BIODIESEL – QUALITY, EMISSIONS AND BY-PRODUCTS pdf

BIODIESEL –
QUALITY, EMISSIONS
AND BY-PRODUCTS

Edited by Gisela Montero
and Margarita Stoytcheva










Biodiesel – Quality, Emissions and By-Products
Edited by Gisela Montero and Margarita Stoytcheva


Published by InTech
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Contents

Preface IX
Part 1 Biodiesel: Quality and Standards 1
Chapter 1 Biodiesel Quality, Standards and Properties 3
István Barabás and Ioan-Adrian Todoruţ
Chapter 2 Characterization of Biodiesel
by Unconventional Methods:
Photothermal Techniques 29
Maria Castro, Francisco Machado,
Aline Rocha, Victor Perez, André Guimarães,
Marcelo Sthel, Edson Corrêa and Helion Vargas
Chapter 3 Thermooxidative Properties
of Biodiesels and Other Biological Fuels 47
Javier Tarrío-Saavedra, Salvador Naya,
Jorge López-Beceiro, Carlos Gracia-Fernández
and Ramón Artiaga
Chapter 4 Effects of Raw Materials and
Production Practices on Biodiesel
Quality and Performance 63
Jose M. Rodriguez

Chapter 5 The Effect of Storage Condition on Biodiesel 71
Yo-Ping Wu, Ya-Fen Lin and Jhen-Yu Ye
Chapter 6 Analysis of FAME in Diesel and Heating Oil 89
Vladimir Purghart
Chapter 7 Analytical Methodology for
the Determination of Trace Metals in Biodiesel 99
Fabiana A. Lobo, Danielle Goveia,
Leonardo F. Fraceto and André H. Rosa
VI Contents

Part 2 Biodiesel: Development, Performance,
and Combustion Emissions 121
Chapter 8 Analysis of the Effect of Biodiesel Energy Policy
on Markets, Trade and Food Safety in the International
Context for Sustainable Development 123
Rodríguez Estelvina,

Amaya Chávez Araceli, Romero Rubí,
Colín Cruz Arturo and Carreras Pedro
Chapter 9 Current Status of Biodiesel Production
in Baja California, Mexico 137
Gisela Montero, Margarita Stoytcheva, Conrado García,
Marcos Coronado, Lydia Toscano, Héctor Campbell,
Armando Pérez and Ana Vázquez
Chapter 10 Development of Multifunctional
Detergent-Dispersant Additives Based on Fatty
Acid Methyl Ester for Diesel and Biodiesel Fuel 153
Ádám Beck, Márk Bubálik and Jenő Hancsók
Chapter 11 Research on Hydrogenation of FAME
to Fatty Alcohols at Supercritical Conditions 171

Yao Zhilong
Chapter 12 The Use of Biodiesel in Diesel Engines 181
S. Chuepeng
Chapter 13 Toxicology of Biodiesel Combustion Products 195
Michael C. Madden, Laya Bhavaraju and Urmila P. Kodavanti
Chapter 14 Utilization of Biodiesel-Diesel-Ethanol
Blends in CI Engine 215
István Barabás and Ioan-Adrian Todoruţ
Chapter 15 The Key Role of the Electronic Control Technology in
the Exploitation of the Alternative Renewable Fuels
for Future Green, Efficient and Clean Diesel Engines 235
Carlo Beatrice, Silvana Di Iorio,
Chiara Guido and Pierpaolo Napolitano
Part 3 Glycerol: Properties and Applications 255
Chapter 16 Glycerol, the Co-Product of Biodiesel:
One Key for the Future Bio-Refinery 257
Raúl A. Comelli
Chapter 17 Antioxidative and Anticorrosive
Properties of Bioglycerol 283
Maria Jerzykiewicz and Irmina Ćwieląg-Piasecka
Contents VII

