Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill

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<b>HUE, 2024HUE UNIVERSITY</b>

<b>UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONALSTUDIES</b>

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<b>HUE, 2024HUE UNIVERSITY</b>

<b>UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONALSTUDIES</b>

<b>HUỲNH ÁI</b>

<b>VIETNAMESE EFL TERTIARY STUDENTS'SELF-ASSESSMENT IN WRITING SKILLDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THESIS IN THEORY AND</b>

<b>METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGETEACHING</b>

<b>Dr. TRẦN QUANG NGỌC THUÝDr. ĐẶNG TẤN TÍN</b>

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No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in thethesis. This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma inany other tertiary institution.

<b>Hue, 2024</b>

<b>Huynh Ai</b>

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This doctoral thesis represents the culmination of my personal endeavourscombined with the dedicated collaboration of numerous individuals, marking asignificant and prolonged undertaking. I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to theseindividuals without whom the realization of this work would not have been possible.

Foremost, I extend my deepest appreciation to my esteemed academicsupervisors, Dr. Trần Quang Ngọc Thuý and Dr. Đặng Tấn Tín, whose indispensableguidance, astute feedback, unwavering support, and constant encouragement wereinstrumental in shaping this thesis amidst challenging circumstances. I consider myselfexceedingly fortunate and contented to have been under the tutelage of these twocommitted mentors, who provided multifaceted perspectives throughout thecompletion of this research.

Furthermore, I would like to convey my profound gratitude to my formersupervisor, Dr. Hồ Sĩ Thắng Kiệt, with the hope that even in the ethereal realm, hemay be aware of my sentiments expressed here.

My sincere appreciation also goes to all the lecturers, professors, andstakeholders at the University of Foreign Languages and International Studies, HueUniversity. I am indebted to the instructors who generously imparted invaluableknowledge, offering constructive comments and critical insights that significantlycontributed to the completion of my thesis.

I extend my gratitude to my dear students, whose voluntary participation incompleting questionnaires, responding to interviews, writing essays, and self-assessing, as well as maintaining reflective journals and attending a short coursewithin the empirical project, has been vital. I am also thankful to my colleagues in thePhD group and friends who supported me with invaluable experiences and shared theworkload throughout the entire process of completing this thesis.

Lastly, but by no means least, I am profoundly grateful to my family members –my biological parents, my parents-in-law, my wife, and my wonderful children – fortheir unwavering love and constant encouragement. Their boundless affection has beena continual source of inspiration and motivation throughout my academic journey.

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<b>LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS</b>

CEFR: The Common European Framework of Reference for LanguagesEFL: English as a Foreign Language

ESL: English as Second Language

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1.5.Significance of the research ... 5

1.6.Organization of the study ... 7

<b>CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8 </b>

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2.2.2.Self-assessment for summative purposes ... 24

2.3.Writing academic English and self-assessment in EFL writing ... 25

2.3.1.Writing academic English ... 25

2.3.2.Self-assessment in EFL writing classrooms ... 26

2.3.2.1. Self-assessment in writing skill ... 27

2.3.2.2. Benefits of self-assessment in EFL writing ... 28

2.3.3.Self-assessment instruments in EFL writing classes ... 30

2.3.3.1. Self-assessment checklists in learning writing ... 30

2.3.3.2. Writing reflective journals ... 32

2.4.Previous studies and research gaps ... 33

2.4.1.Students’ perceptions of self-assessment ... 33

2.4.2.Students’ practices of self-assessment ... 37

2.4.3.Students’ challenges of self-assessment ... 40

2.5.Chapter summary ... 41

<b>CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 42 </b>

3.1.Research approach and research design ... 42

3.3.3.Role of the researcher ... 49

3.4.Analytical framework of the study ... 50

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3.5.2.Empirical study ... 59

3.5.3.Piloting study ... 60

3.5.4.Data collection procedures ... 62

3.6.Data analysis ... 63

3.6.1.Analysis of the quantitative data ... 63

3.6.2.Analysis of the qualitative data ... 64

3.7.Research reliability and validity ... 66

3.7.1.Reliability ... 66

3.7.2.Validity ... 67

3.8.Ethical considerations ... 68

3.9.Summary ... 68

<b>CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 69 </b>

4.1. EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill ... 69

4.1.1. Overview of students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill ... 69

4.1.2. Students’ perceptions of general self-assessment in writing skill ... 69

4.1.3. Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill ... 74

4.1.4. Students’ perceptions of benefits of self-assessment in learning writing 79

4.1.5. Discussion of the findings ... 84

4.1.5.1. Students’ perceptions of overall self-assessment in writing skill 85

4.1.5.2. Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill ... 87

4.1.5.3. Students’ perceptions of the benefits of self-assessment ... 89

4.1.6. Summary the findings for RQ1 ... 92

4.2. Students’ practices of self-assessment in writing skill ... 93

4.2.1. General quantitative results of students’ practices of self-assessment ... 93

4.2.2. Students’ reported self-assessment practices in writing ... 93

4.2.3. Students’ reported practices of self-assessment in the writing process ... 99

4.2.4. Students’ actual use self-assessment checklist in learning writing ... 101

4.2.4.2. Students’ reflective journals ... 103

4.2.4.3. Students’ self-assessment of the overall essay contents ... 105

4.2.4.4. Students’ self-assessment of the essay organization ... 109

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4.2.4.5. Students’ self-assessment of the language writing skill ... 110

4.2.5. Discussion of students’ practices ... 114

4.2.5.1. Students’ reported practices ... 115

4.2.5.2. Students’ actual use self-assessment checklist in learning writing.1174.2.6. Summary of the findings for RQ2 ... 119

4.3. Students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing skill ... 120

4.3.1. Students’ reported challenges of self-assessment in writing skill ... 120

4.3.2. Students' challenges of self-assessment in writing skill ... 124

4.3.3. Discussion of students’ challenges ... 124

4.3.4. Summary of the findings for RQ3 ... 126

4.4. Triangulation of findings ... 127

4.5. Chapter summary ... 128

<b>CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS ... 130 </b>

5.1.Summary of key findings ... 130

5.1.1.Students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing ... 130

5.1.2.Students’ practices of self-assessment in learning writing ... 131

5.1.3.Students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing ... 132

5.2.Implications ... 133

5.2.1.Implications for EFL students ... 133

5.2.2.Implications for teachers of writing ... 134

5.2.3.Implications for curriculum developers and policymakers ... 135

5.5.Recommendations for further research ... 139

<b>LIST OF AUTHOR’S WORKS...138</b>

<b>REFERENCES ... 141 </b>

Appendix A: The pilot questionnaire ... P1

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Appendix B: The official questionnaire ... P5 Appendix C: The pilot interview ... P12 Appendix D: The official focus-group interview ... P13 Appendix E: The official questionnaire of students’ using self-assessment checklist ina writing course ... P15Appendix F: Self-assessment checklist ... P17 Appendix G: Prompts for students’ reflective journal ... P20 Appendix H: A sample of the interview coding and theming ... P21 Appendix I: A sample of an online writing class ... P28 Appendix J: A sample of a student using self-assessment checklist to assess a firstessay draft and revise into a second draft ... P29Appendix K: A sample of a student’s reflective journal ... P33 Appendix L: A summary criteria of students' self-assessment of the essay ... P35 Appendix M: Content of training program in a public university...P39Appendix N: Content of training program in a non-public university ... P38

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<b>LIST OF TABLES</b>

<b>Table 3.1. </b> The sample sizes of the present study ... 48

<b>Table 3.2. Summary of data collection instruments...55</b>

<b>Table 3.3</b> : Summary of Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients ... 60

<b>Table 4.1. </b> Students' perceptions of general self-assessment in writing skill ... 70

<b>Table 4.2. </b> Students' perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill ... 74

<b>Table 4.3. Students’ perceptions of benefits of self-assessment in writing...85</b>

<b>Table 4.4. </b> Students’ reported self-assessment practices in learning writing ... 95

<b>Table 4.5</b> . Students’ reported practices of self-assessment in the writing process ... 99

<b>Table 4.6. </b> Participants’ reflection on the role of self-assessment checklists ... 102

<b>Table 4.7. </b> Examples of students’ self-assessment of the introductory paragraph 106

<b>Table 4.8</b> . Example of students’ self-assessment of the conclusion paragraph ... 108

<b>Table 4.9. </b> Students' reported challenges of self-assessment in writing skill ... 121

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<b>LIST OF FIGURES</b>

<b>Figure 2.1. Cyclical phases of self-regulated learning...17</b>

<b>Figure 3.1. Mixed methods design...43</b>

<b>Figure 3.2. Mixed methods sequential exploratory design for the present study...44</b>

