Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill

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<b>HUE, 2024</b>

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No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the thesis. This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution.

<b>Hue, 2024 </b>

<b>Huynh Ai </b>

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<b>ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS </b>

This doctoral thesis represents the culmination of my personal endeavours combined with the dedicated collaboration of numerous individuals, marking a significant and prolonged undertaking. I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to these individuals without whom the realization of this work would not have been possible.

Foremost, I extend my deepest appreciation to my esteemed academic supervisors, Dr. Trần Quang Ngọc Thuý and Dr. Đặng Tấn Tín, whose indispensable guidance, astute feedback, unwavering support, and constant encouragement were instrumental in shaping this thesis amidst challenging circumstances. I consider myself exceedingly fortunate and contented to have been under the tutelage of these two committed mentors, who provided multifaceted perspectives throughout the completion of this research.

Furthermore, I would like to convey my profound gratitude to my former supervisor, Dr. Hồ Sĩ Thắng Kiệt, with the hope that even in the ethereal realm, he may be aware of my sentiments expressed here.

My sincere appreciation also goes to all the lecturers, professors, and stakeholders at the University of Foreign Languages and International Studies, Hue University. I am indebted to the instructors who generously imparted invaluable knowledge, offering constructive comments and critical insights that significantly contributed to the completion of my thesis.

I extend my gratitude to my dear students, whose voluntary participation in completing questionnaires, responding to interviews, writing essays, and self-assessing, as well as maintaining reflective journals and attending a short course within the empirical project, has been vital. I am also thankful to my colleagues in the PhD group and friends who supported me with invaluable experiences and shared the workload throughout the entire process of completing this thesis.

Lastly, but by no means least, I am profoundly grateful to my family members – my biological parents, my parents-in-law, my wife, and my wonderful children – for their unwavering love and constant encouragement. Their boundless affection has been a continual source of inspiration and motivation throughout my academic journey.

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<b>LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS </b>

CEFR: The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ESL: English as Second Language

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1.5. Significance of the research ... 5

1.6. Organization of the study ... 7

<b>CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8 </b>

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2.2.2. Self-assessment for summative purposes ... 24

2.3. Writing academic English and self-assessment in EFL writing ... 25

2.3.1. Writing academic English ... 25

2.3.2. Self-assessment in EFL writing classrooms ... 26

2.3.2.1. Self-assessment in writing skill ... 27

2.3.2.2. Benefits of self-assessment in EFL writing ... 28

2.3.3. Self-assessment instruments in EFL writing classes ... 30

2.3.3.1. Self-assessment checklists in learning writing ... 30

2.3.3.2. Writing reflective journals ... 32

2.4. Previous studies and research gaps... 33

2.4.1. Students’ perceptions of self-assessment ... 33

2.4.2. Students’ practices of self-assessment ... 37

2.4.3. Students’ challenges of self-assessment ... 40

2.5. Chapter summary ... 41

<b>CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 42 </b>

3.1. Research approach and research design ... 42

3.3.3. Role of the researcher ... 49

3.4. Analytical framework of the study ... 50

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3.6.1. Analysis of the quantitative data ... 63

3.6.2. Analysis of the qualitative data ... 64

3.7. Research reliability and validity ... 66

3.7.1. Reliability ... 66

3.7.2. Validity ... 67

3.8. Ethical considerations ... 68

3.9. Summary ... 68

<b>CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 69 </b>

4.1. EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill ... 69

4.1.1. Overview of students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill ... 69

4.1.2. Students’ perceptions of general self-assessment in writing skill ... 69

4.1.3. Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill ... 74

4.1.4. Students’ perceptions of benefits of self-assessment in learning writing ... 79

4.1.5. Discussion of the findings ... 84

4.1.5.1. Students’ perceptions of overall self-assessment in writing skill ... 85

4.1.5.2. Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill ... 87

4.1.5.3. Students’ perceptions of the benefits of self-assessment ... 89

4.1.6. Summary the findings for RQ1 ... 92

4.2. Students’ practices of self-assessment in writing skill ... 93

4.2.1. General quantitative results of students’ practices of self-assessment ... 93

4.2.2. Students’ reported self-assessment practices in writing ... 93

4.2.3. Students’ reported practices of self-assessment in the writing process ... 99

4.2.4. Students’ actual use self-assessment checklist in learning writing ... 101

4.2.4.2. Students’ reflective journals ... 103

4.2.4.3. Students’ self-assessment of the overall essay contents ... 105

4.2.4.4. Students’ self-assessment of the essay organization ... 109

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4.2.4.5. Students’ self-assessment of the language writing skill... 110

4.2.5. Discussion of students’ practices ... 114

4.2.5.1. Students’ reported practices ... 115

4.2.5.2. Students’ actual use self-assessment checklist in learning writing . 117 4.2.6. Summary of the findings for RQ2 ... 119

4.3. Students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing skill ... 120

4.3.1. Students’ reported challenges of self-assessment in writing skill ... 120

4.3.2. Students' challenges of self-assessment in writing skill ... 124

4.3.3. Discussion of students’ challenges ... 124

4.3.4. Summary of the findings for RQ3 ... 126

4.4. Triangulation of findings ... 127

4.5. Chapter summary ... 128

<b>CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS ... 130 </b>

5.1. Summary of key findings ... 130

5.1.1. Students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing ... 130

5.1.2. Students’ practices of self-assessment in learning writing ... 131

5.1.3. Students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing ... 132

5.2. Implications ... 133

5.2.1. Implications for EFL students ... 133

5.2.2. Implications for teachers of writing ... 134

5.2.3. Implications for curriculum developers and policymakers ... 135

5.5. Recommendations for further research ... 139

<b>LIST OF AUTHOR’S WORKS ... 138 </b>

<b>REFERENCES ... 141 </b>

Appendix A: The pilot questionnaire ... P1

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Appendix B: The official questionnaire ... P5 Appendix C: The pilot interview ...P12 Appendix D: The official focus-group interview ...P13 Appendix E: The official questionnaire of students’ using self-assessment checklist in a writing course ...P15 Appendix F: Self-assessment checklist ...P17 Appendix G: Prompts for students’ reflective journal ...P20 Appendix H: A sample of the interview coding and theming ...P21 Appendix I: A sample of an online writing class ...P28 Appendix J: A sample of a student using self-assessment checklist to assess a first essay draft and revise into a second draft ...P29 Appendix K: A sample of a student’s reflective journal ...P33 Appendix L: A summary criteria of students' self-assessment of the essay...P35 Appendix M:Content of training program in a public university ... P39

Appendix N: Content of training program in a non-public university ...P38

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<b>LIST OF TABLES </b>

<b>Table 3.1. The sample sizes of the present study ... 48 </b>

<b>Table 3.2. Summary of data collection instruments ... 55 </b>

<b>Table 3.3: Summary of Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients ... 60 </b>

<b>Table 4.1. Students' perceptions of general self-assessment in writing skill ... 70 </b>

<b>Table 4.2. Students' perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill ... 74 </b>

<b>Table 4.3. Students’ perceptions of benefits of self-assessment in writing ... 85</b>

<b>Table 4.4. Students’ reported self-assessment practices in learning writing ... 95 </b>

<b>Table 4.5. Students’ reported practices of self-assessment in the writing process ... 99 </b>

<b>Table 4.6. Participants’ reflection on the role of self-assessment checklists ... 102 </b>

<b>Table 4.7. Examples of students’ self-assessment of the introductory paragraph ... 106 </b>

<b>Table 4.8. Example of students’ self-assessment of the conclusion paragraph ... 108 </b>

<b>Table 4.9. Students' reported challenges of self-assessment in writing skill ... 121 </b>

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<b>LIST OF FIGURES </b>

<b>Figure 2.1. Cyclical phases of self-regulated learning ... 17 </b>

<b>Figure 3.1. Mixed methods design ... 43 </b>

<b>Figure 3.2. Mixed methods sequential exploratory design for the present study ... 44 </b>

<b>Figure 3.3. The analytical framework of the study ... 50 </b>

<b>Figure 4.1. General results of students’ perception of self-assessment ... 68 </b>

<b>Figure 4.2. Students' perception of self-efficacy in their specific writing skill ... 76 </b>

