded Joints 422
12.8.8.3 Flanged Joints 422
12.8.8.4 Welded Joints 423
12.8.8.5 Soldered and Brazed Joints 423
12.9 Nonmetallic Piping 423
12.9.1 Nonmetallic Piping Materials 423
12.9.1.1 Clay Pipe 423
12.9.1.2 Concrete Pipe 424
12.9.1.3 Plastic Pipe 426
12.10 Tubing 426
12.10.1 Tubing vs. Piping: The Difference 427
12.10.2 Advantages of Tubing 428
12.10.2.1 Mechanical Advantages of Tubing 428
12.10.2.2 Chemical Advantages of Tubing 428
12.10.3 Connecting Tubing 429
xxiContents
12.10.3.1 Cutting Tubing 429
12.10.3.2 Soldering Tubing 429
12.10.3.3 Connecting Flared/Nonared Joints 429
12.10.4 Bending Tubing 430
12.10.5 Types of Tubing 430
12.10.6 Typical Tubing Applications 431
12.11 Industrial Hoses 431
12.11.1 Hose Nomenclature 431
12.11.2 Factors Governing Hose Selection 432
12.11.3 Standards, Codes, and Sizes 433
12.11.3.1 Hose Size 433

12.11.3.2 Hose Classications 433
12.11.3.3 Nonmetallic Hose 433
12.11.3.4 Metallic Hose 434
12.11.4 Hose Couplings 435
12.11.5 Hose Maintenance 435
12.12 Pipe and Tube Fittings 435
12.12.1 Fittings 436
12.12.2 Functions of Fittings 436
12.12.2.1 Changing the Direction of Flow 436
12.12.2.2 Providing Branch Connections 436
12.12.2.3 Changing the Sizes of Lines 436
12.12.2.4 Sealing Lines 436
12.12.2.5 Connecting Lines 437
12.12.3 Pipe Fittings and Connections 437
12.12.3.1 Screwed Fittings 437
12.12.3.2 Flanged Connections 437
12.12.3.3 Welded Connections 437
12.12.4 Tubing Fittings and Connections 437
12.13 Valves 438
12.13.1 Valve Construction 439
12.13.2 Types of Valves 439
12.13.2.1 Ball Valves 440
12.13.2.2 Gate Valves 440
12.13.2.3 Globe Valves 440
12.13.2.4 Needle Valves 440
12.13.2.5 Buttery Valves 441
12.13.2.6 Plug Valves 441
12.13.2.7 Check Valves 441
12.13.2.8 Quick-Opening Valves 441
12.13.2.9 Diaphragm Valves 441

12.13.2.10 Regulating Valves 441
12.13.2.11 Relief Valves 442
12.13.2.12 Reducing Valves 442
12.13.3 Valve Operators 442
12.13.3.1 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators 443
12.13.3.2 Magnetic Valve Operators 443
12.13.4 Valve Maintenance 443
12.14 Piping System Protective Devices 443
12.14.1 Applications 443
12.14.2 Strainers 443
12.14.3 Filters 444
12.14.4 Traps 444
12.14.4.1 Trap Maintenance and Testing 445
12.15 Piping Ancillaries 445
12.15.1 Gauges as Indicators of System Performance 445
12.15.2 Pressure Gauges 446
xxii Contents
12.15.2.1 Spring-Operated Pressure Gauges 446
12.15.2.2 Bourdon Tube Gauges 446
12.15.2.3 Bellows Gauge 447
12.15.2.4 Plunger Gauge 447
12.15.3 Temperature Gauges 447
12.15.4 Vacuum Breakers 448
12.15.5 Accumulators 448
12.15.6 Air Receivers 448
12.15.7 Heat Exchangers 449
Chapter Review Questions/Problems 449
References and Recommended Reading 450
SECTION III Characteristics of Water
Chapter 13 Basic Water Chemistry 453