<b>Figure 3.3. The analytical framework of the study...50</b>

<b>Figure 4.1. General results of students’ perception of self-assessment...68</b>

<b>Figure 4.2. Students' perception of self-efficacy in their specific writing skill...76</b>

<b>Figure 4.3. General questionnaire results of students’ practices of self-assessment....92</b>

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In recent decades, extensive research has explored into self-assessment in centered education globally, such as examining its consistency with other assessmentforms, students' perceptions, and its association with self-regulated learning models.However, numerous unexplored dimensions persist, particularly the self-assessment ofVietnamese EFL tertiary students in learning writing as a skill, which has long beenignored in teaching practices. This study aims to investigate the perceptions, practices,and challenges of self-assessment in writing skill among Vietnamese students withinthis specific context.

learner-To answer three research questions, a mixed-methods approach that incorporatedquantitative and qualitative approaches for collecting and analyzing data. The first setof data on students’ reported perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessmentin learning writing was gathered via a questionnaire delivered to 450 participants andfocus-group interviews with 32 participants from the group of questionnairerespondents. Also, an empirical writing class with 18 students gathered data through aquestionnaire, reflective journals, self-assessment checklists, and students' writingpapers. The findings highlight Vietnamese tertiary students' positive perceptions ofself- assessment in learning writing, emphasizing its role in improving writing skill,enhancing self-efficacy, and providing various benefits. In terms of practice, studentsdemonstrated a strong sense of responsibility and active participation in self-assessment activities. Notably, EFL students made a robust effort to employ self-assessment checklists to self-assess their writing, reflect on their strengths andweaknesses, and take ownership of their progress. However, challenges arise fromstudents' limited experience in self-assessment and relatively low proficiency inEnglish writing. Consequently, some students struggled with identifying grammarerrors, including issues with word choice, articles, pronoun usage, verb agreement, andmechanics. This study provides substantial contributions across theoretical,methodological, and practical dimensions. The theoretical framework establishes thegroundwork for understanding Vietnamese tertiary EFL students' self-assessment ofwriting skill, bridging a crucial knowledge gap in Vietnamese higher education. Thepractical implications offer valuable insights for EFL educators in Vietnam and in theworld, highlighting the positive impact of self-assessment on writing skillimprovement and providing guidance on integration into instruction through tools likechecklists and reflective thinking. The identification of challenges faced by studentsduring self- assessment informs strategies for educators to offer targeted support andcreate an optimal learning environment.

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<b>CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION</b>

<i>This chapter provides an overview of the current research, presenting details of theresearch background, rationale, aim, and research questions. It also defines theresearch scope and then shows the research significance. Finally, the chapter givesprecise details of the research organization.</i>

<b>1.1. Research background</b>

In the past few decades, Vietnam's educational system, especially in foreignlanguage education, has undergone significant transformations. English has emerged asthe dominant foreign language in the country due to socio-economic development andeducational policies. It has become essential for international communication, trade,and attracting foreign investments. English proficiency is now highly sought after foremployment, research, and various purposes, such as travelling and studying abroad.Along with the national renovation policy, English as a foreign language (EFL) hasbeen officially taught as a compulsory subject in the educational system since after theSixth National Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party in December 1986.

Recently, Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has introducedsignificant policy changes to prioritize learner-centered learning and foster self-studyskills in higher education. For instance, there have been a number of standard policiespertaining to tertiary education, including the implementation of a credit-based trainingsystem and a shift towards a combination of summative and formative assessments(MOET Decision No. 25/2006/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, 26<small>th</small> June 2006; MOET Decision No.43/2007/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, 15<small>th</small> August 2007). These policy decisions have positivelyreflected a growing recognition of the importance of students' role in the learningprocess within educational contexts. The shift towards learner-centered learning and theimplementation of formative assessment practices represent important advancements inVietnam's higher education system. These changes not only empower students to takecharge of their learning process but also promote a more holistic and effective approachto education that aligns with contemporary educational theories and best practices.

The growing interest in formative assessment has positively impacted teaching andassessment practices, emphasizing the improvement of teaching quality and studentlearning. Formative assessment empowers students to monitor their progress, takeresponsibility for their learning, and develop learner autonomy (Andrade & Cizek, 2010;Brookhart, 2011; Lee, 2017). Students play a central role in the learning process, engagingin activities, and participating in classroom assessment through self-assessment, peer

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assessment, and collaborative work (Andrade, 2019; Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Brown &Harris, 2013; Nguyễn Hồ Hoàng Thuỷ & Trương Thị Anh, 2021). Self-assessment, inparticular, promotes learner autonomy and enhances independent learning, aligning withthe principles of formative assessment (Boud, 1995; Gardner, 2000).

<b>1.2. Research rationale</b>

In education literature, the shift towards learner-centered learning in highereducation is a significant development in Vietnam's educational system. This approachemphasizes student engagement, active learning, and the development of criticalthinking skills (Brown & Harris, 2013; Butler, 2016; Smith, 2018). Higher educationinstitutions prioritize learner-centered learning to empower students to take ownershipof their learning process and develop the necessary skills for lifelong learning. Inaddition, learner-centered learning is aligned with contemporary educational theories,such as constructivism and social constructivism, which emphasize the active role oflearners in constructing their knowledge (Adam, 2017; Dewey, 1933; Johnson, 2015). Itallows learners to actively engage with the language, practice communication skills,and develop a deeper understanding of the language's cultural and contextual aspects. Inwriting classes, for instance, learner-centered learning encourages students to activelyengage with the English language when developing their writing skill. Instead ofpassively receiving knowledge, students are encouraged to participate in various writingactivities, such as brainstorming, drafting, editing, and revising (Oshima & Hogue,2006). Learners have more opportunities to practice writing in different genres, styles,and contexts, which allows them to explore and experiment with the language.Fostering learner autonomy in developing students' writing skill, students can exploretheir learning styles, set goals, and take responsibility for their language acquisitionprocess.

Remarkably, formative assessment is an integral component of student-centeredlearning and has gained increasing attention in educational development, especially inEFL contexts (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Andrade & Du, 2007; Brown & Harris, 2014).Unlike summative assessment, which assesses learning outcomes at the end of a courseor semester, formative assessment focuses on providing ongoing feedback to studentsduring the learning process. It is designed to monitor student progress, identify areas ofimprovement, and inform instructional decision-making (Butler, 2016; Lee, 2017; Race,2020). In Vietnam’s higher education, formative assessment in English languageeducation can take various forms, including self-assessment, peer assessment, teacherfeedback, and collaborative activities. According to Boud (2013), self-assessmentencourages students to reflect on their language proficiency, set personal learning goals,

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and evaluate their progress. It empowers students to take charge of their own learning.Peer assessment enables students to provide constructive feedback to their peers,fostering a supportive and collaborative learning environment. Teacher feedback andclassroom assessment activities further contribute to the formative assessment processby offering timely guidance and facilitating students' language development.

Besides, formative assessment aligns with the principles of learner-centeredlearning, as it empowers students to actively engage in the learning process, monitortheir own learning, and take ownership of their progress (Andrade, 2010; Boud, 2013;Lee & Mak, 2018). It promotes metacognitive skills, self-regulation, and criticalthinking abilities, which are essential for students to become proficient and autonomouslearners and contribute to their overall growth as effective communicators and criticalthinkers in both academic and real-world contexts.

Moreover, self-assessment plays a crucial role in the formative assessment processas provided by Andrade (2018) and Boud (1995). These researchers underscored thatself-assessment has an important role in enhancing learners' understanding of thelearning objectives and effectively monitoring their progress toward their goals.Andrade (2018) implied that self-assessment allows learners to actively engage with thelearning process by evaluating their own work and progress. It means that students cangain a clearer understanding of the intended learning outcomes when taking an activerole in assessing their performance. They become more aware of the specific criteriaand standards against which their work is assessed, thus enhancing their overallperceptions of the learning objectives. Additionally, self-assessment provides studentswith opportunities to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, enabling them toidentify areas for improvement and set realistic goals. Students can take ownership oftheir learning process and make informed decisions about their learning strategies andpriorities by actively monitoring their own progress. Likewise, Boud (1995) furthersupported the importance of self-assessment in student-centered learning byhighlighting its role in promoting metacognitive awareness. Learners develop a deeperunderstanding of their learning processes, including their learning styles, preferences,and strategies through self-assessment. This heightened self-awareness enables studentsto make more informed choices about their learning methods, adapt their approaches asneeded, and become more self-directed in their learning. Therefore, it is possible toconclude that self-assessment is to optimize students’ learning and enhance student-centered learning in the classroom.

