The development of learner autonomy among vietnamese efl undergraduate students during their engagement in english language writing e portfolios

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY- HO CHI MINH CITY
UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNER AUTONOMY
AMONG VIETNAMESE EFL UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS DURING THEIR ENGAGEMENT IN
ENGLISH LANGUAGE WRITING E-PORTFOLIOS
A thesis submitted to
the Faculty of English Linguistics & Literature
in partial fulfilment
of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By
NGUYỄN NGỌC ANH TRANG

Supervised by
Đặng Tấn Tín, Ph.D.

HO CHI MINH CITY, MAY 2019


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my deepest appreciation and gratitude to my
supervisor, Dr. Đặng Tấn Tín, who has always been patient with me and supported me very
much with valuable insights and critical advice throughout the hardships of this thesis
journey. I am always grateful to him for always being very sympathetic, encouraging and
willing to guide me to be on the right track. Without his guidance, I would never have had
enough confidence to continue working on the thesis and reach this destination.
My sincere thanks go to my colleagues and big sisters, Ms. Đặng Thị Vân Di and
Ms. Lưu Nguyễn Hà Vy for their constant spiritual support during the time I was working

on my thesis. They always spared time to give me academic advice and shared useful
learning sources with me. Without their encouragement, I could not have completed this
thesis.
My grateful thanks also go to my teachers in Faculty of English Linguistics &
Literature, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University –
Ho Chi Minh City for their help in broadening my horizons. Especially, my big thanks go
to Dr. Phó Phương Dung. It is her devoted teaching and knowledge that inspired me to
come to the world of academics.
Furthermore, sincere thanks go to Ms. Nguyễn Kiều Yến Linh, Mr. Trần Duy
Khiêm, and other my TESOL friends for their spending time proofreading my thesis, and
willing to share invaluable sources. There were times I really wanted to give up, but they
were always by my side to cheer me up.
In addition, I owe a special debt to my colleagues for their willingness to share the
workload with me. Many thanks also go to the students who participated in this study. I
truly appreciate the time and effort they put in this study.

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Last but not least, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my family for their endless support
and encouragement throughout the course and the completion of this study. Their everlasting love, constant care and sacrifice have always been a great source of encouragement
for me to move ahead in my life.

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Development of Learner Autonomy among
Vietnamese EFL Undergraduate Students during Their Engagement in English Language
Writing e-Portfolios is the product of my own work.

The thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degrees or diplomas in any other
institutions.
The thesis’s content, except where clearly acknowledged within the text, has not been
published by other authors.
I hereby state that I approve the requirements of the University for the retention and use of
my thesis and that it is accessible for the purposes of study and research.
Ho Chi Minh City, May 2019
Nguyễn Ngọc Anh Trang

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RETENTION OF USE

I hereby state that I, Nguyễn Ngọc Anh Trang, being the candidate for the degree of Master
in TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of
Master’s Thesis deposited in the library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the originality of my thesis deposited in the library
should be accessible for the purpose of study and research, in accordance with the normal
conditions established by the library for the care, loan or reproduction of theses.
Ho Chi Minh City, May 2019

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ABSTRACT
Learner autonomy has been acknowledged to be a desirable educational goal. To date, quite
a few studies have been conducted to gain better insights into this phenomenon, particularly
in the Vietnamese context. However, very little research, in this context, has been found
that explores students’ development of learner autonomy during their participation in ePortfolios in English writing skills. Therefore, this study, which employs a qualitative case

study approach, is an attempt to explore the development of learner autonomy among eight
first-year English major students during their engagement in the English writing ePortfolios at a university in the South of Vietnam. The data used for this study were mainly
collected from the semi-structured interviews which were conducted after the Writing 2
course had finished. The findings of the study revealed how the students’ learner autonomy
were fostered in terms of three processes, namely Initiating, Monitoring and Evaluating
during their engagement in the English writing e-Portfolios in the Writing 2 course. The
findings from the interviews suggested that the students experienced positive changes in
their learning behaviours during the course, which demonstrated the developing process of
learner autonomy during the students’ engagement in the English writing e-Portfolios.
Nonetheless, not all the attributes in the three processes of learner autonomy were fully
developed. Certain reasons were recommended to contribute to the findings. Based on
these findings, the pedagogical implications and recommendations are made for further
studies in order to foster learner autonomy more in the field of teaching and learning
English writing skills.
Key words: learner autonomy, development, English language writing e-Portfolios,
writing skills