Chapter 18 Use of Glycerol in Biotechnological Applications 305
Volker F. Wendisch, Steffen N. Lindner and Tobias M. Meiswinkel
Chapter 19 Improved Utilization of Crude Glycerol
By-Product from Biodiesel Production 341
Alicja Kośmider, Katarzyna Leja and Katarzyna Czaczyk
Chapter 20 Utilization of Crude Glycerin in Nonruminants 365
Brian J. Kerr, Gerald C. Shurson,
Lee J. Johnston and William A. Dozier, III

Preface

The use of biodiesel worldwide is becoming increasingly important, because of the
widespread shortage of oil resources, which has raised the prices of fossil fuels. This
biofuel also offers an opportunity to meet the energy demands with less impact to the
environment due its renewable characteristics.
This book entitled "Biodiesel – Quality, Emissions and By-Products" comprises 20 chapters
and covers topics related to biodiesel quality, performance of combustion engines that
use biodiesel, and the emissions they generate. It emphasizes the applications of glycerol,
a byproduct of biodiesel production process. It is divided in three sections: i) Biodiesel
Quality and Standards, ii) Biodiesel: Development, Performance and Combustion
Emissions, and iii) Glycerol: Properties and Applications.
The first section, Biodiesel: Quality and Standards is integrated by seven chapters.
Chapter 1 presents the main standards on commercial biodiesel quality adopted in
different regions of the world and the importance and significance of the main
properties of biodiesel. Chapter 2 discusses the determination of photochemical
properties, thermal diffusion, thermal conductivity and thermal effusivity as a
promising route to characterize biodiesel oils. Chapter 3 explains how to characterize
and differentiate each type of biofuel respect to the other ones by pressure differential
scanning calorimetry. Chapter 4 comments that raw material source, impurities and
production practices, can affect the quality of the biodiesel, performance and
commercial approval of the final product. Chapter 5 compares the performance of one

commercial biodiesel and three laboratory-produced biodiesels to verify the effect of
storage temperature, type of storage container, storage time, as well as the moisture
content on the properties of the biodiesel. Chapter 6 describes a method for sample
preparation and quantification of FAME in diesel, and Chapter 7 details a research
about standardization of procedures used for metal trace in biodiesel.
The second section, Biodiesel: Development, Performance and Combustion Emissions
include eight chapters. Chapter 8 is a study of biodiesel and food balance, and how
they represent opportunities for agriculture and rural development. Chapter 9
describes several studies for producing biodiesel from raw materials native of Baja
California, Mexico. Chapter 10 presents the development of multifunctional detergent-
dispersant additives based on fatty acid methyl esters. Chapter 11 discusses the results
X Preface

of a research on hydrogenation of fatty acid methyl esters to fatty alcohol. Chapter 12
is a review of impacts of biodiesel use as a fuel for diesel engines. Chapter 13 focuses
on the toxicology of the compounds produced by the combustion of biodiesel. Chapter
14 depicts an assessment of the main properties of binary mixtures and triple mixtures
between biodiesel from rapeseed oil, commercial diesel fuel and bioethanol compared
to diesel fuel when were used in combustion engines. Chapter 15 exhibits the results of
a research activity aimed at studying the high-blending biodiesel use in the “torque
controlled” automotive diesel engines. In particular, based on the employment of an
innovative biodiesel blending detection methodology, the capability of closed loop
combustion control to improve both pollutant emissions and full load engine
performance was investigated.
The third section, Glycerol: Properties and Applications, focuses on this product obtained
as a co-product of biodiesel. Chapter 16 is a review of reactions such as dehydration,
hydrogenolysis, oxidation, etherification, and reforming including results obtained by
the author. All these uses allow considering the glycerol as one key-compound in the
environment of future biorefinery. Chapter 17 is a study about antioxidative and
anticorrosive properties of glycerol. Chapter 18 summarizes the state-of-the-art

glycerol-based biotechnological processes and discusses future developments. Chapter
19 presents the utilization of glycerol in biotechnological applications and Chapter 20
discusses some unusual applications of glycerol.
All the contributing authors are gratefully acknowledged for their time and efforts in
preparing the different chapters, and for their interest in the present project.