However, the current understanding of teaching and learning writing as a skill ofclassroom practice through self-assessment in Vietnam at the tertiary level is somewhat

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limited in the existing literature. There is a lack of comprehensive insights into theperceptions, practices, and challenges that Vietnamese EFL students face whenengaging in self-assessment in writing skill. This current knowledge gap highlights theneed for further research in this area. In addition, the specific population gap ofVietnamese EFL tertiary students has been overlooked in many studies examining self-assessment in learning writing. This gap emphasizes the importance of investigating therole of self-assessment in teaching and learning writing to Vietnamese EFL students atthe tertiary level. Thirdly, there is a practical knowledge gap concerning theimplementation and application of self-assessment in teaching and learning writing as aclassroom practice within a specific context of higher education in Vietnam. While thetheoretical underpinnings and potential benefits of self-assessment are acknowledged inthe literature, there is a lack of practical guidance and evidence-based strategies foreffectively integrating self-assessment practices into the writing curriculum. Therefore,this research aims to address these gaps by conducting an in-depth investigation into thecurrent state of teaching and learning writing, with a particular focus on self-assessment. By doing so, this study intends to contribute to the existing knowledge byproviding valuable insights and a deeper understanding of the use of self-assessment inthe context of teaching and learning writing to Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiarylevel.

<b>1.3. Aims and research questions</b>

The primary focus of this study is to examine the perceptions, practices, andchallenges encountered by Vietnamese EFL tertiary students' self-assessment in writingskill. Within the domain of students' perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill, thestudy aims to gain valuable insights into EFL students' perspectives and attitudestoward self-assessment in learning writing as a skill. The research objective is firstly tounderstand the overall perceptions of EFL students' self-assessment in their writingskill. In the same vein, the study seeks to investigate students' perceptions of self-efficacy and the perceived benefits of self-assessment in writing skill. Meanwhile, theresearch also delves into students' self-assessment practices, exploring both reportedpractices and actual engagement of tertiary students’ self-assessment in learningwriting. The ultimate research objective is to explore the challenges encountered byEFL students' self-assessment while learning writing, with a particular focus onunderstanding their real engagement in the self-assessment process. To achieve theseaims, the study addresses three specific research questions:

1. What are Vietnamese EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill?2. How do Vietnamese EFL students practice self-assessment when learning writing?

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3. What are the challenges encountered by Vietnamese EFL students in self-assessmentin writing skill?

By investigating these research questions, the study seeks to provide acomprehensive understanding of how Vietnamese EFL tertiary students perceive,practice, and encounter self-assessment in learning writing as a skill. The findings ofthis research can enrich the existing knowledge base and inform educational practices,curriculum development, and instructional strategies in the teaching and learning ofwriting as a productive skill for Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level.

<b>1.4. Research scope</b>

This study defines its scope as an investigation into the perceptions, practices, andchallenges related to self-assessment in the process of learning English writing amongVietnamese EFL tertiary students. The research was conducted over a six-month periodat two universities in the southern region of Vietnam. The participants exclusivelycomprised second-year students majoring in English who volunteered to participate inthis research.

The research narrows its focus by employing cognitive and constructivist theories,metacognition theory, and reflection theory as the theoretical background for self-assessment, emphasizing autonomous and self-regulated learning in the context ofwriting. Additionally, it utilizes a mixed-methods approach, integrating bothquantitative and qualitative approaches in two stages. In the first stage, the studyadministered a questionnaire to a large number of EFL students and conducted eightfocus-group interviews. During the empirical stage, an 8-week project was conductedwith a group of second-year students who were enrolled in an online writing coursedesigned to enhance their writing skill. These students were assigned tasks that includedwriting essays, using self-assessment checklist to self-assess their papers and revisingthem, and finally completing a questionnaire and reflective journals.

The study specifically aimed to gain insights into Vietnamese EFL tertiarystudents' perceptions, practices, and challenges associated with self-assessment in thecontext of learning writing.

<b>1.5. Significance of the research</b>

This research bears notable significance in the field of English language educationwithin higher education in Vietnam, particularly regarding students’ perceptions,practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learning English writing. The findings ofthis study can provide insights into the current state of English writing instruction atVietnamese universities, which can further inform higher education strategies for

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English language teaching, program development, teaching methodologies, and relatedconditions pertinent to English writing instruction.

Firstly, investigating the perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessmentin learning writing among Vietnamese EFL students helps bridge gaps in the existingliterature, such as knowledge, population, empirical, and methodology gaps. In thespecific context of higher education and writing skill, there has been limited attentiongiven to self-assessment within Vietnamese university settings. Therefore, this studycan add to the body of knowledge by shedding light on this crucial aspect of learningwriting as a skill through self-assessment.

Secondly, the study's methodology, derived from a combination of cognitive andconstructivist theories, metacognitive theory, and reflection theories, along with theintegration of quantitative and qualitative methods, contributes to the advancement ofresearch methodologies in the field. Additionally, the use of multiple data collectiontools (questionnaires, interviews, self-assessment checklists, reflective journals, andstudents' papers) enables the gathering of diverse data types, fostering a comprehensiveand detailed understanding of self-assessment in learning writing among VietnameseEFL students. This methodological contribution can inspire future research endeavoursand serve as a reference for other researchers investigating similar topics.

The findings of this research carry practical implications for English writinglecturers, curriculum developers, and policymakers. By gaining insight into how EFLstudents perceive and engage in self-assessment in English writing, educators can tailormore effective instructional strategies and assessment practices to improve students'writing skill. Regarding students' actual perceptions of self-assessment, English writinginstructors can guide students' understanding in the correct direction while also refiningtheir own teaching approaches. Besides, in terms of students' reflective practices of self-assessment in writing skill, both English lecturers and students at Vietnameseuniversities can recognize these practices as relevant issues requiring scientificsolutions to enhance the effectiveness of writing instruction.

Finally, concerning the research results on students’ challenges of self-assessmentin English writing skill, writing lecturers responsible for English teaching atVietnamese universities can classify these challenges into at least two groups: negativechallenges that need to be overcome and positive ones that require redirection orimprovement in better ways. By examining the challenges faced by Vietnamese EFLstudents in the self-assessment process, lecturers can inform support mechanisms andinterventions to address these issues. Students can benefit from a better understandingof the challenges of self-assessment, enabling them to become more self-directed

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learners and take ownership of their writing development.

<b>1.6. Organization of the study</b>

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the current study, including the researchbackground, research rationale, research questions, research aims, scope, andsignificance of the study. It sets the stage for the entire research project and outlines thekey aspects that will be explored.

Chapter 2 presents a critical thematic review of relevant literature. It examinestheoretical background of self-assessment in learning writing and explores theories ofassessment related to self-assessment. This chapter also identifies research gaps inprevious studies on self-assessment issues, highlighting the need for furtherinvestigation.

Chapter 3 focuses on the research methodologies employed in this study. Itdiscusses the research approaches and research design used to gather data and addressthe research questions. The chapter describes the research contexts, sites, participants,and the role of the researcher. Moreover, it presents the instruments for data collectionand data analysis, while addressing ethical considerations, reliability, and validityissues.

Chapter 4 reports and discusses the findings of the study. It presents the results ofthe data collected on students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessmentin learning writing. The chapter provides an analysis of the data and engages in athorough discussion of the findings, highlighting key patterns, themes, andimplications.

Chapter 5 summarizes the key findings of the study and provides implications forthe field of self-assessment in English language education. It highlights thecontributions of the research and discusses potential directions for future research inthis area. The chapter concludes the study by bringing together the main insights andoffering a closing reflection on the overall research endeavor.

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<b>CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW</b>

<i>This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the theoretical foundations andrelevant concepts related to self-assessment. It begins by examining theories ofcognition and constructivism, metacognition, and reflection, highlighting theirsignificance in understanding the self-assessment process. The discussion then centersaround the purposes and key characteristics of self-assessment, particularly aboutdifferent types of assessment commonly used in educational contexts. To contextualizethe current research, previous studies in the field are thoroughly examined, identifyinggaps in the existing literature that this study aims to address. Building upon the insightsfrom prior research, this chapter sets the foundation for the subsequent investigationinto Vietnamese EFL students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in writing skill.</i>

<b>2.1. Theoretical background</b>

This section is a theoretical review that evaluates and synthesizes theories,models, and concepts serving as the foundation for self-assessment. The cognitive andconstructivist theories, reflection theory, and metacognition theory converge on keyaspects that are crucial in students' self-assessment in learning writing. The significanceof these theories lies in their shared emphasis on the active participation, interpretation,reflection, and metacognitive awareness involved in the process of self-assessment. Byintegrating these theoretical perspectives, the researcher can establish an approach toself-assessment in learning writing as a skill, empowering students to assumeownership of their writing development.