<b>Figure 4.3. General questionnaire results of students’ practices of self-assessment .... 92</b>

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<b>ABSTRACT </b>

In recent decades, extensive research has explored into self-assessment in centered education globally, such as examining its consistency with other assessment forms, students' perceptions, and its association with self-regulated learning models. However, numerous unexplored dimensions persist, particularly the self-assessment of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students in learning writing as a skill, which has long been ignored in teaching practices. This study aims to investigate the perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in writing skill among Vietnamese students within this specific context.

learner-To answer three research questions, a mixed-methods approach that incorporated quantitative and qualitative approaches for collecting and analyzing data. The first set of data on students’ reported perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learning writing was gathered via a questionnaire delivered to 450 participants and focus-group interviews with 32 participants from the group of questionnaire respondents. Also, an empirical writing class with 18 students gathered data through a questionnaire, reflective journals, self-assessment checklists, and students' writing papers. The findings highlight Vietnamese tertiary students' positive perceptions of self-assessment in learning writing, emphasizing its role in improving writing skill, enhancing self-efficacy, and providing various benefits. In terms of practice, students demonstrated a strong sense of responsibility and active participation in self-assessment activities. Notably, EFL students made a robust effort to employ self-assessment checklists to self-assess their writing, reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, and take ownership of their progress. However, challenges arise from students' limited experience in self-assessment and relatively low proficiency in English writing. Consequently, some students struggled with identifying grammar errors, including issues with word choice, articles, pronoun usage, verb agreement, and mechanics. This study provides substantial contributions across theoretical, methodological, and practical dimensions. The theoretical framework establishes the groundwork for understanding Vietnamese tertiary EFL students' self-assessment of writing skill, bridging a crucial knowledge gap in Vietnamese higher education. The practical implications offer valuable insights for EFL educators in Vietnam and in the world, highlighting the positive impact of self-assessment on writing skill improvement and providing guidance on integration into instruction through tools like checklists and reflective thinking. The identification of challenges faced by students during self-assessment informs strategies for educators to offer targeted support and create an optimal learning environment.

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<b>CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION </b>

<i>This chapter provides an overview of the current research, presenting details of the research background, rationale, aim, and research questions. It also defines the research scope and then shows the research significance. Finally, the chapter gives precise details of the research organization. </i>

<b>1.1. Research background </b>

In the past few decades, Vietnam's educational system, especially in foreign language education, has undergone significant transformations. English has emerged as the dominant foreign language in the country due to socio-economic development and educational policies. It has become essential for international communication, trade, and attracting foreign investments. English proficiency is now highly sought after for employment, research, and various purposes, such as travelling and studying abroad. Along with the national renovation policy, English as a foreign language (EFL) has been officially taught as a compulsory subject in the educational system since after the Sixth National Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party in December 1986.

Recently, Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has introduced significant policy changes to prioritize learner-centered learning and foster self-study skills in higher education. For instance, there have been a number of standard policies pertaining to tertiary education, including the implementation of a credit-based training system and a shift towards a combination of summative and formative assessments (MOET Decision No. 25/2006/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, 26^th June 2006; MOET Decision No. 43/2007/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, 15<small>th</small> August 2007). These policy decisions have positively reflected a growing recognition of the importance of students' role in the learning process within educational contexts. The shift towards learner-centered learning and the implementation of formative assessment practices represent important advancements in Vietnam's higher education system. These changes not only empower students to take charge of their learning process but also promote a more holistic and effective approach to education that aligns with contemporary educational theories and best practices.

The growing interest in formative assessment has positively impacted teaching and assessment practices, emphasizing the improvement of teaching quality and student learning. Formative assessment empowers students to monitor their progress, take responsibility for their learning, and develop learner autonomy (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Brookhart, 2011; Lee, 2017). Students play a central role in the learning process, engaging in activities, and participating in classroom assessment through self-assessment, peer

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assessment, and collaborative work (Andrade, 2019; Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Brown & Harris, 2013; Nguyễn Hồ Hoàng Thuỷ & Trương Thị Anh, 2021). Self-assessment, in particular, promotes learner autonomy and enhances independent learning, aligning with the principles of formative assessment (Boud, 1995; Gardner, 2000).

<b>1.2. Research rationale </b>

In education literature, the shift towards learner-centered learning in higher education is a significant development in Vietnam's educational system. This approach emphasizes student engagement, active learning, and the development of critical thinking skills (Brown & Harris, 2013; Butler, 2016; Smith, 2018). Higher education institutions prioritize learner-centered learning to empower students to take ownership of their learning process and develop the necessary skills for lifelong learning. In addition, learner-centered learning is aligned with contemporary educational theories, such as constructivism and social constructivism, which emphasize the active role of learners in constructing their knowledge (Adam, 2017; Dewey, 1933; Johnson, 2015). It allows learners to actively engage with the language, practice communication skills, and develop a deeper understanding of the language's cultural and contextual aspects. In writing classes, for instance, learner-centered learning encourages students to actively engage with the English language when developing their writing skill. Instead of passively receiving knowledge, students are encouraged to participate in various writing activities, such as brainstorming, drafting, editing, and revising (Oshima & Hogue, 2006). Learners have more opportunities to practice writing in different genres, styles, and contexts, which allows them to explore and experiment with the language. Fostering learner autonomy in developing students' writing skill, students can explore their learning styles, set goals, and take responsibility for their language acquisition process.

Remarkably, formative assessment is an integral component of student-centered learning and has gained increasing attention in educational development, especially in EFL contexts (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Andrade & Du, 2007; Brown & Harris, 2014). Unlike summative assessment, which assesses learning outcomes at the end of a course or semester, formative assessment focuses on providing ongoing feedback to students during the learning process. It is designed to monitor student progress, identify areas of improvement, and inform instructional decision-making (Butler, 2016; Lee, 2017; Race, 2020). In Vietnam’s higher education, formative assessment in English language education can take various forms, including self-assessment, peer assessment, teacher feedback, and collaborative activities. According to Boud (2013), self-assessment encourages students to reflect on their language proficiency, set personal learning goals,

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and evaluate their progress. It empowers students to take charge of their own learning. Peer assessment enables students to provide constructive feedback to their peers, fostering a supportive and collaborative learning environment. Teacher feedback and classroom assessment activities further contribute to the formative assessment process by offering timely guidance and facilitating students' language development.

Besides, formative assessment aligns with the principles of learner-centered learning, as it empowers students to actively engage in the learning process, monitor their own learning, and take ownership of their progress (Andrade, 2010; Boud, 2013; Lee & Mak, 2018). It promotes metacognitive skills, self-regulation, and critical thinking abilities, which are essential for students to become proficient and autonomous learners and contribute to their overall growth as effective communicators and critical thinkers in both academic and real-world contexts.

Moreover, self-assessment plays a crucial role in the formative assessment process as provided by Andrade (2018) and Boud (1995). These researchers underscored that self-assessment has an important role in enhancing learners' understanding of the learning objectives and effectively monitoring their progress toward their goals. Andrade (2018) implied that self-assessment allows learners to actively engage with the learning process by evaluating their own work and progress. It means that students can gain a clearer understanding of the intended learning outcomes when taking an active role in assessing their performance. They become more aware of the specific criteria and standards against which their work is assessed, thus enhancing their overall perceptions of the learning objectives. Additionally, self-assessment provides students with opportunities to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, enabling them to identify areas for improvement and set realistic goals. Students can take ownership of their learning process and make informed decisions about their learning strategies and priorities by actively monitoring their own progress. Likewise, Boud (1995) further supported the importance of self-assessment in student-centered learning by highlighting its role in promoting metacognitive awareness. Learners develop a deeper understanding of their learning processes, including their learning styles, preferences, and strategies through self-assessment. This heightened self-awareness enables students to make more informed choices about their learning methods, adapt their approaches as needed, and become more self-directed in their learning. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that self-assessment is to optimize students’ learning and enhance student-centered learning in the classroom.