Dr. Gisela Montero and Prof. Margarita Stoytcheva
Mexicali, Baja California
Mexico



Part 1
Biodiesel: Quality and Standards

1
Biodiesel Quality, Standards and Properties
István Barabás and Ioan-Adrian Todoruţ
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Romania
1. Introduction

Quality is a prerequisite for the long-term success (successful use, without technical
problems) of a biofuel. Biodiesel quality depends on several factors that reflect its chemical
and physical characteristics. The quality of biodiesel can be influenced by a number of
factors: the quality of the feedstock; the fatty acid composition of the parent vegetable oil or
animal fat; the production process and the other materials used in this process; the post-
production parameters; and the handling and storage. Given the fact that most current
diesel engines are designed to be powered by diesel fuel, the physicochemical properties of
biodiesel should be similar to those of diesel oil.

This chapter presents the main standards on commercial biodiesel quality adopted in
different regions of the world and the importance and significance of the main properties
that are regulated (cetane number, density, viscosity, low-temperature performances, flash
point, water content, etc.) and unregulated (elemetal composition, fatty acid methyl and
ethyl esters composition, heating value, lubricity, etc.). Properties of fatty acid methyl and
ethyl esters obtained from different feedstocks
1
are presented based mainly on data
published in the specialized literature, but also on personal research.
2. Biodiesel standardization world-wide
The main criterion of biodiesel quality is the inclusion of its physical and chemical
properties into the requirements of the adequate standard. Quality standards for biodiesel
are continuously updated, due to the evolution of compression ignition engines, ever-
stricter emission standards, reevaluation of the eligibility of feedstocks used for the
production of biodiesel, etc. The current standards for regulating the quality of biodiesel on
the market are based on a variety of factors which vary from region to region, including

1
ALME – algae methyl ester, CCEE – coconut oil ethyl ester; CCME – coconut oil methyl ester; CME –
canola oil methyl ester; COME – corn oil methyl ester; CSOME – cottonseed oil methyl ester; FOEE –
fish oil ethyl ester; FOME – fish oil methyl ester; JME – jatropha oil methyl ester; OEE – olive oil ethyl
ester; OME – olive oil methyl ester; PEE – palm oil ethyl ester; PEEE – peanut oil ethyl ester; PEME –
peanut oil methyl ester; PME – palm oil methyl ester; REE – rapeseed oil ethyl ester; RME – rapeseed oil
methyl ester; SAFEE – safflower oil ethyl ester; SAFME – safflower oil methyl ester; SEE - soybean oil
ethyl ester; SFEE – sunflower oil ethyl ester; SFME – sunflower oil methyl ester; SME – soybean oil
methyl ester; TEE – tallow ethyl ester; TME – tallow methyl ester; WCOEE – waste cooking oil ethyl
ester; WCOME – waste cooking oil methyl ester; YGME – yellow grease methyl ester; YMEE – yellow
mustard oil ethyl ester; YMME – yellow mustard oil methyl ester.

Biodiesel – Quality, Emissions and By-Products

4
characteristics of the existing diesel fuel standards, the predominance of the types of diesel
engines most common in the region, the emissions regulations governing those engines, the
development stage and the climatic properties of the region/country where it is produced
and/or used, and not least, the purpose and motivation for the use of biodiesel (European
Commission, 2007).
In Europe the fleet of cars equipped with diesel engines is considerable, while in the United
States of America and Brazil diesel engines are specifically used in trucks. The most
common feedstocks used are rapeseed and sunflower oil in Europe, soybean oil and waste
vegetable oil in the USA and Canada, soybean oil in South America, palm, jatropha and
coconut oil in Asia, palm oil and soybean oil in Australia and waste vegetable oil and animal
fat in New Zealand. It is therefore not surprising that there are some significant differences
among the regional standards, a universal quality specification of biodiesel is, and will be
impossible. Table 1 presents a list of the most important biodiesel quality standards in the
world, while in Tables 2-9 specifications of the imposed limits for the main properties of
biodiesel and the required test methods are presented.