13.1 Chemistry Concepts and Denitions 453
13.1.1 Concepts 453
13.1.1.1 Miscible and Solubility 453
13.1.1.2 Suspension, Sediment, Particles, and Solids 453
13.1.1.3 Emulsion 453
13.1.1.4 Ion 454
13.1.1.5 Mass Concentration 454
13.1.2 Denitions 454
13.2 Chemistry Fundamentals 455
13.2.1 Matter 455
13.2.2 Content of Matter: The Elements 455
13.2.3 Compound Substances 457
13.3 Water Solutions 458
13.4 Water Constituents 458
13.4.1 Solids 459
13.4.2 Turbidity 459
13.4.3 Color 459
13.4.4 Dissolved Oxygen 459
13.4.5 Metals 460
13.4.6 Organic Matter 460
13.4.7 Inorganic Matter 460
13.4.8 Acids 460
13.4.9 Bases 460
13.4.10 Salts 461
13.4.11 pH 462
13.5 Common Water Measurements 462
13.5.1 Alkalinity 463
13.5.2 Water Temperature 463
13.5.3 Specic Conductance 463
13.5.4 Hardness 463

13.5.5 Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment) 463
13.6 Water Treatment Chemicals 464
13.6.1 Disinfection 464
13.6.2 Coagulation 464
13.6.3 Taste and Odor Removal 464
13.6.4 Water Softening 465
13.6.4.1 Chemical Precipitation 465
13.6.4.2 Ion Exchange Softening 465
13.6.5 Recarbonation 465
13.6.6 Scale and Corrosion Control 465
13.7 Chemical Drinking Water Parameters 466
xxiiiContents
13.7.1 Organics 466
13.7.2 Synthetic Organic Chemicals 467
13.7.3 Volatile Organic Compounds 467
13.7.4 Total Dissolved Solids 467
13.7.5 Fluorides 467
13.7.6 Heavy Metals 467
13.7.7 Nutrients 468
Chapter Review Questions 469
References and Suggested Reading 469
Chapter 14 Water Microbiology 471
14.1 Introduction 471
14.2 Microbiology: What Is It? 471
14.3 Water/Wastewater Microorganisms 472
14.4 Key Terms 472
14.5 Microorganism Classication and Differentiation 472
14.5.1 Classication 473
14.5.2 Differentiation 474
14.6 The Cell 474

14.6.1 Structure of the Bacterial Cell 474
14.6.1.1 Capsules 474
14.6.1.2 Flagella 474
14.6.1.3 Cell Wall 475
14.6.1.4 Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane) 475
14.6.1.5 Cytoplasm 475
14.6.1.6 Mesosome 475
14.6.1.7 Nucleoid (Nuclear Body or Region) 475
14.6.1.8 Ribosomes 475
14.6.1.9 Inclusions 475
14.7 Bacteria 475
14.7.1 Bacterial Growth Factors 476
14.7.2 Destruction of Bacteria 476
14.7.3 Waterborne Bacteria 476
14.8 Protozoa 477
14.9 Microscopic Crustaceans 478
14.10 Viruses 478
14.11 Algae 479
14.12 Fungi 479
14.13 Nematodes and Flatworms (Worms) 479
14.14 Water Treatment and Microbiological Processes 480
14.14.1 Pathogenic Protozoa 480
14.14.2 Giardia 481
14.14.2.1 Giardiasis 481
14.14.3 Cryptosporidium 485
14.14.3.1 Basics of Cryptosporidium 486
14.14.3.2 Cryptosporidiosis 487
14.14.4 Cyclospora 487
14.14.5 Helminths 488
14.15 Wastewater Treatment and Microbiological Processes 488

14.15.1 Aerobic Process 488
14.15.2 Anaerobic Process 488
14.15.3 Anoxic Process 489
14.15.4 Photosynthesis 489
14.15.5 Growth Cycles 489
14.15.6 Biogeochemical Cycles 489
14.15.7 Carbon Cycle 489
xxiv Contents
14.15.8 Nitrogen Cycle 490
14.15.9 Sulfur Cycle 491
14.15.10 Phosphorus Cycle 491
Chapter Review Questions 492
References and Suggested Reading 492
Chapter 15 Water Ecology 495
15.1 Introduction 495
15.2 What Is Ecology? 495
15.3 Why Is Ecology Important? 496
15.4 Why Study Ecology? 497
15.4.1 Leaf Processing in Streams 497
15.5 History of Ecology 499
15.5.1 Example Ecosystem: Agrosystem Model 500
15.5.1.1 Agroecosystem Characteristics 500
15.5.1.2 Ecosystem Pattern and Process 500
15.6 Levels of Organization 501
15.7 Ecosystems 501
15.8 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem 502
15.9 Food Chain Efciency 503
15.10 Ecological Pyramids 503
15.11 Productivity 504
15.12 Population Ecology 504