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ELT: English Language Teaching
ESL: English as a Second Language
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
FFL: Faculty of Foreign Languages
ICT: Information and Communication Technology
L2: second language
LMS: Learning Management System
ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Processes of learner autonomy ........................................................................ 18
Figure 2-2 Components of the writing e-Portfolios .......................................................... 32
Figure 2-3 Conceptual framework of the study ................................................................ 37
Figure 3-1 A snapshot of the writing e-Portfolio interface ............................................... 45
Figure 3-2 A snapshot of the interface of a student’s writing e-Portfolios on the platform
........................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 3-3 A snapshot of the interface of a student’s writing e-Portfolios on the platform
........................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 3-4 A snapshot of the interface of a student’s final submission ............................ 48
Figure 3-5 A snapshot of the interface of student’s reflections ........................................ 48

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Model of learner autonomy ............................................................................... 15
Table 2-2 Index of learner autonomy attributes in three processes .................................. 16
Table 2-3 Six types of e-Portfolios categorised by IMS Global Learning Consortium (2005)
........................................................................................................................................... 25
Table 3-1 Schedule for writing assignments on writing e-Portfolios ........................... 49-50

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. I

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY .............................................................................. III
RETENTION OF USE ....................................................................................................IV
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .........................................................................................VI
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... VII
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... VIII
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................... 1
1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ......................................................................... 1
1.2. AIM OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................... 4
1.3. THE RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................ 4
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 5
1.5. SCOPE OF THE STUDY .......................................................................................... 5
1.6. ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS ....................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 7
2.1. LEARNER AUTONOMY IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION .................................. 7
2.1.1. Definitions of learner autonomy ............................................................................ 7
2.1.2. Perspectives of learner autonomy .......................................................................... 9
2.1.2.1. Technical perspective of learner autonomy ................................................... 10
2.1.2.2. Psychological perspective of learner autonomy ............................................ 10
2.1.2.3. Socio-cultural perspective of autonomy ........................................................ 11
2.1.2.4. Political – critical perspective of learner autonomy ...................................... 12
2.1.3. Models of learner autonomy development........................................................... 13
2.1.4. Using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to foster learner
autonomy ........................................................................................................................ 18
2.2. E-PORTFOLIOS IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION ............................................... 21
2.2.1. Definitions of e-Portfolios.................................................................................... 23
2.2.2. Classification of e-Portfolios ............................................................................... 24
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2.2.3. Effects of e-Portfolios .......................................................................................... 27
2.2.4. Writing e-Portfolios ............................................................................................. 28
2.3. E-PORTFOLIOS AND LEARNER AUTONOMY .............................................. 33
2.4. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY ............................................. 36
2.5. SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 38
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN .............................................................................................. 38
3.1.1. Qualitative research paradigm ............................................................................. 38
3.1.2. Case study ............................................................................................................ 39
3.1.3. Researcher’s position ........................................................................................... 40
3.2. RESEARCH SITE .................................................................................................... 41
3.3. PARTICIPANTS ...................................................................................................... 42
3.4. INSTRUMENT ......................................................................................................... 43
3.5. PLATFORM AND DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS OF WRITING EPORTFOLIOS ................................................................................................................. 44
3.6. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE .................................................................. 50
3.7. DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE ......................................................................... 52
3.7.1. Data transcription ................................................................................................. 52
3.7.2. Data translation .................................................................................................... 52
3.7.3. Data coding and analysis ...................................................................................... 53
3.8. TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ....................... 53
3.9. SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 56
4.1. FINDINGS ................................................................................................................. 56
4.1.1. Students’ development of learner autonomy in the Initiating process ................. 56
4.1.1.1. Setting goals and making study plans ............................................................ 56
4.1.1.2. Looking for resources .................................................................................... 59
4.1.2. Students’ development of learner autonomy in the Monitoring process ............. 62
4.1.2.1. Maintaining agendas and taking actions based on the agendas ..................... 62
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4.1.2.2. Employing suitable strategies ........................................................................ 63
4.1.2.3. Selecting appropriate materials...................................................................... 64
4.1.2.4. Concentrating on learning .............................................................................. 65
4.1.2.5. Collaborating with others .............................................................................. 66
4.1.2.6. Negotiating and expressing one’s opinions ................................................... 68
4.1.3. Students’ development of learner autonomy in the Evaluating process .............. 68
4.1.3.1. Reflecting critically and evaluating learning outcomes ................................ 68
4.1.3.2. Correcting mistakes ....................................................................................... 70
4.2. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 71
4.2.1. Discussion on the development of learner autonomy in the Initiating process ... 72
4.2.2. Discussion on the development of learner autonomy in the Monitoring process 74
4.2.3. Discussion on the development of learner autonomy in the Evaluating process . 76
4.3. SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................ 79
5.1. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 79
5.2. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 80
5.3. IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER
RESEARCH ..................................................................................................................... 81
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 83
APPENDIX 1: SYLLABUS FOR WRITING 2 ............................................................ 99
APPENDIX 2: CONGRUENCE OF THE COURSE SYLLABUS AND WRITING
E-PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENTS ............................................................................... 102
APPENDIX 3: GOAL SETTING TEMPLATE ......................................................... 104
APPENDIX 4: GUIDELINES FOR REFLECTION ................................................. 105
APPENDIX 5: GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION ................................................ 106
APPENDIX 6A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS WITH STUDENTS (ENGLISH
VERSION) ...................................................................................................................... 110
APPENDIX 6B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS WITH STUDENTS (VIETNSMESE
VERSION) ...................................................................................................................... 111