Country/Area Specifications Title
EU EN 14213 Heating fuels - Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) -
Requirements and test methods
EU EN 14214 EN 14214 Automotive fuels - Fatt
y
acid meth
y
l esters (FAME)
for diesel engines - Requirements and test methods
U.S. ASTM D 6751 ASTM D6751 - 11a Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel
Blend Stock (B100) for Middle Distillate Fuels
Australia Fuel Standard (Biodiesel) Determination 2003

Brazil ANP 42 Brazilian Biodiesel Standard (Agência Nacional do Petróleo)
India IS 15607 Bio-diesel (B 100) blend stock for diesel fuel - Specification
Japan JASO M360 Automotive fuel - Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) as blend
stock
South Africa SANS 1935 Automotive biodiesel fuel
Table 1. Biodiesel standards
The biodiesel standards in Brazil and the U.S. are applicable for both fatty acid methyl esters
(FAME) and fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE), whereas the current European biodiesel standard
is only applicable for fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Also, the standards for biodiesel in
Australia, Brazil, India, Japan, South Africa and the U.S. are used to describe a product that
represents a blending component in conventional hydrocarbon based diesel fuel, while the
European biodiesel standard describes a product that can be used either as a stand-alone
fuel for diesel engines or as a blending component in conventional diesel fuel. Some
specifications for biodiesel are feedstock neutral and some have been formulated around the
locally available feedstock. The diversity in these technical specifications is primarily related
to the origin of the feedstock and the characteristics of the local markets (European
Commission, 2007; NREL, 2009; Prankl, et al., 2004).
The European standard EN 14214 is adopted by all 31 member states of the European
Committee for Standardization (CEN): Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United

Biodiesel Quality, Standards and Properties

5
Kingdom. Thus, there are no national regulations concerning biodiesel quality, but there is a
separate section (not presented in the table), which provides cold flow property regulations.
The national standards organizations provide the specific requirements for some regulations
of CFPP (cold-filter plugging point, method EN 116), viscosity, density and distillation

characteristics depending on the climate (6 stages for moderate climate and 5 for arctic
climate). The regular diesel quality standard EN 590 specifies that commercial diesel fuel
can contain 7% v/v biodiesel, compliant with the standard EN 14214. The standard ASTM
D6751 describes the quality requirements and the methods of analysis used for biodiesel
blended with diesel oil, applying to methyl esters as well as for ethyl esters. As the
requirements for low-temperature properties can vary greatly, the standard foresees the
indication of the cloud point. The standard ASTM D975 allows mixing commercial diesel oil
with 5% biodiesel that meets the requirements of ASTM D6751, and ASTM D7467 specifies
the quality requirements of mixtures with 5-20% of biodiesel.

Property Test method
Limits
min max
Units
Ester content EN 14103 96.5 – % (m/m)
Density at 15°C
EN ISO 3675,
EN ISO 12185
860 900 kg/m
3

Viscosity at 40°C EN ISO 3104, ISO 3105 3.5 5.0 mm
2
/s
Flash point EN ISO 3679 120 – °C
Sulfur content EN ISO 20846, EN ISO 20884 – 10.0 mg/kg
Carbon residue
(in 10% dist. residue)
EN ISO 10370 – 0.30 % (m/m)
Sulfated ash content ISO 3987 – 0.02 % (m/m)

Water content EN ISO 12937 – 500 mg/kg
Total contamination EN 12662 – 24 mg/kg
Oxidative stability, 110°C EN 14112 4.0 – hours
Acid value EN 14104 – 0.50 mg KOH/g
Iodine value EN 14111 – 130 g I/100 g
Polyunsaturated methyl esters
(>= 4 double bonds)
– 1 % (m/m)
Monoglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.80 % (m/m)
Diglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Triglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Free glycerine EN 14105, EN 14106 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Cold-filter plugging point EN 116 – – °C
Pour point ISO 3016 – 0 °C
Net calorific value (calculated) DIN 51900, -1, -2, -3 35 – MJ/kg
Table 2. European standard EN 14213 for biodiesel as heating oil