<b>2.1.1. Cognitive and constructivist theories</b>

Cognitive and constructivist theories have significantly influenced the educationalfield, shedding light on how learners construct knowledge. These theories highlight thecrucial roles of both the writing process and self-assessment, emphasizing learners'active engagement in knowledge construction and the importance of comprehendingand building knowledge in these processes.

Cognitive theory, a fundamental concept in understanding learning processes,plays a pivotal role in the writing process. According to Piaget (1985), learners activelyconstruct knowledge through their experiences, necessitating their active involvementin the development of understanding. This principle extends to the process of writing,where students must draw upon their existing knowledge, skills, and experiences,actively engaging in the construction of their written work.

Likewise, this active knowledge construction is evident in Flower and Hayes'

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(1981, p.370) writing process model, where cognitive theory underpins specificcomponents: the planning process, the translating component, and the review element.In the planning stage, writers engage in mental activities, organizing ideas, and settinggoals. Here, the writers actively structure their thoughts and plan the composition,reflecting cognitive theory's emphasis on individual knowledge construction. Writersutilize cognitive strategies, leveraging their existing knowledge to arrange ideascoherently. In the process of translating component, cognitive theory highlights thatmental representations are translated the ideas into various forms in written language. Inthis stage, the writers transform their organized thoughts into written words such asselecting appropriate vocabulary, syntax, and composition. This process mirrorscognitive theory's focus on the transformation of mental constructs into externalexpressions, highlighting the cognitive processes inherent in written expression.Finally, within the context of the writing process, cognitive theory emphasizes theimportance of reviewing and revising written work. It suggests that writers engage inmetacognitive processes, such as self-assessment and error detection, to refine theirwriting. In other words, the writers self-assess their drafts, identify areas forimprovement, and make revisions based on reflections.

In another view on the process of the review element, cognitive theory placessignificant emphasis on metacognition, which involves thinking about one's thinkingprocesses (Dewey,1933). This principle finds resonance in the review element ofFlower and Hayes' writing model, which encompasses reviewing, evaluating, andrevising written work. Writers engage in metacognitive processes by criticallyevaluating their work, identifying errors, and making revisions. Through this process,students can understand the benefits of each step in the process of review element intheir work. This aligns seamlessly with cognitive theory's emphasis on metacognitionand self-assessment. Writers actively monitor and adjust their cognitive processes,contemplating their writing strategies and applying revisions based on their evaluation.Besides, self-assessment in learning writing closely aligns with Piaget's (1985) view,allowing students to take an active role in evaluating their progress and constructingtheir understanding of their writing skill. Through self-assessment, students engage incritical reflection, identifying strengths and weaknesses in writing and making informeddecisions for improvement. Thus, self-assessment becomes a potent tool for students toconstruct knowledge actively and deepen their comprehension of writing skill.

In addition to the theory of cognition, constructivist theory significantly influencesthe writing process and self-assessment by emphasizing active knowledge constructionand personal meaning-making. As highlighted by Dewey (1933) and Vygotsky (1978),constructivist theory posits that learners construct knowledge through social interactionsand meaningful experiences within their learning environment. In the writing process,

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learners actively construct meaning as they make informed decisions, establishconnections between ideas, and create a coherent composition. This dynamic processmirrors the active knowledge construction central to constructivist theory. Furthermore,Piaget (1985) emphasized that learners create personal meaning by integrating newinformation with their existing knowledge. Students draw upon their prior knowledge andexperiences to comprehend the writing task, infusing their compositions with individualperspectives. This approach aligns with constructivist principles, emphasizing thesignificance of individual meaning-making.

Vygotsky's (1978) concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)underscored the effectiveness of learning within a learner's ZPD. In the writing process,teachers can facilitate learning by providing scaffolding, such as self-assessmentchecklists, to help students enhance their writing skill and self-assessment ability. Thisis optimized when individuals are actively engaged in tasks just beyond their currentcapabilities.

Self-assessment is integral to the writing process, prompting writers to reflect ontheir choices and improve their communication skills. Through self-assessment, writersconstruct their understanding of their work, exploring both their strengths andweaknesses. Vygotsky's (1978) ideas support the integration of self-assessment inwriting education, emphasizing its pivotal role in fostering independent learning.Additionally, constructivism advocates for student autonomy, encouraging individualexpression and creativity, thereby enhancing students' writing skills (Mahmud, 2013).Mahmud's work highlights the significance of integrating learners’ prior knowledgewith new information to enrich their learning outcomes.

However, it is important to note that cognitive and constructivist theories mayhave limitations in understanding writing self-assessment, especially within specificcontexts like Vietnam's higher education. Socio-cultural and contextual factors, whichmay extend beyond individual cognitive processes, influence self-assessment practices.The practical implementation of self-assessment strategies can be intricate, demandingcareful scaffolding and guidance from instructors. Addressing these limitations iscrucial in both research and instructional design, particularly in a specific educationalcontext such as Vietnam.

<b>2.1.2. Metacognition theory</b>

Metacognition theory, extensively explored in psychological and educationalliterature, refers to learners' ability to monitor, assess, and regulate cognitive strategiesto improve their performance (Flavell, 1979; Lee & Mak, 2018). These strategies involveconscious control over cognitive processes, including self-assessing comprehension,estimating self-efficacy, organizing tasks, managing time, and transitioning between

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learning activities (McMillan & Hearn, 2008). In the context of EFL writing, theseprocesses are essential for students to engage in self-assessment. This includes monitoringtheir understanding of writing prompts, estimating task comprehension, setting writingobjectives, and managing the various phases of the writing process (e.g., planning,drafting, revising, and editing). Consciously controlling these cognitive processesempowers students to actively self-assess their writing, identify specific strengths andweaknesses, and enhance their work, thus taking ownership of their learning.

Metacognition theory carries profound implications for education, particularly instudents' self-assessment. It underscores the importance of teaching students to reflecton their thinking and develop metacognitive strategies for learning (Flavell, 1979; Lee& Mak, 2018). Encouraging students to engage in self-assessment and reflect on theirthinking aligns with metacognition's principles of monitoring and regulating cognitiveprocesses. Self-assessment empowers students to take charge of their learning, definetheir learning goals, and monitor their progress toward those objectives, aligning withmetacognition's emphasis on self-regulated learning and activities such as planning,monitoring, and self-assessment.

Remarkably, metacognitive knowledge pertains to learners' cognitive processesand factors influencing learning, including motivation, beliefs, and self-efficacy(Flavell, 1979; Schunk, 2012; Wenden, 1998). Among these factors, self-efficacysignificantly influences students' perceptions of self-assessment. It encompasses theirbeliefs regarding their overall capacity, knowledge, and ability to accurately assess their

<i>skills. For instance, students might express their confidence by saying, "I assume that Ican..." or "I think I can do well in...” or “I think my strengths are...".</i>

On the other hand, metacognitive strategies refer to students' abilities to regulatecognitive processes, including monitoring, adjusting, reflecting, and contemplating theself-assessment process (Zhang, 2010). Essentially, students use metacognitivestrategies to monitor and self-assess their learning objectives. They focus on theirlearning goals and develop strategies relevant to their self-assessment activities (Suskie,2018). By engaging in these practices, students gain a comprehensive understanding of

<i>the benefits and values of self-assessment. For example, they might express, "I find thatlearning with self-assessment allows me to..." or "I realize that self-assessmentencourages me to...". Consequently, metacognitive strategies play a critical role in</i>

helping learners comprehend the advantages and significance of learning through assessment, as they utilize their strategic knowledge to attain cognitive objectives intheir learning activities.

self-Moreover, metacognition can help students become effective problem-solversthrough a self-assessment process (Lee & Mak, 2018; Schunk, 2012). Self-assessment

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encourages students to identify their ability, analyze their learning strategies, and makenecessary adjustments. This enhances their understanding of the subject matter andequips them with skills to address complex problems and adapt their learningapproaches. Fostering metacognitive strategies through self-assessment preparesstudents for lifelong learning.

In conclusion, metacognition significantly contributes to learners' understandingof the benefits, values, and self-efficacy associated with self-assessment. Metacognitivestrategies empower students to think about their learning processes, make informedassessments, and enhance their writing skill. By being metacognitively aware, studentscan become more skillful writers and actively contribute to their learning anddevelopment.