15.13 Stream Genesis and Structure 507
15.13.1 Water Flow in a Stream 508
15.13.2 Stream Water Discharge 509
15.13.3 Transport of Material 509
15.13.4 Characteristics of Stream Channels 509
15.13.5 Stream Proles 510
15.13.6 Sinuosity 510
15.13.7 Bars, Rifes, and Pools 510
15.13.8 Flood Plain 510
15.13.9 Adaptations to Stream Current 513
15.13.10 Types of Adaptive Changes 513
15.13.11 Specic Adaptations 513
15.14 Benthic Life 514
15.15 Benthic Plants and Animals 514
15.16 Benthic Macroinvertebrates 514
15.16.1 Identication of Benthic Macroinvertebrates 515
15.16.2 Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web 516
15.16.3 Units of Organization 516
15.17 Typical Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Waters 516
15.17.1 Macroinvertebrate Glossary 516
15.17.2 Insect Macroinvertebrates 517
15.17.2.1 Mayies (Order: Ephemeroptera) 517
15.17.2.2 Stoneies (Order: Plecoptera) 518
15.17.2.3 Caddisies (Order: Trichoptera) 518
15.17.2.4 True Flies (Order: Diptera) 519
15.17.2.5 Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) 520
15.17.2.6 Water Strider (“Jesus Bugs”) Order: Hemiptera) 521
15.17.2.7 Alderies and Dobsonies (Order: Megaloptera) 522
15.17.2.8 Dragonies and Damselies (Order: Odonata) 522
15.17.3 Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates 523

15.17.3.1 Oligochaeta (Family Tubicidae, Genus Tubifex) 523
15.17.3.2 Hirudinea (Leeches) 523
15.17.3.3 Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail) 523
xxvContents
15.18 Summary of Key Terms 524
Chapter Review Questions 524
References and Recommended Reading 525
Chapter 16 Water Quality 527
16.1 Introduction 527
16.2 Water Cycle 528
16.3 Water Quality Standards 529
16.3.1 Clean Water Act 529
16.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act 530
16.3.2.1 Implementing the Safe Drinking Water Act 530
16.4 Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 533
16.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 533
16.4.1.1 Solids 533
16.4.1.2 Turbidity 533
16.4.1.3 Color 537
16.4.1.4 Taste and Odor 537
16.4.1.5 Temperature 538
16.4.2 Chemical Characteristics of Water 539
16.4.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids 539
16.4.2.2 Alkalinity 539
16.4.2.3 Hardness 540
16.4.2.4 Fluoride 540
16.4.2.5 Metals 540
16.4.2.6 Organics 541
16.4.2.7 Nutrients 541
16.4.3 Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater 542

16.4.3.1 Organic Substances 542
16.4.3.2 Inorganic Substances 543
16.4.4 Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 544
16.4.4.1 Bacteria 544
16.4.4.2 Viruses 544
16.4.4.3 Protozoa 545
16.4.4.4 Worms (Helminths) 545
Chapter Review Questions 545
References and Suggested Reading 545
Chapter 17 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing 547
17.1 What Is Biomonitoring? 547
17.1.1 Advantages of Using Periphyton 547
17.1.2 Advantages of Using Fish 547
17.1.3 Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates 548
17.2 Periphyton Protocols 548
17.3 Fish Protocols 549
17.4 Macroinvertebrate Protocols 549
17.4.1 Biotic Index 549
17.4.1.1 Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates 550
17.5 Biological Sampling in Streams 551
17.5.1 Biological Sampling Planning 551
17.5.2 Sampling Stations 552
17.5.3 Sampling Frequency and Notes 553
17.5.4 Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment 553
17.5.5 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams 553
17.5.5.1 Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment 555
17.5.6 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams 557
17.5.6.1 Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment 559