Biodiesel – Quality, Emissions and By-Products

6
Property Test method
Limits
min max
Unit
Ester content EN 14103 96.5 – % (m/m)
Density at 15°C EN ISO 3675, EN ISO 12185 860 900 kg/m
3

Viscosity at 40°C EN ISO 3104, ISO 3105 3.5 5.0 mm
2

/s
Flash point EN ISO 3679 120 – °C
Sulfur content EN ISO 20846, EN ISO 20884 – 10.0 mg/kg
Carbon residue (in 10% dist.
residue)
EN ISO 10370 – 0.30 % (m/m)
Cetane number EN ISO 5165 5 1 – –
Sulfated ash ISO 3987 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Water content EN ISO 12937 – 500 mg/kg
Total contamination EN 12662 – 24 mg/kg
Copper strip corrosion (3 hours,
50°C)
EN ISO 2160 – 1 class
Oxidative stability, 110°C EN 14112 6.0 – hours
Acid value EN 14104 – 0.50 mg KOH/g
Iodine value EN 14111 – 120 g I/100 g
Linolenic acid content EN 14103 – 12 % (m/m)
Content of FAME with ≥4 double
bonds
– 1 % (m/m)
Methanol content EN 14110 – 0.20 % ( m/m)
Monoglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.80 % (m/m)
Diglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Triglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Free glycerine EN 14105; EN 14106 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Total glycerine EN 14105 – 0.25 % (m/m)
Alkali metals (Na + K) EN 14108; EN 14109 – 5.0 mg/kg
Earth alkali metals (Ca + Mg) EN 14538 – 5.0 mg/kg
Phosphorus content EN 14107 – 10.0 mg/kg
Table 3. European biodiesel standard (EN 14214)

Biodiesel Quality, Standards and Properties

7

Property Test Method
Limits
min max
Units
Calcium & Magnesium, combined EN 14538 – 5
ppm
(μg/g)
Flash Point (closed cup) D 93 93 – °C
Alcohol Control (one to be met):
1. Methanol Content EN 14110 – 0.2 % (m/m)
2. Flash Point D93 130 – °C
Water & Sediment D 2709 – 0.05 % (v/v)
Kinematic Viscosity, at 40 °C D 445 1.9 6.0 mm
2
/sec.
Sulfated Ash D 874 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Sulfur: S 15 Grade
S 500 Grade
D 5453
D 5453
–
–
0.0015
0.05
% (m/m)

% (m/m)
Copper Strip Corrosion D 130 – 3 No.
Cetane D 613 47 – –
Cloud Point D 2500 report °C
Carbon Residue, 100% sample D 4530 – 0.05 % (m/m)
Acid Number D 664 – 0.05
mg
KOH/g
Free Glycerin D 6584 – 0.020 % (m/m)
Total Glycerin D 6584 – 0.240 % (m/m)
Phosphorus Content D 4951 – 0.001 % (m/m)
Distillation-Atmospheric equivalent
temperature 90% recovery
D 1160 – 360 °C
Sodium/Potassium, combined EN 14538 – 5
ppm
(μg/g)
Oxidation Stability EN 15751 – 3 hours
Cold Soak Filtration
For use in temperatures below -12 °C
D7501
D7501
–
360
200
seconds
seconds

Table 4. Biodiesel standard ASTM D6751 (United States)

Biodiesel – Quality, Emissions and By-Products

8
Property Test method
Limits
min max
Unit
Sulfur ASTM D5453 –
50
10
mg/kg
Density at 15 °C
ASTM D1298,
EN ISO 3675
860 890 kg/m
3