<b>2.1.3. Reflection theory</b>

In learning writing, reflection theory plays a significant role in students' assessment. Engaging in reflective practices, students can deepen their understanding,develop critical thinking skills, and improve their writing abilities.

self-Reflection theory, as emphasized by Dewey’s (1933) work, underscores thesignificance of thoughtful consideration, problem-solving, and the development of one'sthinking. Dewey's perspective on reflection theory aligns seamlessly with the process ofself-assessment in learning writing. This implies that students engage in thoughtfulconsideration of their writing practices, enabling them to critically analyze their workand make informed decisions about their writing strategies through reflection. Forinstance, when focusing on problem-solving, students are able to identify specificchallenges they encounter during the writing process and develop strategies to addressthem. Moreover, reflection theory emphasizes the growth of learners’ thinking,encouraging students to self-assess their writing from multiple perspectives andconsider alternative approaches. This reflective practice not only enhances students'writing skill but also cultivates their ability to engage in metacognition, enabling themto monitor, self-assess, and adjust their writing strategies based on their self-assessment. Overall, reflection theory plays a fundamental role in students' self-assessment in learning writing, empowering them to become active participants in theirlearning process.

Emphasizing the role of self-assessment in the writing classroom, Dewey (1933)argued that reflection cultivates students' perception of the value of interpersonalcommunication in the learning process. Through self-assessment, for example, studentsengage in critical thinking about their writing, considering feedback from peers andteachers. This active engagement with others fosters collaboration, peer learning, andthe exchange of ideas. Students develop an understanding that their writing skills can be

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enriched through diverse perspectives and constructive dialogue.

Moreover, reflecting on their essays and the works of others, students develop anappreciation for the social nature of learning, recognizing that knowledge is co-constructed through interactions with peers and teachers. In addition to promotingsocial interactions, self-assessment in the writing classroom also nurtures students'sense of responsibility for their own learning. Through reflection, students takeownership of their writing process, as they self-assess their strengths and areas forimprovement. Self-assessment prompts students to set specific goals, monitor theirprogress, and make adjustments accordingly. Actively engaging in self-assessment,students become aware of their own learning needs and take responsibility for seekingappropriate strategies to enhance their writing skills. This sense of ownership fostersintrinsic motivation, self-directed learning, and a growth mindset.

In short, reflection theory plays a significant role in students' self-assessment inlearning writing. Rooted in Dewey's perspective, reflection theory encourages students toengage in thoughtful consideration of their writing practices, enabling them to criticallyanalyze their writing work and make informed decisions about their writing strategies.Through reflection, students can identify specific challenges, seek alternative approaches,and monitor their progress, ultimately fostering critical thinking skills, metacognition, andintrinsic motivation in the writing classroom. Moreover, self-assessment promotescollaboration, peer learning, and a sense of responsibility for one's own learning process,emphasizing the social nature of knowledge construction and empowering students tobecome active participants in their learning process.

<b>2.1.4. Self-assessment in autonomous and self-regulated learning</b>

<i><b>2.1.4.1. Definitions of self-assessment</b></i>

On defining self-assessment, Andrade (2019) pointed out that it was surprisinglydifficult to clearly define “self-assessment” because self-assessment involves variousactivities, like predicting students’ test results, using a rubric or checklist to diagnosestudents’ strengths and weaknesses, writing reflective journals, and more. Each of thosetasks has a unique sort of assessment and function; therefore, they may lead toconfusion between these forms and the concept of self-assessment. In addition,numerous terms have been used interchangeably to describe the process of students’assessment and reflection on their own learning, including notable terms such as “self-assessment”, “self-reflection”, “self-monitoring”, and “self-evaluation”. Significantly, aprocess of students’ self-rating, self-grading, self-testing, and self-judging can be seenas forms of self-assessment. These terms can occasionally create ambiguity when itcomes to self-assessment.

Harris and McCann (1994) highlighted that self-assessment is the way students

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self-assess their learning process and problems and then look for ways of changing,adapting, and improving. This perspective emphasizes the idea of individualism in aprocess of learning that students themselves self-judge their learning progress andimprove in isolation. In contrast to Harris and McCann (1994), Boud (1991) argued thatself-assessment is not just an individualistic activity or a learning process of a learner,but involves many learners. Boud (1991, p.12) defined self-assessment as “theinvolvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their workand making judgments about the extent to which they have met these criteria andstandards.” In other words, Boud (1991) believed the conceptualization of self-assessment involves learners collaborating in assessing their work during the process oflearning. This collaborative approach aligns with the notion of autonomous learning,where students take ownership of their learning process and engage in self-assessmentwithin a social context such as seeking feedback or information from a variety ofsources on a regular basis.

From another perspective, Gregory et al. (2011) emphasized the importance ofreflection on performance in self-assessment processes. Their definition underscoresstudents' reflection on the quality of their work and their assessment of its reflectivityagainst explicitly stated goals or criteria. This reflective aspect is fundamental to self-regulated learning, as it enables students to monitor their progress, identify areas forimprovement, and revise their work accordingly.

Brown and Harris (2013, p.3) defined self-assessment as "a process of the evaluativeand descriptive act carried out by students regarding their tasks and abilities." This alignswith Brown's (2003) view of self-assessment as a process of self-assessment, whereinstudents evaluate and monitor their performance against identified criteria. Zimmerman(2000) described self-assessment as a process of self-observation and self-judgment,involving tracking specific aspects of performance, conditions, and effects, and judgingperformance against criteria or standards. These definitions highlight the importance ofreflection, evaluation, and judgment in self-assessment processes.

Notably, Andrade and Du (2007, p.3) defined self-assessment as

"a process of formative assessment during which students reflect on andevaluate the quality of their work and their learning, judge the degree towhich they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, identify strengths andweakness in their work, and revise."

This definition is in line with the principles of learner-centered education.According to Andrade and Du's definition, self-assessment embodies the learner-centered approach by placing the learner at the center of the formative assessmentprocess. It empowers students to reflect on the quality of their work, assess their

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progress, and identify areas for improvement based on their own understanding of thegoals and criteria. Students become active participants in their own learning, fostering asense of autonomy, self-perception, and metacognitive skills when engaging in self-assessment. This supports the development of lifelong learners who can self-regulate,adapt, and continuously improve their knowledge and skills.

In summary, the aforementioned definitions and concepts of self-assessmentunderscored the significance of autonomous and self-regulated learning. The statementsprovided by different authors emphasized the involvement of reflection, evaluation,judgment, and goal-oriented assessment within self-assessment processes. Engaging inself-assessment, students become active participants in their learning process, seekingfeedback, and making adjustments to improve their learning.

<i><b>2.1.4.2. Autonomous language learning</b></i>

The concept of autonomous learning, emphasizing self-directed learning, hasgained significant attention in educational contexts. Scholars have stressed the pivotalrole of self-assessment in fostering autonomous learning among students. According toBenson (2009), Gardner (2000), and Smith (2018), learner-centered education equipsstudents with essential skills such as self-assessment, decision-making, and problem-solving, empowering them to take control of their learning. Self-assessment promotesautonomous learning, enabling students to actively assess their progress, reflect on theirstrengths and areas for improvement, and make informed decisions about their learningstrategies. This process cultivates a sense of ownership and independence, allowingstudents to tailor their learning experiences to their unique needs and goals. Throughself-assessment, learners develop metacognitive awareness, enhancing their ability tomonitor their progress and make necessary adjustments.

The relationship between self-assessment and learner autonomy has beenadditionally emphasized by Gardner (2000) and Holec (1981). Autonomous learners, asGardner argued, are responsible for monitoring their progress, with self-assessmentplaying a pivotal role in reflection and progress monitoring. Holec similarly highlightedthat self-assessment is crucial for learners to reflect on their progress and monitor theirdevelopment. Both perspectives underscore that self-assessment empowers students tocritically assess their performance, identify areas for improvement, and make necessaryadjustments, fostering self-awareness, metacognitive skills, and a deeper understandingof the learning process.

Additionally, Gholami (2016) further delved into the advantages of assessment for independent learners, considering it a self-monitoring tool providinginstant feedback on language proficiency and learning strategy effectiveness. Gardner(2010) supported this perspective, stating that self-assessment enables learners to

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self-personalize their learning, reflect on strengths and weaknesses, monitor progress, andengage in metacognitive processes. These insights highlight the benefits of self-assessment in promoting learner autonomy by enabling personalized learning andmetacognitive engagement.

Overall, the close relationship between self-assessment and learner autonomy isevident in their shared focus on learner-centeredness and independent learning. Benson(2009) and Gardner (2000) emphasized the learner-centered nature of both concepts,highlighting the active role of students in their learning process. This learner-centeredapproach contributes to the development of lifelong learning skills as learners becomemore independent and self-directed in their educational journey.

<i><b>2.1.4.3. Self-regulated learning</b></i>

Pintrich (2000) defined self-regulated learning as the process where studentsestablish objectives for their learning and actively monitor, adjust, and manage theirthoughts, motivation, and actions to achieve these objectives. Pintrich’s definition isstrongly supported by contemporary educational psychology and empirical research,particularly within cognitive theory and social constructivism. Self-regulated learningunderscores the active involvement of learners in their educational process, whichincludes goal setting, metacognition, motivation, and adaptable strategies. Research,including studies by Panadero et al. (2016) and Zimmerman and Schunk (2011),consistently reveals a positive correlation between self-regulated learning and academicachievement. In essence, Pintrich's definition encapsulates the core elements of self-regulated learning, highlighting the pivotal role of active engagement and goal-orientedmetacognition in shaping learning outcomes.

Significant conceptual and practical overlap exists between self-assessment andself-regulated learning within educational literature. Boud (2013) emphasized that bothself-assessment and self-regulated learning revolve around how students perceive thequality of their work during the learning process. Brown (2003) further solidified thealignment by underlining their shared goal of encouraging students to critically assesstheir progress. Essentially, these perspectives underscore that both self-assessment andself-regulated learning foster metacognitive skills, enabling students to reflect on theirstrengths and weaknesses. This interconnection highlights their collective focus onstudent engagement, reflection, and assessment of the learning process.

Furthermore, the literature consistently highlights self-assessment as a pivotalcomponent of self-regulated learning. Andrade and Brookhart (2016) offered evidenceof the link between self-assessment and learning, suggesting that self-regulated learnersset objectives, monitor their progress, and adapt strategies to achieve their goals. Thisaligns with Zimmerman and Schunk's (2004) viewpoint that self-assessment serves as a

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tool for monitoring self-regulated learning development. This correlation underscoresthe significance of self-assessment in cultivating learners' metacognitive skills and self-directed learning.

The correlation between self-assessment and Zimmerman's (2013) three-phasemodel is evident in its framework for understanding self-assessment. This model,rooted in social construction and reflection theory, comprises three distinct phaseswithin the self-regulation cycle: Forethought, Performance or Volitional Control, andSelf-Reflection. The current study adopts Zimmerman's self-regulated learning model(Figure 2.1), showcasing the integration of these three cyclical phases and emphasizingself-assessment's pivotal role in each stage of the learning process.

<i><b>Figure.2.1. Cyclical phases of self-regulated learning. Adapted from Zimmerman (2013,</b></i>

The Forethought phase, the initial stage of self-regulated learning, plays a crucial role inshaping students' approach to a task, involving task analysis and self-motivation beliefs.During this phase, students analyze the task, set goals, and formulate a plan, taking intoaccount task requirements, standards, and success strategies. Self-regulated studentsengage in self-assessment, identifying areas for improvement and enhancing theirlearning. Alongside task analysis, students' self-motivation beliefs are pivotal in the

<b>FORETHOUGHTTask analysis</b>

Goal settingStrategic planning

<b>Self-motivation beliefs</b>

Outcome expectationsIntrinsic value

Goal orientation

Self-evaluationCasual attribution

Self-satisfaction /affectAdaptive-defensive

Attention focusingTask strategies

Self-recordingSelf-experimentation

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self-regulated process, emphasizing their perception of self-efficacy, outcomeexpectations, intrinsic value, and goal orientation. Fostering a positive perception ofself-efficacy in this phase is essential for promoting self-assessment and facilitatingstudents' learning development.

The Performance or Volitional Control phase, the second stage of self-regulatedlearning, centers on students' self-control and self-observation. In this phase, studentsexercise self-control through techniques such as self-instruction, imagery, attentionfocusing, and task strategies. These strategies regulate cognitive and behavioralprocesses, enabling focused learning and effective management. Self-observation isequally important, involving activities like self-recording and self-experimentation.Students gain valuable insights into their learning process, identifying areas forimprovement by monitoring their progress and performance. This phase occurs duringthe learning process, allowing students to actively engage in self-monitoring andemploy effective learning management strategies, optimizing performance and learningoutcomes.

The Self-Reflection phase, the third stage of regulated learning, involves judgment and self-reaction. Students evaluate their task performance, attributingsuccess or failure and reacting emotionally. Self-judgment entails critical self-evaluation and causal attribution analysis. Self-reaction encompasses emotional andaffective responses, alongside the adoption of adaptive or defensive strategies based onperformance. During this phase, students reflect on factors that influenced their taskapproach, contemplating how to enhance future performance. Importantly, this self-reflection phase serves as a bridge back to the Forethought phase, where insights informgoal-setting, planning, and strategies for subsequent learning endeavors.

self-Zimmerman's (2013) self-regulated learning model encompasses three distinctphases integral to students' self-assessment perceptions and practices. The Forethoughtphase initiates the learning process, with students analyzing tasks and assessing theirself-efficacy, influencing motivation and perception. The Performance or VolitionalControl phase emphasizes self-control and self-observation, employing strategies forfocused learning and effective management. Self-observation allows for progressmonitoring and adjustments. Finally, the Self-Reflection phase involves self-judgmentand self-reaction, encouraging critical evaluation and emotional response. This phaseserves as a connection to the Forethought phase, enabling students to refine goals,plans, and strategies. Together, these phases underscore the importance of self-assessment in self-regulated learning, fostering student growth and success.

<b>2.2. Assessment in foreign language education</b>

This section provides an integrative review of assessment methods and their

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significance in foreign language education, specifically exploring various aspects ofassessment within the context of higher education. Formative assessment, whichincludes teacher assessment, self-assessment as a primary strategy, and peerassessment, is a key focus. It also reviews the interconnections between self-assessment, peer assessment, and teacher assessment. Additionally, the sectionaddresses the role of self-assessment in summative assessment, demonstrating how itcan serve as a valuable tool for evaluating student performance at the end of a learningperiod.

<b>2.2.1. Formative assessment</b>

<i><b>2.2.1.1. Teacher assessment</b></i>

Teacher assessment or feedback plays a critical role in formative assessmentpractices, where the focus is on improving students' learning process. The significanceof teacher feedback in classroom assessments highlights its value in providinginformative insights, enhancing student learning, promoting learner autonomy, anddeveloping students’ self-assessment skills.

In contrast to the traditional approach that primarily relies on using grades asfeedback indicators of students’ achievement, a significant shift has focussed towardsprocess-related assessment, which involves providing direct feedback to students forself-correction. This change recognizes the importance of ongoing assessment andfeedback in supporting student learning. In this context, the role of teacher feedback hasbecome vital (Andrade, 2013; Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Lee, 2017). Providingconstructive feedback, teachers act as constructivists, igniting students' activeengagement in the learning process and unlocking the full potential of assessments toimprove students’ learning. Teacher feedback in formative assessment aligns withresearch that highlighted the valuable role of constructive feedback in promotingstudents’ growth and development (Lee, 2017). It empowers teachers to guide studentseffectively, providing them with specific guidance and actionable suggestions forimprovement. Ultimately, the integration of formative feedback maximizes the potentialof assessments to foster continuous learning and drive positive educationaldevelopment.

Teacher feedback holds significant value as it serves as an information-seekingprocess that enhances students' learning opportunities (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Lee,2017). Teachers often create a learning environment where students can actively engagewith their learning by offering constructive feedback and guidance. This feedback-orientedapproach allows students to receive specific insights into their learning process, enablingthem to make necessary adjustments and improvements. It means that these valuablelearning opportunities support students' overall growth and development. The value of

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feedback in enhancing students' learning opportunities lies in its ability to provide targetedguidance and promote continuous improvement, fostering a more effective and meaningfullearning experience.

Moreover, teacher assessment plays a central role in formative assessment,serving the dual purpose of facilitating learning improvement and fostering learnerautonomy (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Harlen & Gardner, 2010; Lee, 2017). Through theprovision of feedback, teachers can provide valuable insights and guidance to theirstudents, enabling them to identify areas for improvement and make necessary adjustmentsin their learning process. This feedback-oriented approach not only promotes learningimprovement but also empowers students to take ownership of their learning process. Insuch a dynamic environment, students often develop metacognitive skills, reflect on theirlearning strategies, and become more self-regulated learners. Teacher feedback thus acts asa catalyst for both learning improvement and the development of learner autonomy,allowing students to take an active role in their education and become more independentand self-directed in their learning.

Finally, teacher assessment plays an important role in equipping students withself-assessment skills and empowering them to become self-regulated learners. AsAndrade and Cizek (2010) pointed out that teacher feedback promotes students' activeengagement in the learning process and maximizes the potential of assessment forimproving learning. This perspective highlights the potential value of teacher feedbackin promoting student involvement and enhancing learning. Teachers guide theirstudents toward achieving their learning goals by providing targeted feedback. Thisaligns with Lee's (2017) view that teacher feedback is an information-seeking processthat optimizes students' learning opportunities. The act of receiving feedback fromteachers enables students to reflect on their own performance, identify areas ofimprovement, and develop self-assessment skills. It is through this iterative process offeedback and reflection that students become more self-regulated in their learning. Lee(2017) and Brown (2003) further emphasized the transformative power of teacherfeedback, stating that it empowers students to become autonomous learners.Internalizing the feedback received, students become more self-directed and takeresponsibility for their own learning process. The values of teacher assessment,therefore, extend beyond academic achievement and contribute to the holisticdevelopment of students as self-regulated learners capable of lifelong learning.

<i><b>2.2.1.2. Self-assessment as a key strategy of formative assessment</b></i>

In recent years, a significant shift has occurred in classroom assessment practiceswithin higher education, placing a growing emphasis on formative assessment. Formativeassessment is globally recognized as a potent method for evaluating the effectiveness of

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teaching and learning (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Brookhart, 2011; Lee, 2017). Within theframework of formative assessment, self-assessment assumes a crucial role in promotingstudent engagement, metacognition, and self-regulated learning.

Andrade and Brown (2016), along with Brown and Harris (2013), emphasized theimportance of self-assessment in formative assessment, asserting that it empowersstudents to actively monitor and reflect on their own learning progress. This recognitionunderscores the empowering nature of self-assessment, allowing students to exercisegreater control over their learning and take responsibility for their academic growth. Asa result, students develop a deeper self-perception of their strengths and weaknesses,thereby facilitating purposeful and personalized learning experiences. Similarly,Bennett (2011) and Brookhart (2011) acknowledged the significance of self-assessmentwithin formative assessment, affirming that it cultivates metacognitive abilities andenhances students' perceptions of their own learning process. This perspective alignswith the idea that self-assessment fosters metacognition, enabling students to reflect ontheir learning approaches, identify areas requiring enhancement, and make appropriateadaptations. Engaging in the self-assessment process nurtures students' self-perceptionand instills a sense of responsibility for their learning trajectory.

Butler (2016) and Race (2020) also underscored the role of self-assessment informative assessment, asserting that it nurtures students' autonomy and accountabilityfor their learning. This perspective highlights the transformative impact of self-assessment, empowering students to become self-regulated learners. Self-assessmentempowers students to assume control of their learning by setting goals, monitoringprogress, and making informed decisions to enhance their learning outcomes.Moreover, the role of self-assessment in formative assessment finds further supportfrom Irons (2008) and Parr and Timperley (2010), who suggested that self-assessmentmaximizes the potential of classroom assessment to enhance students' learning. Self-assessment activities encourage students to actively engage with content, reflect ontheir learning, and develop a deeper understanding of their capabilities and growthareas. This process contributes to a more student-centered and learner-driveneducational approach.

In short, the integration of formative assessment practices in higher educationhighlights the crucial role of self-assessment in promoting student engagement,metacognition, and self-regulated learning. Studies by Andrade, Brookhart, and Butlercollectively emphasize that self-assessment empowers students to monitor progress,reflect on learning, and take ownership of their academic journey, fosteringmetacognitive abilities and autonomy. This enhances students' perceptions of theirlearning process and supports a more student-centered educational paradigm.

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<i><b>2.2.1.3. Peer assessment</b></i>

Peer assessment has emerged as a valuable strategy within formative assessment,providing students with feedback and promoting active engagement in the learningprocess. Also known as peer feedback, peer evaluation, or peer editing, it holdsimmense value and plays a pivotal role in enhancing students' learning and self-assessment skills.

Peer assessment is widely acknowledged as a potent source for enriching students'learning experiences and fostering autonomy and self-regulation. This perspective issubstantiated by prominent researchers in the field (Boud, 2013; Brown, 2003; Lee,2017; Race, 2011; Topping, 2013) who have explored the impact of peer assessment onstudent development. Through peer assessment, students actively participate in theevaluation and feedback process, leading to a deeper grasp of the subject matter.Assessing their peers' work, students are exposed to diverse perspectives and alternativeapproaches, which broadens their knowledge base and hones their critical thinkingskills. Moreover, peer assessment empowers students to take charge of their learning byencouraging them to be active contributors to the assessment process. Providingconstructive feedback to their peers enhances students' ability to self-assess their ownwork and identify areas for improvement. This self-assessment process contributes totheir growth as independent learners, as they become proficient in setting goals,monitoring their progress, and assuming responsibility for their learning process.Ultimately, peer assessment emerges as a potent tool that enhances students' learningprocesses while nurturing autonomy and self-regulation skills.

Participation in peer assessment offers compelling justifications for its value ineducational settings. Firstly, it refines students' judgment and self-assessment skills, asemphasized by Topping (2013). Critically assessing their peers' work deepens students'understanding of assessment criteria and standards, refining their ability to makeinformed judgments about their own work's quality and effectiveness. This assessmentprocess encourages self-perception and reflection, enabling students to more accuratelypinpoint their strengths and areas for improvement. Secondly, engaging in peerassessment motivates students to take an active role in the group work process. Thisapproach encourages them to participate actively in the learning community,contributing to a collective understanding of the subject matter. This collaborativeapproach fosters meaningful interactions and discussions among peers, resulting inheightened comprehension and the exchange of diverse perspectives. Lastly, peerassessment promotes students' responsibility for their own learning. The assessmentprocess, combined with providing feedback to peers, encourages students to assumeownership over their progress and growth. They develop a sense of accountability fortheir learning journey and take on the task of monitoring and enhancing their own work.

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It's important to note that peer assessment serves not only as a tool for assessinglearning but also as a valuable means of facilitating formative assessment andpromoting students' self-assessment abilities, as highlighted by Topping (2013).

<i><b>2.2.1.4. Relationship among self-, peer, and teacher assessment</b></i>

In contemporary educational contexts, self-, peer-, and teacher assessments haveemerged as essential components of formative assessment practices. While eachapproach has distinct characteristics, they share common objectives of improvingstudent learning and promoting autonomy. This review aims to elucidate therelationship among these assessment methods, emphasizing their role in developingself-regulated and autonomous learners.

The interconnectedness of self-assessment, teacher assessment, and peerassessment plays a vital role in fostering self-regulated and autonomous learning.According to Lee (2017), self-assessment enables students to reflect on their learningprocess, identify areas for improvement, and take control of their learning process. Thisaligns with the idea that self-assessment empowers learners to assume ownership oftheir learning. Similarly, Andrade (2013) emphasized the significance of teacherassessment in formative assessment, noting that teachers, through specific guidance andactionable suggestions, facilitate students' active engagement and responsibility fortheir learning. This feedback-oriented approach enhances metacognitive skills andencourages self-reflection. Additionally, Nielsen (2011) and Topping (2013)highlighted the importance of peer assessment, which promotes active participation,critical thinking, and exposure to diverse perspectives, ultimately fostering deepercomprehension. Peer assessment also helps students develop self-assessment skills asthey evaluate the quality of their own work in comparison to their peers. Integratingthese assessment methods collectively maximizes their impact on self-regulated andautonomous learning, creating a supportive and empowering learning environment forstudents.

Feedback from teachers and peers can help students find appropriate solutions forchallenges in self-assessment practices. This is supported by research in the field. Earl(2003) emphasized the role of formative feedback from both teachers and peers inguiding students toward effective self-assessment. This feedback provides valuableinsights and suggestions that help students overcome challenges and improve their self-assessment practices. Additionally, Race (2020) highlighted the importance of student-centered learning, where feedback from multiple sources contributes to acomprehensive understanding of self-assessment. Topping (2013) and Weigle (2009)further supported the idea that formative feedback fosters problem-solving skills in self-assessment by exposing students to alternative strategies and successful examples.

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Overall, the interconnectedness of these assessment approaches maximizes their impacton student learning, facilitating the development of self-regulated and autonomouslearners. This can help students navigate challenges and find appropriate solutions intheir self-assessment practices.

<b>2.2.2. Self-assessment for summative purposes</b>

Summative assessment, a traditional method of evaluating students' learningoutcomes, has long been a fundamental element of educational systems worldwide(Brown & Harris, 2013; Earl, 2003). One significant criticism of summative assessmentis its focus on end results rather than the learning process itself. Placing excessiveimportance on final grades or scores, summative assessment often fails to capture thecomplete picture of a student's learning progression. It overlooks the progress studentsmake throughout their learning journey and neglects to provide meaningful feedbackfor enhancement. This narrow focus on outcomes can foster a fixed mindset anddiminish students' intrinsic motivation to learn. For instance, in writing assignments, themain attention is often directed towards written outputs, tests, and feedback based onscores, both for educators and students (Brookhart, 2013; Harris & McCann, 1994;Weigle, 2009). The test results serve as proof of passing a test, semester, or course, andmeeting other requirements in various contexts. This approach might lead to a situationwhere students are more concerned about whether they "passed" or "failed" an exam,rather than identifying their strengths and weaknesses. When writing assessments areconducted in this manner, students may miss out on reflecting on their learning processand assessing the quality of their work, as identifying limitations for improvementbecomes too late, preventing them from gaining valuable experience for future writingendeavors.

Moreover, delayed feedback from summative assessments has been identified as asignificant impediment to students' ability to enhance their work promptly. Hattie andTimperley (2007) argued that feedback is most effective when provided during thelearning process rather than after its completion. Timely feedback enables students toengage in reflection, identify areas for enhancement, and make progress. Withoutprompt feedback, students might struggle to learn from their mistakes and effectivelydevelop their skills. The significance of timely feedback lies in its role in facilitatingreflection, enabling students to identify errors and misconceptions, maintainingmotivation and engagement, and fostering an iterative process of improvement. Whenfeedback is delayed, students miss out on these opportunities, which compromises theirlearning and growth. Therefore, the provision of timely feedback is crucial forempowering students to reflect on their performance, make necessary adjustments, andenrich their overall learning experience.

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Self-assessment, as a measurement technique, assumes a substantial role in thelearning process for evaluating students' comprehension of their knowledge (Bhatti &Nimehchisalem, 2020; Butler & Lee, 2010). It is worth noting that self-assessment canalso function as a form of summative assessment, involving the use of scores, such asstudents' self-assigned grades or comparing their self-evaluations to their teachers'assessments (Andrade, 2019; Ashton, 2014; Babaii et al., 2016; Belachew et al., 2015).Previous studies primarily focused on comparing scores provided by students andteachers using rubrics or checklists. Nevertheless, these studies have indicated thatstudents tend to either overestimate or underestimate their scores in comparison to theirinstructors' evaluations (Butler & Lee, 2010; Ratminingsih et al., 2018; Sahragard &Mallahi, 2014; Yilmaz, 2017). Despite occasional disparities between teachers' andstudents' grades, most studies reported that students maintain a positive view of self-assessment (Javaherbakhsh, 2010; Ratminingsih et al., 2018), acknowledgeimprovements in writing quality (Johnson & ShellyGelfand, 2013), and recognize itsrole in cultivating lifelong language learning skills, responsibility, and autonomy inwriting (Oscarson, 2009).

<b>2.3. Writing academic English and self-assessment in EFL writing2.3.1. Writing academic English</b>

In the domain of learning to write in academic English, the skill of effectiveacademic writing holds paramount importance. Proficiency in academic writing extendsbeyond mere expression of ideas; it demands a profound comprehension of the specificconventions, structures, and language nuances that characterize academic discourse.Students who master this skill gain a competitive advantage in their studies and futurecareers. Moreover, learners recognize the significance of honing their expertise inacademic writing and underscore key elements such as essay coherence, logicalorganization, unity, paragraph and essay structure, paragraph development, andsentence-level accuracy. Additionally, the emphasis here is to delineate the stages of thewriting process, encompassing prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing, which isindispensable for students to refine their written work and generate high-caliberacademic texts.

In academic writing, students need to delve deep into the specific conventions,structures, and language intricacies that define academic discourse. Hamp-Lyons andHeasley (2006) along with Oshima and Hogue (2006) underscored the significance ofgrasping the distinct attributes and anticipations of academic writing. Oshima andHogue proposed that academic writing entails its own set of conventions, such as aformal tone, objective language, and the utilization of citations, which students mustadeptly wield to proficiently convey their ideas in an academic milieu. The adept use of

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precise language, appropriate vocabulary, and the skill to present arguments in acoherent and logical manner stand as pivotal competencies in academic writing (Davis& Liss, 2006; Hamp-Lyons, 2003; Hedge, 2005). These invaluable componentsempower students to craft written pieces that adhere to the benchmarks andexpectations of academic discourse.

The acquisition of proficiency in academic writing is widely recognized bylearners as a pivotal facet in the writing learning process. They appreciate theimportance of mastering key elements that contribute to effective academic writing,including essay coherence, logical organization, unity, paragraph and essay structure,paragraph development, and sentence-level accuracy. These writing attributes arebuttressed by research findings and academic experts. Highlighting the importance ofessay organization, scholars such as Hamp-Lyons (2003), Oshima and Hogue (2006),and Weigle (2009) argued that a well-structured essay demonstrates coherence andunity. In such essays, every sentence and paragraph collaboratively contributes to theoverall development of ideas. Moreover, Davis and Liss (2006) underscored the crucialnature of sentence-level accuracy, highlighting that precise sentence-level constructionis pivotal for lucidly and effectively conveying ideas in academic writing. Theseperspectives underscore learners' recognition and emphasis on the pivotal elementsrequisite for adept academic writing.

Lastly, outlining the phases of the writing process - prewriting, drafting, revising,and editing - is pivotal for students to refine their written compositions and create high-caliber academic texts. These phases proffer a systematic approach to writing, enablingstudents to nurture their ideas, structure their thoughts, and enhance the lucidity andcoherence of their writing. Researchers and educators alike acknowledge thesignificance of these phases within the writing process. Underscoring the import ofprewriting, Oshima and Hogue (2006) and Weigle (2009) asserted that prewriting aidsstudents in idea generation, thought organization, and establishing a clear trajectory fortheir writing. Similarly, Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006) accentuated the value ofrevision, noting that revision constitutes the keystone for transforming a draft into apolished and cohesive written piece. These elements underscore the indispensable roleof the writing process phases in guiding students to refine their written work andfabricate top-tier academic compositions.

<b>2.3.2. Self-assessment in EFL writing classrooms</b>

Self-assessment holds a valuable role in EFL writing classes, providing notablebenefits and values to students' learning and writing skill development. This sectionwill particularly emphasize the role, benefits and values of self-assessment in EFLwriting within higher education, highlighting its impact on writing skill and its ability to

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empower students in terms of autonomy, responsibility, and reflection.

<i><b>2.3.2.1. Self-assessment in writing skill</b></i>

In the realm of EFL classrooms, self-assessment stands as a cornerstone forrefining writing skill. It empowers students in multifaceted ways: firstly, by leveragingtheir existing knowledge, encompassing their understanding of writing techniques,grammar rules, and vocabulary. This involves harnessing their prior learning to enhancetheir writing prowess. Secondly, it cultivates the ability to apply effective writingstrategies - methods tried and tested. Through self-assessment, students discern whichstrategies suit them best, enabling them to adeptly apply these techniques in theirwriting tasks. Thirdly, self-assessment prompts students to meticulously analyze theirwriting, identifying specific areas such as sentence structure, coherence, or vocabularyusage that require enhancement. This critical evaluation directs their focus to preciseareas demanding more practice and attention. Lastly, self-assessment entails activemonitoring of one's learning journey. Students continuously evaluate their progress,celebrating their improvements and recognizing setbacks. This ongoing assessmentequips them to make well-informed decisions about their learning strategies,pinpointing areas necessitating extra effort. Crucially, this reflective process endowsstudents with ownership of their writing abilities and engages them in metacognitivereflection. By delving into their writing processes, identifying strengths andweaknesses, and consistently monitoring progress, students gain profound insights. Thisintrospection fosters a detailed comprehension of their writing capacities, allowing fortargeted growth. As emphasized by scholars like Andrade (2010) and Butler (2018),self-assessment activities in writing are not mere exercises; they are dynamic processeswherein students actively participate, reflecting deeply on their writing skill, identifyingtheir areas of mastery, and vigilantly tracking their learning process toward proficiency.

The act of self-assessment always activates students' prior knowledge, enablingthem to draw upon their existing understanding and skills while engaging in the writingprocess. By reflecting on their strengths and weaknesses, students gain insights intotheir writing abilities and identify areas for further development, especially inincreasing students' perception of their self-efficacy of their writing skill. Earl (2003)also supported that self-assessment allows students to identify what they do well andwhat they need to work on. This self-perception drives students to employ appropriatewriting strategies that align with their individual needs, fostering more effective andtargeted writing practices.

Furthermore, self-assessment facilitates ongoing monitoring of the learning process,enabling students to track their progress and make necessary adjustments. Weigle (2009)highlighted the importance of self-assessment in writing as it helps students monitor and

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