However, the current understanding of teaching and learning writing as a skill of classroom practice through self-assessment in Vietnam at the tertiary level is somewhat

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limited in the existing literature. There is a lack of comprehensive insights into the perceptions, practices, and challenges that Vietnamese EFL students face when engaging in self-assessment in writing skill. This current knowledge gap highlights the need for further research in this area. In addition, the specific population gap of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students has been overlooked in many studies examining self-assessment in learning writing. This gap emphasizes the importance of investigating the role of self-assessment in teaching and learning writing to Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level. Thirdly, there is a practical knowledge gap concerning the implementation and application of self-assessment in teaching and learning writing as a classroom practice within a specific context of higher education in Vietnam. While the theoretical underpinnings and potential benefits of self-assessment are acknowledged in the literature, there is a lack of practical guidance and evidence-based strategies for effectively integrating self-assessment practices into the writing curriculum. Therefore, this research aims to address these gaps by conducting an in-depth investigation into the current state of teaching and learning writing, with a particular focus on self-assessment. By doing so, this study intends to contribute to the existing knowledge by providing valuable insights and a deeper understanding of the use of self-assessment in the context of teaching and learning writing to Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level.

<b>1.3. Aims and research questions </b>

The primary focus of this study is to examine the perceptions, practices, and challenges encountered by Vietnamese EFL tertiary students' self-assessment in writing skill. Within the domain of students' perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill, the study aims to gain valuable insights into EFL students' perspectives and attitudes toward self-assessment in learning writing as a skill. The research objective is firstly to understand the overall perceptions of EFL students' self-assessment in their writing skill. In the same vein, the study seeks to investigate students' perceptions of self-efficacy and the perceived benefits of self-assessment in writing skill. Meanwhile, the research also delves into students' self-assessment practices, exploring both reported practices and actual engagement of tertiary students’ self-assessment in learning writing. The ultimate research objective is to explore the challenges encountered by EFL students' self-assessment while learning writing, with a particular focus on understanding their real engagement in the self-assessment process. To achieve these aims, the study addresses three specific research questions:

1. What are Vietnamese EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill? 2. How do Vietnamese EFL students practice self-assessment when learning writing?

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<b>1.4. Research scope </b>

This study defines its scope as an investigation into the perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment in the process of learning English writing among Vietnamese EFL tertiary students. The research was conducted over a six-month period at two universities in the southern region of Vietnam. The participants exclusively comprised second-year students majoring in English who volunteered to participate in this research.

The research narrows its focus by employing cognitive and constructivist theories, metacognition theory, and reflection theory as the theoretical background for self-assessment, emphasizing autonomous and self-regulated learning in the context of writing. Additionally, it utilizes a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative approaches in two stages. In the first stage, the study administered a questionnaire to a large number of EFL students and conducted eight focus-group interviews. During the empirical stage, an 8-week project was conducted with a group of second-year students who were enrolled in an online writing course designed to enhance their writing skill. These students were assigned tasks that included writing essays, using self-assessment checklist to self-assess their papers and revising them, and finally completing a questionnaire and reflective journals.

The study specifically aimed to gain insights into Vietnamese EFL tertiary students' perceptions, practices, and challenges associated with self-assessment in the context of learning writing.

<b>1.5. Significance of the research </b>

This research bears notable significance in the field of English language education within higher education in Vietnam, particularly regarding students’ perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learning English writing. The findings of this study can provide insights into the current state of English writing instruction at Vietnamese universities, which can further inform higher education strategies for

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Secondly, the study's methodology, derived from a combination of cognitive and constructivist theories, metacognitive theory, and reflection theories, along with the integration of quantitative and qualitative methods, contributes to the advancement of research methodologies in the field. Additionally, the use of multiple data collection tools (questionnaires, interviews, self-assessment checklists, reflective journals, and students' papers) enables the gathering of diverse data types, fostering a comprehensive and detailed understanding of self-assessment in learning writing among Vietnamese EFL students. This methodological contribution can inspire future research endeavours and serve as a reference for other researchers investigating similar topics.

The findings of this research carry practical implications for English writing lecturers, curriculum developers, and policymakers. By gaining insight into how EFL students perceive and engage in self-assessment in English writing, educators can tailor more effective instructional strategies and assessment practices to improve students' writing skill. Regarding students' actual perceptions of self-assessment, English writing instructors can guide students' understanding in the correct direction while also refining their own teaching approaches. Besides, in terms of students' reflective practices of self-assessment in writing skill, both English lecturers and students at Vietnamese universities can recognize these practices as relevant issues requiring scientific solutions to enhance the effectiveness of writing instruction.

Finally, concerning the research results on students’ challenges of self-assessment in English writing skill, writing lecturers responsible for English teaching at Vietnamese universities can classify these challenges into at least two groups: negative challenges that need to be overcome and positive ones that require redirection or improvement in better ways. By examining the challenges faced by Vietnamese EFL students in the self-assessment process, lecturers can inform support mechanisms and interventions to address these issues. Students can benefit from a better understanding of the challenges of self-assessment, enabling them to become more self-directed

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learners and take ownership of their writing development.

<b>1.6. Organization of the study </b>

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the current study, including the research background, research rationale, research questions, research aims, scope, and significance of the study. It sets the stage for the entire research project and outlines the key aspects that will be explored.

Chapter 2 presents a critical thematic review of relevant literature. It examines theoretical background of self-assessment in learning writing and explores theories of assessment related to self-assessment. This chapter also identifies research gaps in previous studies on self-assessment issues, highlighting the need for further investigation.

Chapter 3 focuses on the research methodologies employed in this study. It discusses the research approaches and research design used to gather data and address the research questions. The chapter describes the research contexts, sites, participants, and the role of the researcher. Moreover, it presents the instruments for data collection and data analysis, while addressing ethical considerations, reliability, and validity issues.

Chapter 4 reports and discusses the findings of the study. It presents the results of the data collected on students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learning writing. The chapter provides an analysis of the data and engages in a thorough discussion of the findings, highlighting key patterns, themes, and implications.

Chapter 5 summarizes the key findings of the study and provides implications for the field of self-assessment in English language education. It highlights the contributions of the research and discusses potential directions for future research in this area. The chapter concludes the study by bringing together the main insights and offering a closing reflection on the overall research endeavor.

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<b>CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW </b>

<i>This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the theoretical foundations and relevant concepts related to self-assessment. It begins by examining theories of cognition and constructivism, metacognition, and reflection, highlighting their significance in understanding the self-assessment process. The discussion then centers around the purposes and key characteristics of self-assessment, particularly about different types of assessment commonly used in educational contexts. To contextualize the current research, previous studies in the field are thoroughly examined, identifying gaps in the existing literature that this study aims to address. Building upon the insights from prior research, this chapter sets the foundation for the subsequent investigation into Vietnamese EFL students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in writing skill. </i>

<b>2.1. Theoretical background </b>

This section is a theoretical review that evaluates and synthesizes theories, models, and concepts serving as the foundation for self-assessment. The cognitive and constructivist theories, reflection theory, and metacognition theory converge on key aspects that are crucial in students' self-assessment in learning writing. The significance of these theories lies in their shared emphasis on the active participation, interpretation, reflection, and metacognitive awareness involved in the process of self-assessment. By integrating these theoretical perspectives, the researcher can establish an approach to self-assessment in learning writing as a skill, empowering students to assume ownership of their writing development.

<b>2.1.1. Cognitive and constructivist theories </b>

Cognitive and constructivist theories have significantly influenced the educational field, shedding light on how learners construct knowledge. These theories highlight the crucial roles of both the writing process and self-assessment, emphasizing learners' active engagement in knowledge construction and the importance of comprehending and building knowledge in these processes.

Cognitive theory, a fundamental concept in understanding learning processes, plays a pivotal role in the writing process. According to Piaget (1985), learners actively construct knowledge through their experiences, necessitating their active involvement in the development of understanding. This principle extends to the process of writing, where students must draw upon their existing knowledge, skills, and experiences, actively engaging in the construction of their written work.

Likewise, this active knowledge construction is evident in Flower and Hayes'

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(1981, p.370) writing process model, where cognitive theory underpins specific components: the planning process, the translating component, and the review element. In the planning stage, writers engage in mental activities, organizing ideas, and setting goals. Here, the writers actively structure their thoughts and plan the composition, reflecting cognitive theory's emphasis on individual knowledge construction. Writers utilize cognitive strategies, leveraging their existing knowledge to arrange ideas coherently. In the process of translating component, cognitive theory highlights that mental representations are translated the ideas into various forms in written language. In this stage, the writers transform their organized thoughts into written words such as selecting appropriate vocabulary, syntax, and composition. This process mirrors cognitive theory's focus on the transformation of mental constructs into external expressions, highlighting the cognitive processes inherent in written expression. Finally, within the context of the writing process, cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of reviewing and revising written work. It suggests that writers engage in metacognitive processes, such as self-assessment and error detection, to refine their writing. In other words, the writers self-assess their drafts, identify areas for improvement, and make revisions based on reflections.

In another view on the process of the review element, cognitive theory places significant emphasis on metacognition, which involves thinking about one's thinking processes (Dewey,1933). This principle finds resonance in the review element of Flower and Hayes' writing model, which encompasses reviewing, evaluating, and revising written work. Writers engage in metacognitive processes by critically evaluating their work, identifying errors, and making revisions. Through this process, students can understand the benefits of each step in the process of review element in their work. This aligns seamlessly with cognitive theory's emphasis on metacognition and self-assessment. Writers actively monitor and adjust their cognitive processes, contemplating their writing strategies and applying revisions based on their evaluation. Besides, self-assessment in learning writing closely aligns with Piaget's (1985) view, allowing students to take an active role in evaluating their progress and constructing their understanding of their writing skill. Through self-assessment, students engage in critical reflection, identifying strengths and weaknesses in writing and making informed decisions for improvement. Thus, self-assessment becomes a potent tool for students to construct knowledge actively and deepen their comprehension of writing skill.

In addition to the theory of cognition, constructivist theory significantly influences the writing process and self-assessment by emphasizing active knowledge construction and personal meaning-making. As highlighted by Dewey (1933) and Vygotsky (1978), constructivist theory posits that learners construct knowledge through social interactions and meaningful experiences within their learning environment. In the writing process,

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learners actively construct meaning as they make informed decisions, establish connections between ideas, and create a coherent composition. This dynamic process mirrors the active knowledge construction central to constructivist theory. Furthermore, Piaget (1985) emphasized that learners create personal meaning by integrating new information with their existing knowledge. Students draw upon their prior knowledge and experiences to comprehend the writing task, infusing their compositions with individual perspectives. This approach aligns with constructivist principles, emphasizing the significance of individual meaning-making.

Vygotsky's (1978) concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) underscored the effectiveness of learning within a learner's ZPD. In the writing process, teachers can facilitate learning by providing scaffolding, such as self-assessment checklists, to help students enhance their writing skill and self-assessment ability. This is optimized when individuals are actively engaged in tasks just beyond their current capabilities.

Self-assessment is integral to the writing process, prompting writers to reflect on their choices and improve their communication skills. Through self-assessment, writers construct their understanding of their work, exploring both their strengths and weaknesses. Vygotsky's (1978) ideas support the integration of self-assessment in writing education, emphasizing its pivotal role in fostering independent learning. Additionally, constructivism advocates for student autonomy, encouraging individual expression and creativity, thereby enhancing students' writing skills (Mahmud, 2013). Mahmud's work highlights the significance of integrating learners’ prior knowledge with new information to enrich their learning outcomes.

However, it is important to note that cognitive and constructivist theories may have limitations in understanding writing self-assessment, especially within specific contexts like Vietnam's higher education. Socio-cultural and contextual factors, which may extend beyond individual cognitive processes, influence self-assessment practices. The practical implementation of self-assessment strategies can be intricate, demanding careful scaffolding and guidance from instructors. Addressing these limitations is crucial in both research and instructional design, particularly in a specific educational context such as Vietnam.

<b>2.1.2. Metacognition theory </b>

Metacognition theory, extensively explored in psychological and educational literature, refers to learners' ability to monitor, assess, and regulate cognitive strategies to improve their performance (Flavell, 1979; Lee & Mak, 2018). These strategies involve conscious control over cognitive processes, including self-assessing comprehension, estimating self-efficacy, organizing tasks, managing time, and transitioning between

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learning activities (McMillan & Hearn, 2008). In the context of EFL writing, these processes are essential for students to engage in self-assessment. This includes monitoring their understanding of writing prompts, estimating task comprehension, setting writing objectives, and managing the various phases of the writing process (e.g., planning, drafting, revising, and editing). Consciously controlling these cognitive processes empowers students to actively self-assess their writing, identify specific strengths and weaknesses, and enhance their work, thus taking ownership of their learning.

Metacognition theory carries profound implications for education, particularly in students' self-assessment. It underscores the importance of teaching students to reflect on their thinking and develop metacognitive strategies for learning (Flavell, 1979; Lee & Mak, 2018). Encouraging students to engage in self-assessment and reflect on their thinking aligns with metacognition's principles of monitoring and regulating cognitive processes. Self-assessment empowers students to take charge of their learning, define their learning goals, and monitor their progress toward those objectives, aligning with metacognition's emphasis on self-regulated learning and activities such as planning, monitoring, and self-assessment.

Remarkably, metacognitive knowledge pertains to learners' cognitive processes and factors influencing learning, including motivation, beliefs, and self-efficacy (Flavell, 1979; Schunk, 2012; Wenden, 1998). Among these factors, self-efficacy significantly influences students' perceptions of self-assessment. It encompasses their beliefs regarding their overall capacity, knowledge, and ability to accurately assess their

<i>skills. For instance, students might express their confidence by saying, "I assume that I can..." or "I think I can do well in...” or “I think my strengths are...". </i>

On the other hand, metacognitive strategies refer to students' abilities to regulate cognitive processes, including monitoring, adjusting, reflecting, and contemplating the self-assessment process (Zhang, 2010). Essentially, students use metacognitive strategies to monitor and self-assess their learning objectives. They focus on their learning goals and develop strategies relevant to their self-assessment activities (Suskie, 2018). By engaging in these practices, students gain a comprehensive understanding of

<i>the benefits and values of self-assessment. For example, they might express, "I find that learning with self-assessment allows me to..." or "I realize that self-assessment encourages me to...". Consequently, metacognitive strategies play a critical role in </i>

helping learners comprehend the advantages and significance of learning through assessment, as they utilize their strategic knowledge to attain cognitive objectives in their learning activities.

self-Moreover, metacognition can help students become effective problem-solvers through a self-assessment process (Lee & Mak, 2018; Schunk, 2012). Self-assessment

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encourages students to identify their ability, analyze their learning strategies, and make necessary adjustments. This enhances their understanding of the subject matter and equips them with skills to address complex problems and adapt their learning approaches. Fostering metacognitive strategies through self-assessment prepares students for lifelong learning.

In conclusion, metacognition significantly contributes to learners' understanding of the benefits, values, and self-efficacy associated with self-assessment. Metacognitive strategies empower students to think about their learning processes, make informed assessments, and enhance their writing skill. By being metacognitively aware, students can become more skillful writers and actively contribute to their learning and development.

<b>2.1.3. Reflection theory </b>

In learning writing, reflection theory plays a significant role in students' assessment. Engaging in reflective practices, students can deepen their understanding, develop critical thinking skills, and improve their writing abilities.

self-Reflection theory, as emphasized by Dewey’s (1933) work, underscores the significance of thoughtful consideration, problem-solving, and the development of one's thinking. Dewey's perspective on reflection theory aligns seamlessly with the process of self-assessment in learning writing. This implies that students engage in thoughtful consideration of their writing practices, enabling them to critically analyze their work and make informed decisions about their writing strategies through reflection. For instance, when focusing on problem-solving, students are able to identify specific challenges they encounter during the writing process and develop strategies to address them. Moreover, reflection theory emphasizes the growth of learners’ thinking, encouraging students to self-assess their writing from multiple perspectives and consider alternative approaches. This reflective practice not only enhances students' writing skill but also cultivates their ability to engage in metacognition, enabling them to monitor, self-assess, and adjust their writing strategies based on their self-assessment. Overall, reflection theory plays a fundamental role in students' self-assessment in learning writing, empowering them to become active participants in their learning process.

Emphasizing the role of self-assessment in the writing classroom, Dewey (1933) argued that reflection cultivates students' perception of the value of interpersonal communication in the learning process. Through self-assessment, for example, students engage in critical thinking about their writing, considering feedback from peers and teachers. This active engagement with others fosters collaboration, peer learning, and the exchange of ideas. Students develop an understanding that their writing skills can be

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enriched through diverse perspectives and constructive dialogue.

Moreover, reflecting on their essays and the works of others, students develop an appreciation for the social nature of learning, recognizing that knowledge is co-constructed through interactions with peers and teachers. In addition to promoting social interactions, self-assessment in the writing classroom also nurtures students' sense of responsibility for their own learning. Through reflection, students take ownership of their writing process, as they self-assess their strengths and areas for improvement. Self-assessment prompts students to set specific goals, monitor their progress, and make adjustments accordingly. Actively engaging in self-assessment, students become aware of their own learning needs and take responsibility for seeking appropriate strategies to enhance their writing skills. This sense of ownership fosters intrinsic motivation, self-directed learning, and a growth mindset.

In short, reflection theory plays a significant role in students' self-assessment in learning writing. Rooted in Dewey's perspective, reflection theory encourages students to engage in thoughtful consideration of their writing practices, enabling them to critically analyze their writing work and make informed decisions about their writing strategies. Through reflection, students can identify specific challenges, seek alternative approaches, and monitor their progress, ultimately fostering critical thinking skills, metacognition, and intrinsic motivation in the writing classroom. Moreover, self-assessment promotes collaboration, peer learning, and a sense of responsibility for one's own learning process, emphasizing the social nature of knowledge construction and empowering students to become active participants in their learning process.

<b>2.1.4. Self-assessment in autonomous and self-regulated learning </b>

<i><b>2.1.4.1. Definitions of self-assessment </b></i>

On defining self-assessment, Andrade (2019) pointed out that it was surprisingly difficult to clearly define “self-assessment” because self-assessment involves various activities, like predicting students’ test results, using a rubric or checklist to diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses, writing reflective journals, and more. Each of those tasks has a unique sort of assessment and function; therefore, they may lead to confusion between these forms and the concept of self-assessment. In addition, numerous terms have been used interchangeably to describe the process of students’ assessment and reflection on their own learning, including notable terms such as “self-assessment”, “self-reflection”, “self-monitoring”, and “self-evaluation”. Significantly, a process of students’ self-rating, self-grading, self-testing, and self-judging can be seen as forms of self-assessment. These terms can occasionally create ambiguity when it comes to self-assessment.

Harris and McCann (1994) highlighted that self-assessment is the way students

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self-assess their learning process and problems and then look for ways of changing, adapting, and improving. This perspective emphasizes the idea of individualism in a process of learning that students themselves self-judge their learning progress and improve in isolation. In contrast to Harris and McCann (1994), Boud (1991) argued that self-assessment is not just an individualistic activity or a learning process of a learner, but involves many learners. Boud (1991, p.12) defined self-assessment as “the involvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and making judgments about the extent to which they have met these criteria and standards.” In other words, Boud (1991) believed the conceptualization of self-assessment involves learners collaborating in assessing their work during the process of learning. This collaborative approach aligns with the notion of autonomous learning, where students take ownership of their learning process and engage in self-assessment within a social context such as seeking feedback or information from a variety of sources on a regular basis.

From another perspective, Gregory et al. (2011) emphasized the importance of reflection on performance in self-assessment processes. Their definition underscores students' reflection on the quality of their work and their assessment of its reflectivity against explicitly stated goals or criteria. This reflective aspect is fundamental to self-regulated learning, as it enables students to monitor their progress, identify areas for improvement, and revise their work accordingly.

Brown and Harris (2013, p.3) defined self-assessment as "a process of the evaluative and descriptive act carried out by students regarding their tasks and abilities." This aligns with Brown's (2003) view of self-assessment as a process of self-assessment, wherein students evaluate and monitor their performance against identified criteria. Zimmerman (2000) described self-assessment as a process of self-observation and self-judgment, involving tracking specific aspects of performance, conditions, and effects, and judging performance against criteria or standards. These definitions highlight the importance of reflection, evaluation, and judgment in self-assessment processes.

Notably, Andrade and Du (2007, p.3) defined self-assessment as

"a process of formative assessment during which students reflect on and evaluate the quality of their work and their learning, judge the degree to which they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, identify strengths and weakness in their work, and revise."

This definition is in line with the principles of learner-centered education. According to Andrade and Du's definition, self-assessment embodies the learner-centered approach by placing the learner at the center of the formative assessment process. It empowers students to reflect on the quality of their work, assess their

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progress, and identify areas for improvement based on their own understanding of the goals and criteria. Students become active participants in their own learning, fostering a sense of autonomy, self-perception, and metacognitive skills when engaging in self-assessment. This supports the development of lifelong learners who can self-regulate, adapt, and continuously improve their knowledge and skills.

In summary, the aforementioned definitions and concepts of self-assessment underscored the significance of autonomous and self-regulated learning. The statements provided by different authors emphasized the involvement of reflection, evaluation, judgment, and goal-oriented assessment within self-assessment processes. Engaging in self-assessment, students become active participants in their learning process, seeking feedback, and making adjustments to improve their learning.

<i><b>2.1.4.2. Autonomous language learning </b></i>

The concept of autonomous learning, emphasizing self-directed learning, has gained significant attention in educational contexts. Scholars have stressed the pivotal role of self-assessment in fostering autonomous learning among students. According to Benson (2009), Gardner (2000), and Smith (2018), learner-centered education equips students with essential skills such as self-assessment, decision-making, and problem-solving, empowering them to take control of their learning. Self-assessment promotes autonomous learning, enabling students to actively assess their progress, reflect on their strengths and areas for improvement, and make informed decisions about their learning strategies. This process cultivates a sense of ownership and independence, allowing students to tailor their learning experiences to their unique needs and goals. Through self-assessment, learners develop metacognitive awareness, enhancing their ability to monitor their progress and make necessary adjustments.

The relationship between self-assessment and learner autonomy has been additionally emphasized by Gardner (2000) and Holec (1981). Autonomous learners, as Gardner argued, are responsible for monitoring their progress, with self-assessment playing a pivotal role in reflection and progress monitoring. Holec similarly highlighted that self-assessment is crucial for learners to reflect on their progress and monitor their development. Both perspectives underscore that self-assessment empowers students to critically assess their performance, identify areas for improvement, and make necessary adjustments, fostering self-awareness, metacognitive skills, and a deeper understanding of the learning process.

Additionally, Gholami (2016) further delved into the advantages of assessment for independent learners, considering it a self-monitoring tool providing instant feedback on language proficiency and learning strategy effectiveness. Gardner (2010) supported this perspective, stating that self-assessment enables learners to

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personalize their learning, reflect on strengths and weaknesses, monitor progress, and engage in metacognitive processes. These insights highlight the benefits of self-assessment in promoting learner autonomy by enabling personalized learning and metacognitive engagement.

Overall, the close relationship between self-assessment and learner autonomy is evident in their shared focus on learner-centeredness and independent learning. Benson (2009) and Gardner (2000) emphasized the learner-centered nature of both concepts, highlighting the active role of students in their learning process. This learner-centered approach contributes to the development of lifelong learning skills as learners become more independent and self-directed in their educational journey.

<i><b>2.1.4.3. Self-regulated learning </b></i>

Pintrich (2000) defined self-regulated learning as the process where students establish objectives for their learning and actively monitor, adjust, and manage their thoughts, motivation, and actions to achieve these objectives. Pintrich’s definition is strongly supported by contemporary educational psychology and empirical research, particularly within cognitive theory and social constructivism. Self-regulated learning underscores the active involvement of learners in their educational process, which includes goal setting, metacognition, motivation, and adaptable strategies. Research, including studies by Panadero et al. (2016) and Zimmerman and Schunk (2011), consistently reveals a positive correlation between self-regulated learning and academic achievement. In essence, Pintrich's definition encapsulates the core elements of self-regulated learning, highlighting the pivotal role of active engagement and goal-oriented metacognition in shaping learning outcomes.

Significant conceptual and practical overlap exists between self-assessment and self-regulated learning within educational literature. Boud (2013) emphasized that both self-assessment and self-regulated learning revolve around how students perceive the quality of their work during the learning process. Brown (2003) further solidified the alignment by underlining their shared goal of encouraging students to critically assess their progress. Essentially, these perspectives underscore that both self-assessment and self-regulated learning foster metacognitive skills, enabling students to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses. This interconnection highlights their collective focus on student engagement, reflection, and assessment of the learning process.

Furthermore, the literature consistently highlights self-assessment as a pivotal component of self-regulated learning. Andrade and Brookhart (2016) offered evidence of the link between self-assessment and learning, suggesting that self-regulated learners set objectives, monitor their progress, and adapt strategies to achieve their goals. This aligns with Zimmerman and Schunk's (2004) viewpoint that self-assessment serves as a

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tool for monitoring self-regulated learning development. This correlation underscores the significance of self-assessment in cultivating learners' metacognitive skills and self-directed learning.

The correlation between self-assessment and Zimmerman's (2013) three-phase model is evident in its framework for understanding self-assessment. This model, rooted in social construction and reflection theory, comprises three distinct phases within the self-regulation cycle: Forethought, Performance or Volitional Control, and Self-Reflection. The current study adopts Zimmerman's self-regulated learning model (Figure 2.1), showcasing the integration of these three cyclical phases and emphasizing self-assessment's pivotal role in each stage of the learning process.

The Forethought phase, the initial stage of self-regulated learning, plays a crucial role in shaping students' approach to a task, involving task analysis and self-motivation beliefs. During this phase, students analyze the task, set goals, and formulate a plan, taking into account task requirements, standards, and success strategies. Self-regulated students engage in self-assessment, identifying areas for improvement and enhancing their learning. Alongside task analysis, students' self-motivation beliefs are pivotal in the

<b>FORETHOUGHT </b>

<b> Task analysis </b>

- Goal setting - Strategic planning

<b> Self-motivation beliefs </b>

- Self-efficacy

- Outcome expectations - Intrinsic value

<b>- Goal orientation </b>

<b>PERFORMANCE </b>

<b> Self-control </b>

- Self-instruction - Imagery

- Attention focusing - Task strategies

<b> Self-observation </b>

- Self-recording - Self-experimentation

<b>SELF-REFLECTION </b>

<b> Self-judgment </b>

- Self-evaluation - Casual attribution

<b> Self-reaction </b>

- Self-satisfaction /affect - Adaptive-defensive

<i><b>Figure.2.1. Cyclical phases of self-regulated learning. Adapted from Zimmerman (2013, </b></i>

<i>p.16) </i>

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self-regulated process, emphasizing their perception of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, intrinsic value, and goal orientation. Fostering a positive perception of self-efficacy in this phase is essential for promoting self-assessment and facilitating students' learning development.

The Performance or Volitional Control phase, the second stage of self-regulated learning, centers on students' self-control and self-observation. In this phase, students exercise self-control through techniques such as self-instruction, imagery, attention focusing, and task strategies. These strategies regulate cognitive and behavioral processes, enabling focused learning and effective management. Self-observation is equally important, involving activities like self-recording and self-experimentation. Students gain valuable insights into their learning process, identifying areas for improvement by monitoring their progress and performance. This phase occurs during the learning process, allowing students to actively engage in self-monitoring and employ effective learning management strategies, optimizing performance and learning outcomes.

The Self-Reflection phase, the third stage of regulated learning, involves judgment and self-reaction. Students evaluate their task performance, attributing success or failure and reacting emotionally. Self-judgment entails critical self-evaluation and causal attribution analysis. Self-reaction encompasses emotional and affective responses, alongside the adoption of adaptive or defensive strategies based on performance. During this phase, students reflect on factors that influenced their task approach, contemplating how to enhance future performance. Importantly, this self-reflection phase serves as a bridge back to the Forethought phase, where insights inform goal-setting, planning, and strategies for subsequent learning endeavors.

self-Zimmerman's (2013) self-regulated learning model encompasses three distinct phases integral to students' self-assessment perceptions and practices. The Forethought phase initiates the learning process, with students analyzing tasks and assessing their self-efficacy, influencing motivation and perception. The Performance or Volitional Control phase emphasizes self-control and self-observation, employing strategies for focused learning and effective management. Self-observation allows for progress monitoring and adjustments. Finally, the Self-Reflection phase involves self-judgment and self-reaction, encouraging critical evaluation and emotional response. This phase serves as a connection to the Forethought phase, enabling students to refine goals, plans, and strategies. Together, these phases underscore the importance of self-assessment in self-regulated learning, fostering student growth and success.

<b>2.2. Assessment in foreign language education </b>

This section provides an integrative review of assessment methods and their

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significance in foreign language education, specifically exploring various aspects of assessment within the context of higher education. Formative assessment, which includes teacher assessment, self-assessment as a primary strategy, and peer assessment, is a key focus. It also reviews the interconnections between self-assessment, peer assessment, and teacher assessment. Additionally, the section addresses the role of self-assessment in summative assessment, demonstrating how it can serve as a valuable tool for evaluating student performance at the end of a learning period.

<b>2.2.1. Formative assessment </b>

<i><b>2.2.1.1. Teacher assessment </b></i>

Teacher assessment or feedback plays a critical role in formative assessment practices, where the focus is on improving students' learning process. The significance of teacher feedback in classroom assessments highlights its value in providing informative insights, enhancing student learning, promoting learner autonomy, and developing students’ self-assessment skills.

In contrast to the traditional approach that primarily relies on using grades as feedback indicators of students’ achievement, a significant shift has focussed towards process-related assessment, which involves providing direct feedback to students for self-correction. This change recognizes the importance of ongoing assessment and feedback in supporting student learning. In this context, the role of teacher feedback has become vital (Andrade, 2013; Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Lee, 2017). Providing constructive feedback, teachers act as constructivists, igniting students' active engagement in the learning process and unlocking the full potential of assessments to improve students’ learning. Teacher feedback in formative assessment aligns with research that highlighted the valuable role of constructive feedback in promoting students’ growth and development (Lee, 2017). It empowers teachers to guide students effectively, providing them with specific guidance and actionable suggestions for improvement. Ultimately, the integration of formative feedback maximizes the potential of assessments to foster continuous learning and drive positive educational development.

Teacher feedback holds significant value as it serves as an information-seeking process that enhances students' learning opportunities (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Lee, 2017). Teachers often create a learning environment where students can actively engage with their learning by offering constructive feedback and guidance. This feedback-oriented approach allows students to receive specific insights into their learning process, enabling them to make necessary adjustments and improvements. It means that these valuable learning opportunities support students' overall growth and development. The value of teacher

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feedback in enhancing students' learning opportunities lies in its ability to provide targeted guidance and promote continuous improvement, fostering a more effective and meaningful learning experience.

Moreover, teacher assessment plays a central role in formative assessment, serving the dual purpose of facilitating learning improvement and fostering learner autonomy (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Harlen & Gardner, 2010; Lee, 2017). Through the provision of feedback, teachers can provide valuable insights and guidance to their students, enabling them to identify areas for improvement and make necessary adjustments in their learning process. This feedback-oriented approach not only promotes learning improvement but also empowers students to take ownership of their learning process. In such a dynamic environment, students often develop metacognitive skills, reflect on their learning strategies, and become more self-regulated learners. Teacher feedback thus acts as a catalyst for both learning improvement and the development of learner autonomy, allowing students to take an active role in their education and become more independent and self-directed in their learning.

Finally, teacher assessment plays an important role in equipping students with self-assessment skills and empowering them to become self-regulated learners. As Andrade and Cizek (2010) pointed out that teacher feedback promotes students' active engagement in the learning process and maximizes the potential of assessment for improving learning. This perspective highlights the potential value of teacher feedback in promoting student involvement and enhancing learning. Teachers guide their students toward achieving their learning goals by providing targeted feedback. This aligns with Lee's (2017) view that teacher feedback is an information-seeking process that optimizes students' learning opportunities. The act of receiving feedback from teachers enables students to reflect on their own performance, identify areas of improvement, and develop self-assessment skills. It is through this iterative process of feedback and reflection that students become more self-regulated in their learning. Lee (2017) and Brown (2003) further emphasized the transformative power of teacher feedback, stating that it empowers students to become autonomous learners. Internalizing the feedback received, students become more self-directed and take responsibility for their own learning process. The values of teacher assessment, therefore, extend beyond academic achievement and contribute to the holistic development of students as self-regulated learners capable of lifelong learning.

<i><b>2.2.1.2. Self-assessment as a key strategy of formative assessment </b></i>

In recent years, a significant shift has occurred in classroom assessment practices within higher education, placing a growing emphasis on formative assessment. Formative assessment is globally recognized as a potent method for evaluating the effectiveness of

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teaching and learning (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Brookhart, 2011; Lee, 2017). Within the framework of formative assessment, self-assessment assumes a crucial role in promoting student engagement, metacognition, and self-regulated learning.

Andrade and Brown (2016), along with Brown and Harris (2013), emphasized the importance of self-assessment in formative assessment, asserting that it empowers students to actively monitor and reflect on their own learning progress. This recognition underscores the empowering nature of self-assessment, allowing students to exercise greater control over their learning and take responsibility for their academic growth. As a result, students develop a deeper self-perception of their strengths and weaknesses, thereby facilitating purposeful and personalized learning experiences. Similarly, Bennett (2011) and Brookhart (2011) acknowledged the significance of self-assessment within formative assessment, affirming that it cultivates metacognitive abilities and enhances students' perceptions of their own learning process. This perspective aligns with the idea that self-assessment fosters metacognition, enabling students to reflect on their learning approaches, identify areas requiring enhancement, and make appropriate adaptations. Engaging in the self-assessment process nurtures students' self-perception and instills a sense of responsibility for their learning trajectory.

Butler (2016) and Race (2020) also underscored the role of self-assessment in formative assessment, asserting that it nurtures students' autonomy and accountability for their learning. This perspective highlights the transformative impact of self-assessment, empowering students to become self-regulated learners. Self-assessment empowers students to assume control of their learning by setting goals, monitoring progress, and making informed decisions to enhance their learning outcomes. Moreover, the role of self-assessment in formative assessment finds further support from Irons (2008) and Parr and Timperley (2010), who suggested that self-assessment maximizes the potential of classroom assessment to enhance students' learning. Self-assessment activities encourage students to actively engage with content, reflect on their learning, and develop a deeper understanding of their capabilities and growth areas. This process contributes to a more student-centered and learner-driven educational approach.

In short, the integration of formative assessment practices in higher education highlights the crucial role of self-assessment in promoting student engagement, metacognition, and self-regulated learning. Studies by Andrade, Brookhart, and Butler collectively emphasize that self-assessment empowers students to monitor progress, reflect on learning, and take ownership of their academic journey, fostering metacognitive abilities and autonomy. This enhances students' perceptions of their

<i><b>learning process and supports a more student-centered educational paradigm. </b></i>

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<i><b>2.2.1.3. Peer assessment </b></i>

Peer assessment has emerged as a valuable strategy within formative assessment, providing students with feedback and promoting active engagement in the learning process. Also known as peer feedback, peer evaluation, or peer editing, it holds immense value and plays a pivotal role in enhancing students' learning and self-assessment skills.

Peer assessment is widely acknowledged as a potent source for enriching students' learning experiences and fostering autonomy and self-regulation. This perspective is substantiated by prominent researchers in the field (Boud, 2013; Brown, 2003; Lee, 2017; Race, 2011; Topping, 2013) who have explored the impact of peer assessment on student development. Through peer assessment, students actively participate in the evaluation and feedback process, leading to a deeper grasp of the subject matter. Assessing their peers' work, students are exposed to diverse perspectives and alternative approaches, which broadens their knowledge base and hones their critical thinking skills. Moreover, peer assessment empowers students to take charge of their learning by encouraging them to be active contributors to the assessment process. Providing constructive feedback to their peers enhances students' ability to self-assess their own work and identify areas for improvement. This self-assessment process contributes to their growth as independent learners, as they become proficient in setting goals, monitoring their progress, and assuming responsibility for their learning process. Ultimately, peer assessment emerges as a potent tool that enhances students' learning processes while nurturing autonomy and self-regulation skills.

Participation in peer assessment offers compelling justifications for its value in educational settings. Firstly, it refines students' judgment and self-assessment skills, as emphasized by Topping (2013). Critically assessing their peers' work deepens students' understanding of assessment criteria and standards, refining their ability to make informed judgments about their own work's quality and effectiveness. This assessment process encourages self-perception and reflection, enabling students to more accurately pinpoint their strengths and areas for improvement. Secondly, engaging in peer assessment motivates students to take an active role in the group work process. This approach encourages them to participate actively in the learning community, contributing to a collective understanding of the subject matter. This collaborative approach fosters meaningful interactions and discussions among peers, resulting in heightened comprehension and the exchange of diverse perspectives. Lastly, peer assessment promotes students' responsibility for their own learning. The assessment process, combined with providing feedback to peers, encourages students to assume ownership over their progress and growth. They develop a sense of accountability for their learning journey and take on the task of monitoring and enhancing their own work.

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It's important to note that peer assessment serves not only as a tool for assessing learning but also as a valuable means of facilitating formative assessment and promoting students' self-assessment abilities, as highlighted by Topping (2013).

<i><b>2.2.1.4. Relationship among self-, peer, and teacher assessment </b></i>

In contemporary educational contexts, self-, peer-, and teacher assessments have emerged as essential components of formative assessment practices. While each approach has distinct characteristics, they share common objectives of improving student learning and promoting autonomy. This review aims to elucidate the relationship among these assessment methods, emphasizing their role in developing self-regulated and autonomous learners.

The interconnectedness of self-assessment, teacher assessment, and peer assessment plays a vital role in fostering self-regulated and autonomous learning. According to Lee (2017), self-assessment enables students to reflect on their learning process, identify areas for improvement, and take control of their learning process. This aligns with the idea that self-assessment empowers learners to assume ownership of their learning. Similarly, Andrade (2013) emphasized the significance of teacher assessment in formative assessment, noting that teachers, through specific guidance and actionable suggestions, facilitate students' active engagement and responsibility for their learning. This feedback-oriented approach enhances metacognitive skills and encourages self-reflection. Additionally, Nielsen (2011) and Topping (2013) highlighted the importance of peer assessment, which promotes active participation, critical thinking, and exposure to diverse perspectives, ultimately fostering deeper comprehension. Peer assessment also helps students develop self-assessment skills as they evaluate the quality of their own work in comparison to their peers. Integrating these assessment methods collectively maximizes their impact on self-regulated and autonomous learning, creating a supportive and empowering learning environment for students.

Feedback from teachers and peers can help students find appropriate solutions for challenges in self-assessment practices. This is supported by research in the field. Earl (2003) emphasized the role of formative feedback from both teachers and peers in guiding students toward effective self-assessment. This feedback provides valuable insights and suggestions that help students overcome challenges and improve their self-assessment practices. Additionally, Race (2020) highlighted the importance of student-centered learning, where feedback from multiple sources contributes to a comprehensive understanding of self-assessment. Topping (2013) and Weigle (2009) further supported the idea that formative feedback fosters problem-solving skills in self-assessment by exposing students to alternative strategies and successful examples.

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Overall, the interconnectedness of these assessment approaches maximizes their impact on student learning, facilitating the development of self-regulated and autonomous learners. This can help students navigate challenges and find appropriate solutions in their self-assessment practices.

<b>2.2.2. Self-assessment for summative purposes </b>

Summative assessment, a traditional method of evaluating students' learning outcomes, has long been a fundamental element of educational systems worldwide (Brown & Harris, 2013; Earl, 2003). One significant criticism of summative assessment is its focus on end results rather than the learning process itself. Placing excessive importance on final grades or scores, summative assessment often fails to capture the complete picture of a student's learning progression. It overlooks the progress students make throughout their learning journey and neglects to provide meaningful feedback for enhancement. This narrow focus on outcomes can foster a fixed mindset and diminish students' intrinsic motivation to learn. For instance, in writing assignments, the main attention is often directed towards written outputs, tests, and feedback based on scores, both for educators and students (Brookhart, 2013; Harris & McCann, 1994; Weigle, 2009). The test results serve as proof of passing a test, semester, or course, and meeting other requirements in various contexts. This approach might lead to a situation where students are more concerned about whether they "passed" or "failed" an exam, rather than identifying their strengths and weaknesses. When writing assessments are conducted in this manner, students may miss out on reflecting on their learning process and assessing the quality of their work, as identifying limitations for improvement becomes too late, preventing them from gaining valuable experience for future writing endeavors.

Moreover, delayed feedback from summative assessments has been identified as a significant impediment to students' ability to enhance their work promptly. Hattie and Timperley (2007) argued that feedback is most effective when provided during the learning process rather than after its completion. Timely feedback enables students to engage in reflection, identify areas for enhancement, and make progress. Without prompt feedback, students might struggle to learn from their mistakes and effectively develop their skills. The significance of timely feedback lies in its role in facilitating reflection, enabling students to identify errors and misconceptions, maintaining motivation and engagement, and fostering an iterative process of improvement. When feedback is delayed, students miss out on these opportunities, which compromises their learning and growth. Therefore, the provision of timely feedback is crucial for empowering students to reflect on their performance, make necessary adjustments, and enrich their overall learning experience.

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Self-assessment, as a measurement technique, assumes a substantial role in the learning process for evaluating students' comprehension of their knowledge (Bhatti & Nimehchisalem, 2020; Butler & Lee, 2010). It is worth noting that self-assessment can also function as a form of summative assessment, involving the use of scores, such as students' self-assigned grades or comparing their self-evaluations to their teachers' assessments (Andrade, 2019; Ashton, 2014; Babaii et al., 2016; Belachew et al., 2015). Previous studies primarily focused on comparing scores provided by students and teachers using rubrics or checklists. Nevertheless, these studies have indicated that students tend to either overestimate or underestimate their scores in comparison to their instructors' evaluations (Butler & Lee, 2010; Ratminingsih et al., 2018; Sahragard & Mallahi, 2014; Yilmaz, 2017). Despite occasional disparities between teachers' and students' grades, most studies reported that students maintain a positive view of self-assessment (Javaherbakhsh, 2010; Ratminingsih et al., 2018), acknowledge improvements in writing quality (Johnson & ShellyGelfand, 2013), and recognize its role in cultivating lifelong language learning skills, responsibility, and autonomy in

<b>writing (Oscarson, 2009). </b>

<b>2.3. Writing academic English and self-assessment in EFL writing </b>

<i><b>2.3.1. Writing academic English </b></i>

In the domain of learning to write in academic English, the skill of effective academic writing holds paramount importance. Proficiency in academic writing extends beyond mere expression of ideas; it demands a profound comprehension of the specific conventions, structures, and language nuances that characterize academic discourse. Students who master this skill gain a competitive advantage in their studies and future careers. Moreover, learners recognize the significance of honing their expertise in academic writing and underscore key elements such as essay coherence, logical organization, unity, paragraph and essay structure, paragraph development, and sentence-level accuracy. Additionally, the emphasis here is to delineate the stages of the writing process, encompassing prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing, which is indispensable for students to refine their written work and generate high-caliber academic texts.

In academic writing, students need to delve deep into the specific conventions, structures, and language intricacies that define academic discourse. Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006) along with Oshima and Hogue (2006) underscored the significance of grasping the distinct attributes and anticipations of academic writing. Oshima and Hogue proposed that academic writing entails its own set of conventions, such as a formal tone, objective language, and the utilization of citations, which students must adeptly wield to proficiently convey their ideas in an academic milieu. The adept use of

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precise language, appropriate vocabulary, and the skill to present arguments in a coherent and logical manner stand as pivotal competencies in academic writing (Davis & Liss, 2006; Hamp-Lyons, 2003; Hedge, 2005). These invaluable components empower students to craft written pieces that adhere to the benchmarks and expectations of academic discourse.

The acquisition of proficiency in academic writing is widely recognized by learners as a pivotal facet in the writing learning process. They appreciate the importance of mastering key elements that contribute to effective academic writing, including essay coherence, logical organization, unity, paragraph and essay structure, paragraph development, and sentence-level accuracy. These writing attributes are buttressed by research findings and academic experts. Highlighting the importance of essay organization, scholars such as Hamp-Lyons (2003), Oshima and Hogue (2006), and Weigle (2009) argued that a well-structured essay demonstrates coherence and unity. In such essays, every sentence and paragraph collaboratively contributes to the overall development of ideas. Moreover, Davis and Liss (2006) underscored the crucial nature of sentence-level accuracy, highlighting that precise sentence-level construction is pivotal for lucidly and effectively conveying ideas in academic writing. These perspectives underscore learners' recognition and emphasis on the pivotal elements requisite for adept academic writing.

Lastly, outlining the phases of the writing process - prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing - is pivotal for students to refine their written compositions and create high-caliber academic texts. These phases proffer a systematic approach to writing, enabling students to nurture their ideas, structure their thoughts, and enhance the lucidity and coherence of their writing. Researchers and educators alike acknowledge the significance of these phases within the writing process. Underscoring the import of prewriting, Oshima and Hogue (2006) and Weigle (2009) asserted that prewriting aids students in idea generation, thought organization, and establishing a clear trajectory for their writing. Similarly, Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006) accentuated the value of revision, noting that revision constitutes the keystone for transforming a draft into a polished and cohesive written piece. These elements underscore the indispensable role of the writing process phases in guiding students to refine their written work and fabricate top-tier academic compositions.

<b>2.3.2. Self-assessment in EFL writing classrooms </b>

Self-assessment holds a valuable role in EFL writing classes, providing notable benefits and values to students' learning and writing skill development. This section will particularly emphasize the role, benefits and values of self-assessment in EFL writing within higher education, highlighting its impact on writing skill and its ability to

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empower students in terms of autonomy, responsibility, and reflection.

<i><b>2.3.2.1. Self-assessment in writing skill </b></i>

In the realm of EFL classrooms, self-assessment stands as a cornerstone for refining writing skill. It empowers students in multifaceted ways: firstly, by leveraging their existing knowledge, encompassing their understanding of writing techniques, grammar rules, and vocabulary. This involves harnessing their prior learning to enhance their writing prowess. Secondly, it cultivates the ability to apply effective writing strategies - methods tried and tested. Through self-assessment, students discern which strategies suit them best, enabling them to adeptly apply these techniques in their writing tasks. Thirdly, self-assessment prompts students to meticulously analyze their writing, identifying specific areas such as sentence structure, coherence, or vocabulary usage that require enhancement. This critical evaluation directs their focus to precise areas demanding more practice and attention. Lastly, self-assessment entails active monitoring of one's learning journey. Students continuously evaluate their progress, celebrating their improvements and recognizing setbacks. This ongoing assessment equips them to make well-informed decisions about their learning strategies, pinpointing areas necessitating extra effort. Crucially, this reflective process endows students with ownership of their writing abilities and engages them in metacognitive reflection. By delving into their writing processes, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and consistently monitoring progress, students gain profound insights. This introspection fosters a detailed comprehension of their writing capacities, allowing for targeted growth. As emphasized by scholars like Andrade (2010) and Butler (2018), self-assessment activities in writing are not mere exercises; they are dynamic processes wherein students actively participate, reflecting deeply on their writing skill, identifying their areas of mastery, and vigilantly tracking their learning process toward proficiency.

The act of self-assessment always activates students' prior knowledge, enabling them to draw upon their existing understanding and skills while engaging in the writing process. By reflecting on their strengths and weaknesses, students gain insights into their writing abilities and identify areas for further development, especially in increasing students' perception of their self-efficacy of their writing skill. Earl (2003) also supported that self-assessment allows students to identify what they do well and what they need to work on. This self-perception drives students to employ appropriate writing strategies that align with their individual needs, fostering more effective and targeted writing practices.

Furthermore, self-assessment facilitates ongoing monitoring of the learning process, enabling students to track their progress and make necessary adjustments. Weigle (2009) highlighted the importance of self-assessment in writing as it helps students monitor and

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