Distillation T90 ASTM D1160 – 360 °C
Sulfated ash ASTM D 874 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Viscosity at 40 °C ASTM D445 3.5 5.0 mm
2
/s
Flash point ASTM D93 120 – °C
Carbon residue – – –
– 10% dist. residue EN ISO 10370 – 0.30 % (m/m)
– 100% dist. sample ASTM D4530 – 0.05 % (m/m)
Water and sediment ASTM D2709 – 0.050 % (v/v)
Copper strip corrosion (3 hours at
50°C)
< 10 mg/kg of sulfur

> 10 mg/kg of sulfur

EN ISO 2160
ASTM D130 –

Class 1
No. 3 –
Ester content EN 14103 96.5 % (m/m)
Phosphorus ASTM D4951 – 10 mg/kg
Acid value ASTM D664 – 0.80
mg
KOH/g
Total contamination EN 12662, ASTM D5452 – 24 mg/kg
Free glycerol ASTM D6584 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Total glycerol ASTM D6584 – 0.25 % (m/m)
Cetane number
EN ISO 5165, ASTM
D613
ASTM D6890, IP 498/03
51 – –
Cold–filter plugging point report – °C
Oxidation stability 6 hours at
110°C
EN 14112, ASTM D2274
(as relevant for
biodiesel)
– – hours
Metals: Group I (Na, K)
EN 14108, EN 14109
(Group I)

– 5 mg/kg
Metals: Group II (Ca, Mg) EN 14538 (Group II) – 5 mg/kg

Table 5. Australian biodiesel standard

Biodiesel Quality, Standards and Properties

9




Property Test method
Limits
min max
Units
Density at 15ºC ISO 3675 /P 32 860 900 kg/m
3

Kinematic viscosity at 40ºC ISO 3104 / P25 2.5 6.0 mm
2
/s
Flash point (closed cup) P21 120 – ºC
Sulphur D5443/P83 – 50 mg/kg
Carbon resiue (Ramsbottom) D4530 – 0.05 % (m/m)
Sulfated ash ISO 6245/P4 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Water content D2709 / P40 – 500 mg/kg
Total contamination EN 12662 – 24 mg/kg
Copper corrosion 3 hr at 50ºC ISO 2160 / P15 – 1 –
Cetane number ISO 5156/ P9 51 – –

Acid value P1 – 0.50
mg
KOH/g
Methanol EN 14110 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Ethanol – 0.20 % (m/m)
Ester content EN 14103 – 96.5 % (m/m)
Free glycerol, max D6584 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Total glycerol, max D6584 – 0.25 % (m/m)m
Phosphorous, max D 4951 – 10.0 mg/kg
Sodium and potassium EN 14108 To report mg/kg
Calcium and magnesium – To report mg/kg
Iodine value EN 14104 To report –
Oxidation stability at 110ºC EN 14112 6 – hours



Table 6. Biodiesel standard in India

Biodiesel – Quality, Emissions and By-Products

10



Property Test method
Limits
min max
Units
Ester content EN 14103 96.5 – % (m/m)
Density JIS K 2249 0.86 0.90 g/ml

Kinematic Viscosity JIS K 2283 3.5 5.0 mm
2
/s
Flash Point JIS K 2265 120 – °C
Sulfur JIS K 2541–1, –2, –6, –7 – 10 ppm
10% Carbon Residue JIS K 2270 – 0.3 % (m/m)
Cetane number JIS K 2280 51 – –
Sulfated Ash JIS K 2272 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Water JIS K 2275 – 500 ppm
Total contamination EN 12662 – 24 ppm
Copper strip corrosion (3 hours at 50 °C) JIS K 2513 – Class 1 rating
Total acid number JIS K 2501, JIS K0070 – 0.5 mgKOH/g
Iodine Number JIS K 0070 – 120 gI/100g
Methyl linolenate EN 14103 – 12.0 % (m/m)
Methanol JIS K 2536, EN 14110 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Monoglyceride EN 14105 – 0.80 % (m/m)
Diglyceride EN 14105 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Triglyceride EN 14105 – 0.20 % (m/m)
Free glycerol EN 14105, EN 14106 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Total glycerol EN 14105 – 0.25 % (m/m)
Metals (Na + K) EN 14108, EN 14109 – 5 ppm
Metals (Ca + Mg) EN 14538 – 5 ppm
Phosphorous EN 14107 – 10 ppm