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APPENDIX 7: PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM IN VIETNAMESE ................ 112
APPENDIX 8: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR STUDENTS ................................. 113
APPENDIX 9: EXCERPT OF THE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT ........................ 114

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The chapter provides the background to this study, which was conducted at a public
university in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam from January to April 2018. This research is a
case study adopting qualitative method, to explore the English-major students’
development of learner autonomy. In this chapter, brief background information about the
context in which this case study is undertaken will be presented. This introduction then
leads to the researcher’s motivation for choosing the present topic and carrying out this
research which will be clarified in the aim of the study. From then, the research question
in the following part will be addressed. Finally, the significance of the study and the overall
structure of this study will be presented.
1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
In the field of English language learning and teaching, it has been claimed that
writing skills are obviously crucial during the school years and beyond (Nippold, 2000).
However, English writing skill is also considered to be one of the most difficult and
challenging skills due to its demands for cognitive activities (Nunan, 1989; Kellogg, 2008).
This might be one of the reasons that make learners less interested in writing skills.
Observing English-majored students over the past few years, the researcher has realised
that they are quite reluctant to learn when it comes to writing. In the Vietnamese context,
another factor that is likely to hinder university students from enjoying writing activities
might be their learning habits in secondary school and high school. In fact, there seems to

be a mismatch between the goals set in the curriculum and the practice of teaching and
learning English in high school in Vietnam (Bui, T.H.G., 2015). Despite the fact that the
second language writing (hereafter abbreviated as L2 writing) is stated in the curriculum
to be one of the four major language skills, this skill is often ignored during the practice
since it is rarely tested in the Graduation examination for high school students. Then as a
result, the main focus of English language learning and teaching (ELT) at the majority of
secondary and high schools in Vietnam is put on grammar and reading instead of
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productive skills including writing and speaking. Consequently, a great number of
Vietnamese students do not have opportunities to learn writing skills in English although
they have spent rather much time learning grammar and vocabulary. The students then find
it very difficult to write in English. Some students shared that they never wrote anything
in English until they started learning at the university. From the researcher’s own
experience, the students only learn what they are taught and do what they are told to do. It
can be judged that students appear to depend too much on the teacher’s instructions and
“lack the ability to direct their own learning” (Le, X.Q., 2013, p.23). It can be seen that the
incapability to control one’s learning or the lack of learning autonomy might result in the
students’ hesitation in their studying writing skills.
In fact, promoting learner autonomy has played the key role in the Vietnamese
higher education context (Phan, T.T.T., 2015). The notion of learner autonomy has become
a buzzword and received much greater attention in education, particularly in the field of
ELT since English has been considered the most popular and “favoured foreign language”
(Dang, T.T., 2012, p.8). A great deal of research has been conducted since 2000s to
understand different aspects of language learner autonomy in the Vietnamese ELT context.
Empirical studies conducted by Nguyen, T.C.L. (2009), Dang, T.T. (2012), Le, X.Q.
(2013) and Phan, T.T.T. (2015) investigated possibilities to foster learner autonomy among
Vietnamese students, whereas Nguyen, T.N. (2014) explored Vietnamese teachers’ beliefs
of learner autonomy in English language learning and teaching. Given the fact that teaching

and learning practice in Vietnam have been influenced by Eastern culture, in which
teachers are authority in class and students are expected to obey their teachers, revealed by
Nguyen, T. H. (2002). Thus, it is considered to be more teacher-centred. That might also
be the reason to explain why Le,V.C. (1999), Nhan, N.T. and Lai, H.T. (2012), and Dang,
T. T. (2010) agreed that teachers appear to be controllers while students are considered to
be rather passive and heavily rely on their teachers (cited in Nguyen, T. H., Warren &
Fehring, 2014). Likewise, as Nguyen, T.N. (2014) stated, students are expected to listen to
and accept knowledge from teachers rather than confront them directly. As a result,
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students obviously have very few opportunities to develop their independence in learning.
However, the current trend in language teaching and learning requires changes which make
shifts from the teacher-centred approach to learner-centred approach. Therefore, it is
recommended that students should be supported in developing learner autonomy during
their learning process. This has required innovations in the educational fields in order to
improve the teaching and learning quality of Vietnamese teachers and students as well as
develop students’ autonomy.
Innovations have come in different forms, one of which is the emergence of
technology which has attracted a lot of public attention and has been widely integrated in
the field of language education. This situation closely fits with the assertion of Hamilton
(2013) that the field of language learning and teaching needs to be in affiliation with
technology to become an ideal pedagogical concept. Among the technological tools that
are proposed to promote learner autonomy, digital portfolios or e-Portfolios have witnessed
a constant growth in its use in tertiary education (Pospisilova, 2018). They have proved to
be a trendy tool in showcasing students’ work, supporting students with lifelong learning
and promoting students’ autonomous capabilities. Due to its benefits over paper portfolios,
particularly because it is more feasible to be developed under web-based platforms into a
system for institutions, or at least for classes, e-Portfolios have signified enormous
potentials in serving educational purposes, posited by Hughes, Currant, Haigh, Higginson,

Rodway and Whitfield (2010). As noted by González (2009), this virtual space is believed
to be “extremely useful as a pedagogical rather than a reporting tool” as it can provide more
opportunities for teachers and students in language learning and assessment (p.373).
Furthermore, with its learner-centred nature, according to Banks (2004), an e-Portfolio is
strongly believed to be able to support learners in developing their autonomous skills in
language learning.
Nevertheless, using e-Portfolios in second language learning and teaching is still a
new area of research in Vietnamese context even though they have existed for nearly three

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decades and have been researched worldwide, mainly in developed regions such as Europe,
North America, Australia and some parts of Asia such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan. In
fact, there are very few studies conducted in the Vietnamese context related to e-Portfolios,
particularly in the area of teaching and learning English writing skills. In 2016, Phung. T.
L. and Dang. T. T. carried out a quasi-experimental study to examine the impacts of
listening-speaking e-Portfolios on students’ learning of listening skills along with their
perception towards learner autonomy. Besides, even though there have been a few studies
focusing on learner autonomy in terms of students’ perceptions and performances, little
research has been found to explore students’ development of autonomy during their
engagement e-Portfolio in English writing skills in the Vietnamese context of English
language teaching.
Taking all those research gaps into account, the current study is an attempt to
explore how students developed their autonomous learning capabilities when participated
in the writing e-Portfolios.
1.2. AIM OF THE STUDY
The main objective of the present study is to explore the development of learner
autonomy as a process among the first-year students at a university in Ho Chi Minh City
during their engagement in English writing e-Portfolios. This is conducted to help

understand how the students developed their autonomy in L2 writing, specifically in three
processes of learner autonomy, namely Initiating, Monitoring and Evaluating process
through their engagement in English writing e-Portfolios.
1.3. THE RESEARCH QUESTION
Even though its significant role has been acknowledged in the field of education,
learner autonomy has only been found in a few studies considering development of learner
autonomy among students in the Vietnamese context. Also, endorsed by the accumulated

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three-year experiences in teaching writing courses, the researcher believed that learner
autonomy can be promoted during the students’ participation in the e-Portfolios.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the development of learner
autonomy among first-year students during their engagement in English language writing
e-Portfolios. The current study aims to answer the following research question:
How do students develop learner autonomy in terms of three processes, namely
Initiating, Monitoring and Evaluating during their engagement in English writing
e-Portfolios?
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Some research has been carried out worldwide to have better insights into the
implementation of writing e-Portfolios and a wide range of studies have sought to
understand learner autonomy and find solutions to fostering learner autonomy. However,
within the context of Vietnamese educational institutes, writing e-Portfolios in English
language learning still remain unpopular with students as a new approach to master their
English. Therefore, with an aim to answer such a research question, the study was expected
to gain significance in the following aspects. Firstly, new insights into the developmental
process of learner autonomy are yielded during the students’ engagement in the writing ePortfolios. Secondly, since the study, to some extent, offer new insights into the learners’
behaviours that show the developmental trend of learner autonomy, it can reveal
implications for the development of the course syllabus to further enhance learner

autonomy among students.
1.5. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The current study is bound to explore students’ development of learner autonomy
while the students were engaged in e-Portfolios during the course Writing 2 which lasted
one semester. The focus was placed on exploring how students developed different
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dimensions of learner autonomy during their participation in English writing e-Portfolios
during a 15-week course. Therefore, students’ writing achievements are beyond the scope
of this study. Also, this study will not focus on the students’ attitudes or opinions about the
writing e-Portfolio model. Therefore, findings of the study would be based on qualitative
descriptions, and thus would provide theoretical and practical background as well as
tentative recommendations for further research.
1.6. ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS
The study encompasses five separate chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of
the study including the background, the statement of purpose, the research question, the
significance, and the scope of the study. Chapter 2 is concerned with the literature review
related to the study and the conceptual framework of the study. Chapter 3 presents the
methodology of the study. It covers the research question, the research design, the
respondents to the study, the research instrument, the data collection procedure, the
analysis procedure of data, and the trustworthiness in qualitative research. Chapter 4 deals
with data analysis with findings and discussions. The first part of this chapter presents the
analysis of the data as well as the analysis of the results from the semi-structured interviews
to understand the development of learner autonomy among the first-year English major
students. The major findings of this research will be presented in the second part of this
chapter. Chapter 5 presents the conclusions of the study, discussions of the findings,
limitations and some recommendations to learners and teachers concerning the impacts of
English language writing e-Portfolios and how to foster learner autonomy in teaching and
learning writing skills in the future.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
In the previous chapter, background information to the study has been given. In this
chapter, an attempt is made to provide a review of the literature on learner autonomy by
discussing the definitions and different perspectives of learner autonomy in language
education, along with the discussion on the different models of learner autonomy and the
one adopted in this study. Secondly, the literature of e-Portfolios is reviewed in the field of
language learning and teaching in general and in teaching and learning writing skills in
particular. The related studies will then be discussed to find out the gaps. Finally, the
conceptual framework will be discussed at the end of this chapter.
2.1. LEARNER AUTONOMY IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Learner autonomy has been considered an ultimate goal in the field of language
education since it has captured special attention from researchers worldwide. In the
Vietnamese context, in the past ten years, a wide range of studies were conducted to explore
different aspects of learner autonomy from teachers’ perspectives and students’
perspectives and make enormous contributions to the English language teaching and
learning (Dang, T.T., 2012; Le, X.Q., 2013, Nguyen, T.N., 2014, Phan, T.T.T., 2015).
2.1.1. Definitions of learner autonomy
Over the last three decades, a considerable attention has been given to the notion of
learner autonomy. Since autonomy is regarded a multidimensional term which encircles
concepts from different fields, such as education, philosophy, psychology and even politics
(Blin, 2005), many attempts have been made to define the concept, categorise different
versions, and explore the applicability of learner autonomy in various educational contexts.
Learner autonomy was first introduced in the field of language learning and teaching
by Holec (1981), one of the pioneers in the field, as the “ability to take charge of one’s
learning” (p.3), which means that learners should take responsibility for all the decisions
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they have made in the activities in which they are or want to get involved. He also proposed
that a learner is autonomous in learning when he or she is able
to have, and to hold the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of
this learning, determining the objectives, defining the contents and progressions; selecting
the methods and techniques to be used; monitoring the procedure of acquisition properly
speaking (rhythm, time, place, etc.); evaluating what has been acquired.
(Holec, 1981, p.3)
It can be seen that the characteristics found in the definition above present the
attributes of an autonomous learner. It clearly explains what an autonomous learner can do,
rather than how they can do it (Benson, 2007). Another characteristic is that the learner’s
ability to learn autonomously is not inborn, but is improved by working towards learner
autonomy. That is to say, without practice or being used, it might be lost (Holec, 1981;
Little, 1991). Also, an autonomous learner must take responsibility for all the decisions
they make throughout a deliberate learning process rather than an immediate action, e.g.
setting learning objectives, choosing materials, monitoring progress, as well as assessing
learning outcomes.
Such a broad concept has laid the foundation for many other definitions of learner
autonomy. While Wenden (1991) conceptualised learner autonomy as the capacity of
knowing how to learn, learner autonomy, from the view of Cotterall (1995), is manifested
as learners’ ability to demonstrate techniques in controlling their learning. Dam (1995)
posited that an autonomous learner is the one who can act independently and is motivated
in learning. Also, Littlewood (1996) conceptualised autonomy as the ability and
willingness of a learner to “make choices independently” (p.427), which is also in
agreement with Boud’s (1988) claim that students can decide to go further than teachers’
instructions. These definitions indicated the view of learner autonomy from the eyes of
students. On the other hand, some researchers defined learner autonomy which can also be
8

looked at from a teacher’s perspectives as follows. From Dickinson’s (1987) view, learner
autonomy is regarded as learners’ capacity to study without a teacher’s support. Little
(1990) then additionally stated that autonomy “is not [just] limited to learning without
teacher” (p.7). Those definitions of learner autonomy, viewed from either students’
perspectives or teachers’ angles, the main focus lies on the students’ ability to take
responsibility in their own learning and effectively govern different stages in the learning
process.
It can be found that different views of learner autonomy have been presented in
various studies, which in fact can reveal the multifaceted nature of learner autonomy. For
instance, Allwright (1990) viewed learner autonomy from psychological stance, positing
that students’ autonomy means a learner’ attitude or willingness to take responsibility in
their learning, whereas Pennycook (1997) strongly criticised this psychological aspect of
autonomy. Taken this concept from the socio-cultural perspective, learner autonomy is
different when examined in different social contexts, suggested by Dickinson and Sinclair
(1997, cited in Oxford, 2003). Those views, in fact, trigger the explanations for different
perspectives of learner autonomy that will be further explained in the following parts.
2.1.2. Perspectives of learner autonomy
Put in practice, the concept of learner autonomy has been acknowledged in different
perspectives. Benson (1997) systematised learner autonomy in three perspectives, namely
(1) technical aspect which focuses on students’ skills in learning management, (2)
psychological aspect which centralises in students’ cognitive process in learning, and (3)
political aspect focusing on learning process and content. Years later, another perspective
of learner autonomy, namely socio-cultural aspect, was added by Oxford (2003) to
appreciate the importance of autonomy development as the positive consequence of
students’ interactions with the learning environment. Each of these perspectives will be
further explained in the following parts.

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2.1.2.1. Technical perspective of learner autonomy
According to Benson (1997), the technical perspective puts an emphasis on the
impact of the learning environment in which learner autonomy can develop. Autonomy is
regarded as skills that are necessary for students’ management of their learning outside
classrooms, and without supports from their teachers. In other words, learning occurs when
students have gained their independence in making their own choices and decisions about
what, when and how to learn so as to achieve their learning goals. Oxford (2003) posited
that the learning environment has certain influences on the learner’s behaviours, learner
autonomy can be promoted in any “other-created situation” which fosters students’
performances of their self-directed learning (p.81). Adopting this perspective of learner
autonomy, several studies were carried out in self-access centres in which students can
approach various sources of authentic materials and have their learning activities
customised in their own ways (Christopher & Ho, 1996; Milton, 1997; Morrison, 2008,
cited in Nguyen, T.N., 2014). This also explains the emergence of self-access centres
around the world (Dang, T.T., 2012). However, it was pointed out that learner autonomy
cannot be fully developed if the learners solely rely on external conditions. Therefore,
according to Benson (1997) and Oxford (2003), impacts from situational conditions
suggested by the technical perspective such as technology, resources, or any other
environments that activate autonomous learning appear to be inadequate in explaining the
growth of learner autonomy. It is essential to acknowledge learners’ attributes in the
learning process that promote learner autonomy, which is considered the qualities of the
psychological perspective of learner autonomy.
2.1.2.2. Psychological perspective of learner autonomy
As Oxford (2003) asserted, “without psychology, the technical perspective [of
learner autonomy] would be inert” (p.82). In addition to the technical perspective which
centres on the physical situations, the psychological perspective puts the focus on learners’
characteristics. Learner autonomy, therefore, in psychological perspective is defined by
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Benson (1997) as learners’ capacity, “a construct of attitudes and abilities which allows
learners to take more responsibility for their own learning” (p.19). In other words, these
two qualities allow learners to control their own learning by making decisions on their own
learning objectives, learning contents and learning process. In fact, this perspective
strongly concurs with Oxford’s (2003) claim of psychological autonomy as student’s
mental and emotional attributes. The psychological aspect of learner autonomy explains
the cognitive process including all necessary strategies, knowledge, and attitudes about
language learning (Wenden, 1991) that regulates students’ learning behaviours to help
them achieve their learning goals.
In fact, as mentioned above, the technical aspect considers the development of
learner autonomy in out-of-class learning environments, and psychological perspective
regards learners’ reasoning skills and processes as decisive factors of the autonomy growth;
however, these two perspectives do not acknowledge the interactional aspect in the process
of constructing knowledge. To fill this gap, Oxford (2003) recommended the socio-cultural
perspective on learner autonomy which explained the construct of learner autonomy more
extensively.
2.1.2.3. Socio-cultural perspective of autonomy
According to Oxford (2003), socio-cultural perspective places a strong emphasis on
“mediated learning” (p.80), which considers social interactions as a key factor in
developing students’ cognition and language. Under the socio-cultural perspective, learner
autonomy is constructed as the result of interactions between students and their learning
environment (Benson, 2007; Smith & Ushioda, 2009). That is to say, being a member of a
community, an individual is very likely to interact with other people to deal with matters.
Learner autonomy is then believed to be enhanced during the carrying out of these
processes. In fact, this perspective of learner autonomy is influenced by the theory of Zone
of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978) and community of practice (Lave &
Wenger, 1991). As stated by Vygotsky (1978), ZPD is the distance between what students
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can achieve with and without assistance. He also argued that the social interactions among
learners and their peers as well as teachers are extremely important to their learning. For
that reason, if less capable learners are supported with scaffolding and collaborative
learning exercises, they can become a powerful activator for these students to reach their
maximum potential within their ZPD. In terms of the theory of community of practice
(Lave & Weger, 1991), students need to build up relationships with other members of a
learning community in order to become a part of it. Due to the process of connecting with
each other, the capacity of learner autonomy can be promoted by such social interactions
between learners and “situational influences” besides the acquirement of knowledge
among learners (Dang, T.T., 2010, p.34).
2.1.2.4. Political – critical perspective of learner autonomy
In addition to the three perspectives mentioned above, another aspect of learner
autonomy which involves the issue of “power, access, and ideology” is political – critical
autonomy (Oxford, 2003, p.88). The question posed by Pennycook’s (1997) work requires
the reconsideration into the notion of learner autonomy within the ideology of studentcenteredness. Contrary to the viewpoint of reductionists which separates politics from
language learning and teaching, the political-critical perspective examines the context in
case “students’ lives, desires, wishes, cultures, experiences, [and] backgrounds” are taken
into account (Pennycook, 1997, p.42). He claimed that the involvement of these features
might result in differences in terms of learners’ attitudes and ideologies. In addition, it was
also argued that learner autonomy develops when a student become “authors of their own
worlds” (Pennycook, 1997, p.45). To achieve that, students should fight for “cultural
alternatives” and raise their voices in language learning process to achieve a “more
powerful life” (Dang, T.T., 2012, p.35).
This section was an attempt to have a deeper look into different perspectives of
learner autonomy. It can be seen that the four perspectives are in fact complementary to
each other. Motivated by the comprehensiveness of the four perspectives establishing the
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