Table 7. Japanese Biodiesel Specification

Biodiesel Quality, Standards and Properties

11

Property Test method
Limits
min max
Units
Ester content EN 14103 96.5 – % (m/m)
Density, at 15°C ISO 3675, ISO 12185 860 900 kg/m
3

Kinematic viscosity at 40°C ISO 3104 3.5 5.0 mm
2
/s
Flash point ISO 3679 120 – °C
Sulfur content ISO 20846, ISO 20884 – 10.0 mg/kg
Carbon residue (on 10% distillation
residue)
ISO 10370 – 0.3 % (m/m)
Cetane number ISO 5165 51.0 – –
Sulfated ash content ISO 3987 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Water content ISO 12937 – 0.05 % (m/m)
Total contamination EN 12662 – 24 mg/kg
Copper strip corrosion (3 hours at
50°C)
ISO 2160 – No.1 rating
Oxidation stability, at 110°C EN 14112 6 – hours
Acid value EN 14104 – 0.5 mg KOH
Iodine value EN 14111 – 140 g I/100 g
Linolenic acid methyl ester EN 14103 – 12 % (m/m)
Content of FAME with ≥4 double
bonds

– 1 % (m/m)
Methanol content EN 14110 – 0.2 % (m/m)
Monoglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.8 % (m/m)
Diglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.2 % (m/m)
Triglyceride content EN 14105 – 0.2 % (m/m)
Free glycerol EN 14105; EN 14106 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Total glycerol EN 14105 – 0.25 % (m/m)
Group I metals (Na + K) EN 14108; EN 14109 – 5.0 mg/kg
Group II metals (Ca + Mg) EN 14538 – 5.0 mg/kg
Phosphorus content EN 14107 – 10.0 mg/kg
Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP)
Winter/Summer
EN 116 – –4/+3 °C
Table 8. South African Biodiesel Standard

Biodiesel – Quality, Emissions and By-Products

12
Property Test method
Limits
min max
Units
Flash point
ABNT NBR 14598,
ASTM D93, EN ISO 3679
100 – °C
Water and sediments ASTM D2709 – 0.05 % (v/v)
Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C
ABNT NBR 10441,
EN ISO 3104, ASTM D445

report mm
2
/s
Sulfated ash
ABNT NBR 9842,
ASTM D874; ISO 3987
– 0.02 % (m/m)
Sulfur ASTM D5453; EN/ISO 14596 – 0.001 % (m/m)
Copper corrosion 3 hours at 50 °C
ABNT NBR 14359,
ASTM D130; EN/ISO 2160
– No. 1 –
Ester content EN 14103 report % (m/m)
Distillation – atmospheric
equivalent temperature 90%
Recovery
D 1160 – 360 °C
Cetane number ASTM D613; EN/ISO 5165 45 – –
Cloud point ASTM D6371 – – °C
Carbon Residue, 100% sample ASTM D4530; EN/ISO 10370 – 0.05 % (m/m)
Acid number ASTM D664; EN 14104 – 0.80
mg
KOH/g
Total contamination EN 12662 report mg/kg
Free glycerin ASTM D6854; EN 14105–6 – 0.02 % (m/m)
Total glycerin ASTM D6854; EN 14105 – 0.38 % (m/m)
Distillation recovery 95% ASTM D1160 – 360 °C
Phosphorus ASTM D4951; EN 14107 – 10 mg/kg
Specific gravity
ABNT NBR 7148, 14065

ASTM D1298/4052
report –
Alcohol EN 14110 – 0.50 % (m/m)
Iodine number EN 14111 report
gI/100g
Monoglycerides ASTM D6584; EN 14105 – 1.00 % (m/m)
Diglycerides ASTM D6584; EN 14105 – 0.25 % (m/m)
Triglycerides ASTM D6584; EN 14105 – 0.25 % (m/m)
Metals: Group I (Na, K) EN 14108, EN 14109 – 10 mg/kg
Metals: Group II (Ca, Mg) EN 14538 report mg/kg
Aspect — clear –
Oxidation stability at 110°C EN 14112 6 – hours
Table 9. Brazilian biodiesel standard
3. Biodiesel fuel properties
The properties of biodiesel can be grouped by multiple criteria. The most important are
those that influence the processes taking place in the engine (ignition qualities, ease of
starting, formation and burning of the fuel-air mixture, exhaust gas formation and quality

Biodiesel Quality, Standards and Properties

13
and the heating value, etc.), cold weather properties (cloud point, pour point and cold filter
plugging point), transport and depositing (oxidative and hydrolytic stability, flash point,
induction period, microbial contamination, filterability limit temperature, etc.), wear of
engine parts (lubricity, cleaning effect, viscosity, compatibility with materials used to
manufacture the fuel system, etc.).
3.1 Chemical composition of biodiesel
The elemental composition (carbon – C, hydrogen – H and oxygen – O), the C/H ratio and
the chemical formula of diesel and biodiesel produced from different feedstocks is shown in
Table 10 (Barabás & Todoruţ, 2010; Chuepeng &Komintarachat, 2010). The elemental

composition of biodiesel varies slightly depending on the feedstock it is produced from. The
most significant difference between biodiesel and diesel fuel composition is their oxygen
content, which is between 10 and 13%. Biodiesel is in essence free of sulfur.

Fuel C H O C/H Empirical formula
Diesel 86.5 13.5 0 6.24 C
15.05
H
27.94

RME 77.2 12.0 10.8 6.45 C
19.03
H
35.17
O
2

SME 77.2 11.9 10.8 6.60 C
19.05
H
34.98
O
2

PME 76.35 11.26 12.39 6.16 C
18.07
H
34.93
O
2

Table 10. Elemental composition of diesel fuel and biodiesel, % (m/m)
Unlike fuels of petroleum origin, which are composed of hundreds of hydrocarbons (pure
substances), biodiesel is composed solely of some fatty acid ethyl and methyl esters; their
number depends on the feedstock used to manufacture biodiesel and is between 6 and 17
(Shannon & Wee, 2009). The fatty acid methyl and ethyl esters in the composition of
biodiesel are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms that form linear chain
molecules with single and double carbon-carbon bonds. The molecules with double bonds
are unsaturated. Thus, fatty acid esters take the form Cnc:nd (lipid numbers), where nc is the
number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid and nd is the number of double bonds in the fatty
acid (e.g., 18:1 indicates 18 carbon atoms and one double bond). The ester composition of
biodiesel (methyl and ethyl esters) is shown in Table 11 (Bamgboye & Hansen, 2008; Barabás
& Todoruţ, 2010; Chuepeng &Komintarachat, 2010). The highest concentrations are C18:1,
C18:2, C18:3, followed by C18:0. A significant exception is biodiesel from coconut oil, in the
case of which the highest concentration is C12:0, C14:0 and C16:0, hence this biodiesel is
more volatile than the others. The physicochemical properties of biodiesel produced from a
given feedstock are determined by the properties of the esters contained.
3.2 Cetane number
Cetane number (CN) is a dimensionless indicator that characterizes ignition quality of fuels
for compression ignition engines (CIE). Since in the CIE burning of the fuel-air mixture is
initiated by compression ignition of the fuel, the cetane number is a primary indicator of
fuel quality as it describes the ease of its self-ignition.
Theoretically, the cetane number is defined in the range of 15-100; the limits are given by the
two reference fuels used in the experimental determination of the cetane number: