effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners writing performance

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<b>MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY </b>

<b>MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL </b>

<b>HO CHI MINH CITY, 2021 </b>

<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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223Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceWednesday, June 12, 2024

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<b>MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY </b>

<b>HO CHI MINH CITY, 2021 </b>

<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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223Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceWednesday, June 12, 2024

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<b> TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC MỞ CỘNG HÒA XÃ HỘI CHỦ NGHĨA VIỆT NAM THÀNH PHỐ HỒ CHÍ MINH Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc </b>

<b>KHOA ĐÀO TẠO SAU ĐẠI HỌC </b>

<b>GIẤY XÁC NHẬN </b>

Tôi tên là: NGUYỄN AN KHƯƠNG

Chuyên ngành: Lý luận và phương pháp dạy học bộ môn tiếng Anh

Mã học viên: 1781401110009

Tơi đồng ý cung cấp tồn văn thông tin luận án/ luận văn tốt nghiệp hợp lệ về bản quyền cho Thư viện trường đại học Mở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. Thư viện trường đại học Mở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh sẽ kết nối tồn văn thơng tin luận án/ luận văn tốt nghiệp vào hệ thống thông tin khoa học của Sở Khoa học và Cơng nghệ Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh.

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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223Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceWednesday, June 12, 2024

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<b>CỘNG HÒA XÃ HỘI CHỦ NGHĨA VIỆT NAM Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc </b>

<b>Ý KIẾN CHO PHÉP BẢO VỆ LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN HƯỚNG DẪN </b>

Giảng viên hướng dẫn: Tiến sĩ Vũ Hoa Ngân

Học viên thực hiện: Nguyễn An Khương Lớp: MTESOL017A

<i><b>Tên đề tài: Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners’ writing </b></i>

<b>performance </b>

Ý kiến của giáo viên hướng dẫn về việc cho phép học viên Nguyễn An Khương được bảo vệ

luận văn trước Hội đồng: ...

<b>Đồng ý học viên Nguyễn An Khương được bảo vệ luận văn trước Hội đồng ... </b>

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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No other person’s work has been used without acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis.

This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution.

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2021 NGUYEN AN KHUONG

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<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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I would like to acknowledge the staff and my former lecturers of English who work for and teach at the Foreign Language Faculty of Ho Chi Minh City Open University.

My gratitude is also conveyed to the manager, staff, and students at ALES English Language Center for their helpful support and contribution to my experiment.

My thanks are sent to my classmates of MA in TESOL017A at Ho Chi Minh City Open University. They shared with me both joys and sorrows during a course and especially on the way to complete this thesis.

Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their offering me the most important support during my difficult task.

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<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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iii

<b>ABSTRACT </b>

Collaborative writing has been widely researched and applied in mainstream education and second language (L2) classes. Although it seems to be recognized by many researchers as a more impressive method than individual writing, few studies have focused on how to optimize the effects of using collaborative writing under certain conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the collaborative writing’s effectiveness performed by the same and different peers on collaborative and individual writing performance. Sixty-four students at a foreign language center in Vietnam participated in the study in which 32 were in the control group and 32 were in the experimental group. The training activities of the two groups were similar, in which the product-process approach was used to teach International English Language Testing System (IELTS) writing. The key difference was that the control group remained the same peers while the experimental group conducted the same process with different peers in every new lesson. Essays of the two groups were collected after every lesson to compare the collaborative writing skills. In the end, a post-test was conducted individually to investigate if there was any difference in individual writing skills between the two groups. The attitudes of participants toward changing peers were also examined through the semi-structured interview in the final phase. Based on the research outcomes, some implications were offered for the teaching of writing.

<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance

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<b>TABLE OF CONTENTS </b>

<b>CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ... 1</b>

1.1. Background of the study ... 1

1.2. Statement of the problems ... 1

1.3. Purpose of the study ... 3

1.4. Significance of the study ... 3

1.5. Definition of key terms ... 4

1.6. Structure of the thesis ... 4

<b>CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 6</b>

2.1. Collaborative writing ... 6

2.1.1. Research conceptualization ... 6

2.1.1.1. Pairwork and groupwork ... 6

2.1.1.2. Collaborative writing ... 8

2.1.2. Collaborative writing as product-process approach ... 10

2.1.3. Theories underpinning collaborative writing ... 13

2.1.3.1. Sociocultural theory... 14

2.1.3.2. Sociocognitive conflict theory ... 14

2.1.3.3. Interaction hypothesis ... 15

2.1.4. Benefits of collaborative writing ... 15

2.1.5. Previous studies about collaborative writing ... 17

2.1.5.1. Effects of changing peers on students’ interaction and writing process 172.1.5.2. Effects of proficiency level on students’ writing performance ... 20

2.1.5.3. Effects of pair or group formation on students’ writing performance ... 22

2.1.5.4. Effects of computer-mediated collaborative writing on students’ writing performance ... 26

2.2. Attitudes ... 31<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

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2.2.1. Definition of attitudes ... 32

2.2.2. Tripartite model of attitudes ... 32

2.2.3. Previous studies about attitudes toward collaborative writing ... 34

3.4. Research instruments and materials ... 50

3.4.1. Pre-test and post-test ... 50

3.4.2. Teaching materials ... 52

3.4.3. Writing assignments ... 53

3.4.4. Scoring rubrics ... 53

3.4.5. Semi-structured interview questions ... 55

3.5. Data collection procedure ... 56

3.5.1. Collecting quantitative data for Research Questions 1 and 2 ... 57

3.5.1.1. Administering a pre-test and a post-test ... 58

3.5.1.2. Introducing the course ... 59

3.5.1.3. Assigning peers in control group and experimental group... 60

3.5.1.4. Teaching new writing units ... 62

3.5.2. Collecting qualitative data for Research Question 3 ... 64

3.6. Data sources ... 66

3.6.1. Quantitative data for Research Questions 1 and 2 ... 67

3.6.2. Qualitative data for Research Question 3 ... 70<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

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3.7. Data analysis procedure ... 70

3.7.1. Analyzing quantitative data for Research Questions 1 and 2 ... 70

3.7.2. Analyzing qualitative data for Research Question 3 ... 72

3.7.2.1. Coding of semi-structured interviews ... 74

3.7.2.2. Qualitative data reliability ... 76

3.8. Chapter summary ... 76

<b>CHAPTER 4. RESULTS ... 79</b>

4.1. Students’ writing proficiency level before the experiment ... 79

4.2. Effects of changing peers and keeping similar peers on collaborative writing performance (Research Question 1) ... 82

4.3. Effects of changing peers and keeping similar peers on individual writing performance (Research Question 2) ... 86

4.4. Students’ attitudes toward changing peers in collaborative writing (Research Question 3) ... 90

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6.1. Summary of key results ... 111

6.2. Implications for instructions ... 112

6.3. Limitations of the study ... 113

6.4. Suggestions for further research ... 114

6.5. Concluding remarks ... 115

<b>REFERENCES ... 116</b>

<b>APPENDICES ... 124</b>

APPENDIX A1. WRITING TASKS FOR PRE-TEST ... 124

APPENDIX A2. WRITING TASKS FOR POST-TEST ... 125

APPENDIX B. WRITING OBJECTIVES OF EACH UNIT IN STUDENT’S BOOK ... 126

APPENDIX C. SAMPLES OF ASSIGNMENTS IN STUDENT’S BOOK ... 129

APPENDIX D. IELTS WRITING SCORING RUBRICS ... 131

APPENDIX E1. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR LEARNERS IN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP ... 133

APPENDIX E2. CÂU HỎI PHỎNG VẤN BÁN CẤU TRÚC DÀNH CHO HỌC VIÊN TRONG NHÓM THỰC NGHIỆM ... 135

APPENDIX F1: APPROVAL FOR RESEARCH PROJECT FROM ALES ENGLISH CENTER ... 137

APPENDIX F2: CONSENT FORM ... 138

APPENDIX F3: GIẤY CHẤP THUẬN THAM GIA NGHIÊN CỨU ... 140

APPENDIX G. SAMPLES OF A STUDENT’ COLLABORATIVE ESSAYS ... 142

APPENDIX H1. SAMPLES OF A STUDENT’ PRE-TEST PAPERS ... 144

APPENDIX H2. SAMPLES OF A STUDENT’ POST-TEST PAPERS ... 147

APPENDIX I. IELTS WRITING CRITERIA CHECKLIST ... 150

APPENDIX J1. INSTRUCTION ON HOW TO USE GOOGLE CLASSROOM ... 153<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

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APPENDIX J2. INSTRUCTION ON HOW TO WRITE AND SUBMIT

COLLABORATIVE WRITING ASSIGNMENTS ... 154

APPENDIX K1. A SAMPLE OF WRITING TASK 1’S LESSON PLAN ... 155

APPENDIX K2. A SAMPLE OF WRITING TASK 2’S LESSON PLAN ... 163

APPENDIX L1. A SAMPLE OF SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS ... 170

APPENDIX L2. BẢN GHI MẪU BÀI PHỎNG VẤN BÁN CẤU TRÚC... 173

APPENDIX M. A CODING SCHEME FOR TEXTUAL REVISION ... 176

APPENDIX N. CODE AGREEMENT PERCENTAGE OF INTER-CODERS ... 179

APPENDIX O. A SAMPLE OF CODING SCHEME OF A STUDENT’ STRUCTURED INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS... 185<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

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<b>LIST OF TABLES </b>

Table 3.1 Demographical information and scores of the participants for semi-structured interviews ... 49Table 3.2 Description of instruments and data analysis methods for each research

question ... 50Table 3.3 Quantitative data collection procedure ... 57Table 3.4 A sample of rotating peer scheme for one class in the experimental group .. 62Table 3.5 Data types and sources ... 66Table 3.6 Pearson correlation coefficient and Cronbach’s alpha of inter-raters ... 69Table 3.7 Length and duration of six semi-structured interviews ... 74 Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics of pre-test scores between control group and

experimental group... 81Table 4.2 Comparison of the individual writing papers’ quality before the experiment

... 82Table 4.3 Descriptive statistics of the collaborative essays’ scores between control

group and experimental group ... 84Table 4.4 Comparison of the collaborative essays’ scores during the treatment ... 85Table 4.5 Descriptive statistics of post-test scores between control group and

experimental group... 87Table 4.6 Comparison of effects of keeping same peers in the pre-test versus post-test

of the control group ... 88Table 4.7 Comparison of effects of changing peers in the pre-test versus post-test of the

experimental group... 89Table 4.8 Comparison of the individual writing papers’ quality after the experiment .. 89Table 4.9 Frequency and percentage results for each coded response ... 91<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

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x

<b>LIST OF FIGURES </b>

Figure 2.1 Product-process approach to writing ... 11

Figure 2.2 Tripartite model of attitudes ... 33

Figure 2.3 Collaborative writing process ... 39

Figure 2.4 Relationship between attitudes and collaborative writing with changing peers ... 40

Figure 3.1 Visual diagram of explanatory sequential mixed methods design in present study ... 45

Figure 3.2 Visual diagram of teaching procedure in the control group and the experimental group for one unit ... 63

Figure 3.3 Visual diagram of quantitative data analysis procedure ... 71

Figure 3.4 Visual diagram of qualitative data analysis procedure ... 73

Figure 4.1 Distribution of the pre-test scores of the control group ... 80

Figure 4.2 Distribution of the pre-test scores of the experimental group ... 80

Figure 4.3 Distribution of the collaborative essays’ scores of the control group ... 83

Figure 4.4 Distribution of the collaborative essays’ scores of the experimental group . 83Figure 4.5 Distribution of the post-test scores of the control group ... 86

Figure 4.6 Distribution of the post-test scores of the experimental group ... 87<small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM2232412065:44:21 PM5:44:21 PM</small>

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ESOL English for speakers of other languages

IELTS International English Language Testing System

SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

TOEFL iBT Test Of English as a Foreign Language (Internet-based test)

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<i>Chapter 1. Introduction </i>

1

<b>CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION </b>

<b>1.1. Background of the study </b>

Teaching writing to learners has never been an easy task, especially in English as a Foreign (EFL) / Second Language (ESL) education. In Vietnam, English is currently taught as a foreign language; however, for the sake of this study, the EFL and ESL contexts are used interchangeably to refer to the current state of English learning in Vietnam. Recently, collaborative writing has emerged as a promising activity because it involves learners’ interaction in pairs and small groups in a writing task. Numerous studies examining EFL learners’ reactions to collaborative writing has widely showed positive attitudes toward this method (Elola & Oskoz, 2010; Shehadeh, 2011; Storch, 2005) and its effectiveness on both group and individual’s writing performance (Harmer, 2007; Hyland, 2003; Phạm, 2016). Moreover, it also reduces the heavy workload of marking papers due to collaborative work submitted (Louth et al., 1993). According to Dobao and Blum (2013), Watanabe and Swain (2007), and Kim (2008), students learn more from each other and get better outcomes in their final products when they discuss during collaborative writing practices. Research on collaborative learning has moved beyond the questions of whether collaborative writing is effective to focus on the conditions under which it is optimally effective. Some studies have explored different conditions of implementing collaborative writing activities in practice, including using the first language in EFL collaborative writing, task types, groups composition and sizes and web-based applications. However, few studies have explored whether changing peers in pairwork during collaborative writing would yield better results than normal pairing. Therefore, this has motivated the author to investigate the impacts of changing peers on the writing performance of learners.

<b>1.2. Statement of the problems </b>

Numerous studies have proved the benefits of collaborative writing over individual writing. EFL students, especially EFL non-English majors, face a variety of challenges when they practice English writing skills individually. The challenges of individual writing may be conducive to the nature of writing skills, as well as the learners' low <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 1. Introduction </i>

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autonomy and high anxiety of writing. These problems can be addressed with the application of collaborative writing. However, there are also various problems arisen when students conduct collaborative writing in pairs or groups. Some of them are related to peers in pairs or groups and they may affect the writing performance of each student and collaborative work if no intervention in the formulation of peers is conducted. These problems are discussed as follows.

First, some research suggests that learners may not see their peers as effective resources for language learning, particularly those with a lower L2 proficiency (Mackey et al., 2001; K. McDonough, 2004; J. Williams, 1999). Students, for example, preferred to engage with a more advanced learner because they believed that more proficient learners could offer them more vocabulary and provide them with more explanations. They also felt more confident to obtain accurate information from such students. On the other hand, when dealing with similar peers of the similar proficiency level of L2, they were dubious about resolving linguistic problems together. Therefore, working with similar peers with the lower ability for a long time may lead to a fall in learning motivation and performance of the students.

Second, not all students are enthusiastic about the conventional approach of collaborative writing, because some of them still voice reservations about this activity. According to Storch (2005), these reservations stem from a lack of confidence in their own L2 proficiency level in comparison to their peers, as well as the belief that writing is primarily an individual activity. In this study, two of the students reported that they were embarrassed to share their ideas with their peers because they lacked confidence in their own writing abilities. Furthermore, students also expressed uncomfortable feelings toward being critical of peers’ ideas and language (Nelson & Carson, 1998) because one student was concerned that his peer would believe he was trying to outdo her when delivering peer response. Another student thought that writing in groups was uneven and mostly focused on individual skills. As a result, writing with more proficient peers during a long period was likely to cause some students with low ability to feel a sense of inferiority about themselves and therefore they could not make the highest contribution <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 1. Introduction </i>

3 to the collaborative work.

Third, the difficulties that students face during collaborative writing may come from conflicts with their peers. According to Dörnyei and Murphey (2003), these conflicts stem from various sources but the common one involves personality conflicts. This is a confrontation that arises from some students' dislike for others and may have been sparked by a minor disagreement. This spirals into a negative cycle, with one person's negative comments prompting equally negative responses from others, spreading to more affective arguments, with emotional expressions overtaking logical discussion. Hence, the nature of collaborative writing could be affected due to these conflicts, and maintaining this kind of relationship among peers in the same pairs or groups is likely to affect the improvement in their writing skills.

Therefore, this study attempted to address the problems relating to collaborative writing’s peers and the existing gaps in previous research of changing peers during the collaborative writing process. In other words, each student was assigned with a different peer after each unit of writing. By this way, the researcher aimed at exploring the effects of changing peers on collaborative and individual performance and the attitudes of students toward changing peers in IELTS Academic Writing classes.

<b>1.3. Purpose of the study </b>

This study aimed to investigate the effects of changing peers on collaborative and individual writing performance compared with same peers during the collaborative writing process. In addition, attitudes of learners to changing peers during pairwork of collaborative process were also explored. After the study, it is hoped that the study would provide useful recommendations for teachers so they could make some proper improvement in the IELTS Writing teaching and make a good preparation for their students in the IELTS Academic Writing class.

<b>1.4. Significance of the study </b>

This study investigated the effectiveness of changing peers in pairwork during collaborative writing in IELTS classes. This study is thus significant because it was designed to explore in-depth whether the learners produced better writing performance <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 1. Introduction </i>

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in pairwork when working with different peers than the same peers. The results of this study are useful for teachers in organizing collaborative activities in writing classes so that it can bring the optimum effects not only in IELTS writing classes but also EFL writing classes in general. Teachers have the justification to decide whether students should change partners when they work together to create a writing product. In addition, this is a reference for administrators of academic organizations and students to decide the appropriate method for teaching writing and learning respectively.

Concerning the theoretical contribution, this study is important for the application of collaborative writing. This study combines the process and product approach during the learning process and therefore contributes to the studies of approaches to collaborative writing. Moreover, the tripartite model of attitudes also provides valuable insights into how students feel toward changing peers during the collaborative writing process in terms of affective, cognitive, and behavioral components.

<b>1.5. Definition of key terms </b>

For the sake of the study’s clarity, some terms need to be defined to provide a clear perception of the issues presented. The focus of this study was the effects of changing peers on the writing performance; therefore, this part provides definitions to the two main terms, namely “changing peers” and “writing performance”. First, ‘changing peers’ refers to a circumstance in which the students switch partners several times in one activity. When pairwork becomes unproductive, perhaps the teacher may solve this problem by employing ‘rotating pairs’ among the students (Norman et al., 1986). In the present study, this activity is simply referred to as ‘changing peers’, in which each student works with a different peer after each cycle of writing unit. Second, writing performance or writing quality refers to how well the students create a writing product based on the writing criteria, such as task achievement, fluency, and coherence, vocabulary, and grammar. The writing performance is measured by the scoring rubric in the analytic rating scales.

<b>1.6. Structure of the thesis </b>

This thesis is split into six chapters. The first chapter introduces the study and <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 1. Introduction </i>

5

emphasizes the importance of changing peers during the collaborative writing process. This chapter also explains the study's objectives and their significance. In providing theoretical backgrounds and critical analysis of related literature, Chapter 2 highlights the approaches and theories related to the studies. Also in Chapter 2, research questions that fill the gap in the literature body and address the problems are presented. Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive description of the research methodology applied in this study. Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 presents research results and their interpretation in the light of prior related studies. Finally, Chapter 6 wraps up with a summary of major findings, as well as a discussion of implications, limitations, and future study.

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<i>Chapter 2. Literature review </i>

6

<b>CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW </b>

Chapter 2 starts with the research conceptualization. Then, the product-process approach to writing, the theories, the benefits and previous studies about collaborative writing are also presented. The chapter continues with the definition of attitudes, the tripartite model utilized to analyze attitudes and previous studies about attitudes toward changing peers. After that, the chapter analyzes the research gaps and provides the research questions. Finally, the chapter provides the conceptual framework of this study.

<b>2.1. Collaborative writing </b>

In general, the term ‘collaborate’ refers to the share of labor (co-labor) and collaborative learning entails assigning students to work in pairs or small groups on language tasks (Storch, 2012). Therefore, collaborative writing can be simply understood as having students work in pairs or small groups to complete writing tasks.

<b>2.1.1. Research conceptualization </b>

The main concept employed in the study is collaborative writing, but the study’s design also involved the use of pairwork and groupwork. Therefore, justifications on the distinction between these concepts should be specified. This section is devoted to distinguishing the characteristics of pairwork, groupwork, and collaborative writing.

<i><b>2.1.1.1. Pairwork and groupwork </b></i>

The general condition for pairwork in the language classroom context is that it must include two individuals who engage with each other so that they can practice their language skills. According to J. McDonough and Shaw (2003), pairwork demands little effort from teachers in organizing activities and may be triggered in most classrooms by simply letting students work with the person next to them. In addition, Harmer (2007) states that pairwork allows students to use language (depending on the task assigned by the teacher) and stimulates students’ collaboration, which is vital for the classroom's atmosphere and enthusiasm to study with others. also defines pairwork as a strategy to improve students’ participation and language use and it can be used for a wide range of tasks. With the help of teacher controls, they can discuss with one another when working together in a pair. However, the downside of pairwork is that participants in pairs may <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 2. Literature review </i>

7

divert from the main activity and discuss anything else, usually in their native language. Furthermore, if students frequently find themselves working with someone they dislike, the actual choice of a matched peer could be problematic (Harmer, 2007).

To illustrate the application of pairwork in writing, Harmer (2007) suggests some writing activities that can be done in pairs and they are of various levels. A simple activity that can be conducted in pairs of elementary students is punctuating a text. In this activity, students practice basic punctuation such as capital letters, commas, apostrophes, and full stops. To complete this activity, students are required to read a short text of a story, look at a picture and then listen to the story. While and after the text, they have to change the unpunctuated text by using the correct punctuation and then compare and modify the answers with their partners in pairs. Moreover, at the advanced level, students can create a report in pairs. They are given different paragraphs of facts or information about a specific topic. Each pair can decide which themes go together to make coherent paragraphs. Each person in the pair chooses two of the paragraphs they have planned and writes it up independently. They are told to link the information together with cohesive devices they have studied. In pairs, they study four paragraphs and work out what order they should go in and how to join them together. When the complete reports have been finished, they can be put up on the board so that they can be compared with other pairs’ versions.

Likewise, groupwork is the work that encompasses more than two members engaging with each other to complete a task. It is similar to pairwork in some respects, and much of what has been stated about pairwork also applies to it. Furthermore, it permits students to do a variety of activities for which pairwork is insufficient or inappropriate. According to Harmer (2007), the benefit of groupwork is that there is a greater probability of differing perspectives and contributions than there is in pairwork. It also encourages learner autonomy, as well as a larger range of cooperative and negotiating skills than pairwork. Working in groups, on the other hand, has some drawbacks. For starters, not all students love it because they prefer to be the center of attention of the teacher. Second, some students may be more passive while others are more assertive. Finally, groups take longer to organize than pairs and can be more chaotic <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 2. Literature review </i>

8 (Harmer, 2007).

Similar to the pairwork, some typical activities suggested by Hammer (2007) could be done in groups. The first activity is writing a circle of story, in which students join together in groups to write a story. The teacher dictates the first introductory sentence, and then all the students have to do is write one sentence which follows on from the introduction. When all the students have done this, the teacher tells them to pass their pieces of paper to the person on the left. They continue to write the next sentence of the story which has just been passed to them. When they have finished, the teacher asks everyone to pass their papers to the person on the left and write the next sentence. The procedure continues until the pieces of paper return to their original owners. At this point, the teacher tells everyone to write a sentence to finish the story off. The students are then encouraged to read out the stories they have just finished. This kind of group activity is enjoyable and useful for developing writing fluency for students with writing proficiency of elementary and above. Another pre-intermediate activity that could be implemented as groupwork is running dictation. Students are put into groups. The teacher puts an A4 copy of a poem on a table at the front of the classroom. Each group sends a representative to the front of the class to read only the first line of the poem, memorise it, and then run back to their group and dictate the line. When this has happened, groups send a second (and then a third) representative to read the second (and third) line(s) and take that back to their groups and dictate it. The activity continues until one group has the whole poem. The teacher can then ask that group a further task while the others finish, or stop the class and show everyone a complete version of the poem for them to check their own version against.

<i><b>2.1.1.2. Collaborative writing </b></i>

The nature of collaborative writing is collaborative learning, and this is a more complicated term than ‘pairwork’ or ‘groupwork’. Collaborative writing can be defined as a type of writing with three distinguishing features: (1) substantive interaction in all stages of the writing process; (2) shared decision-making power and responsibility for the text produced; and (3) the production of a single written document (Dale, 1994; Ede & Lunsford, 1990; Storch, 2013). Furthermore, cooperative writing is differentiated from <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 2. Literature review </i>

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collaborative writing. Inglehart et al. (2003) point out that cooperative writing is groupwork with a shared objective, and this lays a foundation for each student to then complete his or her own final work product, which is individually assessed. This is different from collaborative writing when this learning process emphasizes groupwork toward a unified final project that is entirely or partially generated by the group and evaluated.

Although collaborative writing involves the use of pairs or groups, there are two main features that distinguish collaborative writing from pairwork/ groupwork. In terms of ownership, Dobao (2012) emphasizes that learners must work in pairs or groups to create a single written text in collaborative writing tasks. The shared writing activity pushes learners to reflect on language, discuss the language they are using, and collaborate in the solution of the linguistic problems they encounter. The essential feature of collaborative writing must be the joint ownership of the document produced. Collaborative writing involves the joint production or the coauthoring of a text by two or more writers. In pairwork and groupwork, students may work together at certain stages but do not have to create a joint document. Thus, collaborative writing is differentiated from the group planning or peer-feedback activities that are normally demonstrated as parts of the pairwork or groupwork.

As for the interaction, Lowry et al. (2004) clarify the interaction during collaborative writing as a recurring and social process involving a team that negotiates, organizes, and discusses during the creation of common documentation. In fact, not all pairwork and groupwork are equally conducive to learning. Interaction is essential for students learning a foreign language and linguistic interaction is also a collaborative activity. In Long (1981) interaction hypothesis, interaction is considered as the means of making L2 input more understandable and therefore making L2 learning easier. In order to learn a second language, Vygotsky emphasizes the importance of interaction. Human interaction between pairs such as novice and expert, or collaborative pairs, results in the development of cognitive skills (Vygotsky, 1978). Students learn better when they have meaningful interactions with other people. It is essential for the teacher to act as a facilitator rather than an authoritarian in order to improve interaction (Brown, 2007). <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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Instead of teaching students about language explicitly, the teacher as a facilitator focuses on promoting intrinsic motivation by allowing them to explore the language through using it in specific contexts (Rivers, 1987). This is different from pairwork or groupwork activities as each learner may work independently toward the shared objective of pairs or groups.

<b>2.1.2. Collaborative writing as product-process approach </b>

In the history of English writing, there are two main approaches that have been used by most educators and researchers, which are: product writing and process writing (Ferris, 2005; J. Reid, 1995). In most ESL/ EFL classes, there is such a wide variety of mixed ability groups of learners that only one approach cannot be applied. One approach may prove to be effective for some classes, but may become a hindrance for both teachers and learners in other classes (Hasan & Akhand, 2010). Therefore, an effective writing teaching method must integrate the perspectives of various approaches to teaching writing because each approach of teaching writing has its advantages and drawbacks, and there are some apparent overlaps among approaches. Teachers should strive to employ a balanced method to teaching writing in order to integrate the positive implications of these approaches and counteract their downsides. According to Zen (2005, p.196), “professionals in the field are coming to consensus in seeking a more balanced approach than a single best approach to teaching ESL writing". In this study, to teach students to write academic reports and essays, the researcher incorporated the

<i>features of the product approach and process approach (see Figure 2.1). </i>

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<b>Figure 2.1 </b>

<i>Product-process approach to writing </i>

<i>Note: Two-headed arrow illustrates the recursive and non-linear order of stages. Adapted </i>

from Steele (2004) and Seow (2002)

At the first session of a unit, the product approach was implemented to help students acquire linguistic knowledge. The product approach is one of the conventional methods of language learning, and it is also known as the Model approach. Since its main emphasis is on the products of writing through analyzing texts, either through their formal surface elements or their discourse structure, this technique was commonly used as writing instruction before the 1970s. Students are specifically encouraged to imitate a model text, which is typically displayed and carefully analyzed at the start of the process (Gabrielatos, 2002). According to Steele (2004), a typical product approach consists of four stages: familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing and free writing. Familiarization is the step that entails classifying words or phrases or identifying linguistic components from a model text. At the controlled stage, learners try to create <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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their own sentences using some of the highlighted vocabulary and grammatical structures. Next, learners continue with a guided task in which they need to organize ideas or produce arguments in groups. After gathering sufficient language features, learners begin free writing in the final stage. According to Nunan (1999), this approach supports structuralist linguistics and bottom-up processing. The teacher's role is to provide model language and guided exercises, as well as to correct errors when the final perfect product is created. Writing is mainly concerned with linguistic knowledge, with emphasis on the proper application of vocabulary, grammar, and cohesive devices (Pincas, 1982). Also, Badger and White (2000) state that learners can learn linguistic knowledge of texts partly through imitation. As a result, advocates of the product approach contend that it strengthens students' writing skills.

At the stage of free writing in the second session, the process approach was implemented. The process approach focuses on the process of writing and encourages learners to develop the fluency of ideas rather than the accuracy. Instead of serving only as a linguistic judge, the instructor is now also a reader, reacting to what the students have written; the students, rather than merely demonstrating mastery of linguistic forms, express and share experiences, ideas, attitudes and feelings with the reader (White & Arndt, 1991). Through this approach, peer review provides students with true audiences, conversational exchange that leads to exploration, and necessary peer feedback (S. Reid, 2010). Furthermore, discussions are advantageous because they encourage students to exchange ideas, clarify their teachers and peers’ feedbacks, and compromise the ideas (Shin, 2003). A typical sequence of process writing is comprised of four basic steps: planning (prewriting), drafting, revising and editing and other stages externally imposed on students by the teacher, namely, responding (sharing), evaluating (Seow, 2002) as illustrated in Figure 2.1. This is a recursive and non-linear process in which writers may return to planning, for example, after doing some editing or revising.

In the planning stage, a significant feature of this stage is that students collect and generate ideas prior to finishing the actual writing (Zamel, 1982). According to Coffins et al. (2003), brainstorming and discussions are useful strategies for collecting and gathering ideas from students effectively. During this stage, students can use different <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 2. Literature review </i>

The next stage is revising stage, in which students modified their texts based on the initial feedback of the teacher. They review what has been written to see how well they have conveyed their ideas to the reader. The main goal of the revising stage is to complete the content correctly, while correcting grammatical and spelling errors can be delayed to the editing stage (Tribble, 2003). This stage’s purpose is to enhance global content and arrangement of the ideas so that the writer’s intention can become clearer to the reader.

After that, the students continue to check their own or their partners' work for grammatical accuracy, spelling, punctuation use, wording, syntactic structure and accuracy of other textual material such as quotations, examples and conjunction. Formal editing is postponed until this stage to avoid interfering with the free flow of ideas during the drafting and revising stages.

Finally, the teacher evaluates the final writing product of the students. In order to be effective, the assessment criteria should be explained to students in advance. A numerical score or grade may be given depending on the intent of the assessment. Students may be encouraged to assess their own and each other’s writing products when they have been properly instructed on how to do it (Seow, 2002).

<b>2.1.3. Theories underpinning collaborative writing </b>

In addition to the product-process approach to teaching writing that supports collaborative writing, other theories underpinning the use of collaborative writing in teaching writing are sociocultural theory, sociocognitive conflict theory and interaction hypothesis. In fact, these theories overlap and support each other. In this part, the three <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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<i>Chapter 2. Literature review </i>

14 theories were briefly reviewed.

<i><b>2.1.3.1. Sociocultural theory </b></i>

Collaborative learning has its strong theoretical and pedagogical background on Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, which emphasizes the significant role of social interaction in the cognitive development of children. To be more specific, the interaction with other people and the culture they live in shape their mental abilities. This theory, therefore, supports pair writing or group writing as these activities facilitate interaction and collaboration among the members.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding are two main concepts in this theory. Typically, there are tasks that a student can do independently and tasks that are beyond his or her abilities. Between these two areas is ZPD, which is a field that a learner can achieve but with the instruction of a more advanced person or in collaboration with more experienced peers. Such assistance to assist a student to reach his or her full potential is referred to as ‘scaffolding’. The theory emphasizes the significance of interaction and communication with partners rather than just through independent work in children’s education (Vygotsky, 1978). One implication in writing based on ZPD is that learners can engage in writing activities that cannot be accomplished independently but become possible with peer’s assistance. Within this writing process, changing peers during the paired writing process creates opportunities for students to interact and collaborate with different partners to accomplish their writing products that they find difficult to complete individually.

<i><b>2.1.3.2. Sociocognitive conflict theory </b></i>

In parallel to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, a theory called sociocognitive conflict developed by Piaget (1977) has also laid a foundation for collaborative learning. According to this theory, children reconstruct and review their understanding when cognitive contradictions, also known as ‘disequilibrium’, occur during their interactions with others. These conflicts can be interpreted as a cognitive contradiction between the subject's opinion and the opinions of others (Damon & Killen, 1982). Through the re-examination, they acquire new understanding and additional knowledge which help them <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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to address the contradictions and recreate the cognitive equilibrium (Gillies & Ashman, 1998). This theory supports activities of collaborative writing with different partners as the socio-cognitive conflict and disequilibrium triggered by being paired with someone with a different point of view on a writing task would promote second language development (Sills et al., 2016).

<i><b>2.1.3.3. Interaction hypothesis </b></i>

The interaction hypothesis is a second language acquisition theory that was developed by Long (1996). According to this theory, interaction promotes second language acquisition because dialogue and meaning negotiation provide learners with essential comprehensible linguistic input. The input here, based on the Input Hypothesis by Krashen (1985), is the linguistic input in the target language that slightly exceeds the learner’s language competence. According to Long (1996), joint interaction and discussion of meaning make the input to be more understandable. In other words, interactional adjustments make the information intelligible, and intelligible input promotes language learning, thus meaningful interactional adjustment leads to language acquisition (Lightbown & Spada, 1993). Therefore, collaboration during paired writing would provide opportunities for interaction, which makes the writing lessons less complicated, and enhance the writing skills of the learners.

<b>2.1.4. Benefits of collaborative writing </b>

Several studies have examined the advantages of collaborative writing in comparison with individual writing. These studies have been conducted with L1 and more recently with L2 learners. These benefits can be classified into three categories:

With respect to cognitive perspective, co-writers may hold different views on which ideas to include, how such ideas can be expressed, and how ideas can be arranged. Such debates have given rise to 'cognitive conflict’, which could be a positive push (Johnson et al., 1984). This conflict can encourage an exchange of ideas and a critical assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of alternative suggestions, forcing students to explain their own ideas. Moreover, students learn about steps in the writing process, about how to revise and develop an appropriate sense of writing for the audience through <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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16

collaborative writing (Louth et al., 1993). As Weissberg (2006) states, collaborative writing offers learners a number of roles that are not available during individual writing: tutors, coauthors and critical readers.

With respect to linguistic perspective, the majority of research comparing collaborative and solitary writing has centered on whether collaborative writing yields more accurate performance. These studies have employed a range of tasks including grammar-type tasks such as editing, cloze, text reconstruction. In one of the earliest comparison studies (Storch, 1999), collaboration in writing exerts a positive influence on grammatical accuracy. In other words, tasks completed collaboratively in pairs are more accurate than those completed individually in terms of grammatical structures. This is similar to the study of Sutherland and Topping (1999) when collaborative writing proves more successful than individual writing. They claim that cross-ability pairs score greater than same-ability pairs and individual writers show no significant improvement compared to paired writers. In addition, pairs tend to generate shorter but better texts in terms of task fulfillment, grammatical accuracy, and complexity (Storch, 2005). Two other research by Reinders (2009) and Nassaji and Tian (2010), have confirmed better accuracy in the success of students collaborating than those working alone. In a study by Shehadeh (2011), writing text written through collaboration is of much higher quality than by individual in terms of content, structure and lexis. The positive impact of collaboration could be seen clearly on both the grammatical and lexical accuracy of the texts (Dobao, 2012). On the other hand, Zabihi et al. (2013) assert that writing in groups brings more accuracy but not fluency due to the shortage of time. However, Phạm (2016) claims that the texts are more fluent when they are written by a group than by an individual. Another important conclusion is that collaborative writing enhances not only the performance of the groups but also the performance of individuals after engaging in the process of collaborative writing.

With respect to practicability, collaborative writing provides natural peer feedback during the writing process. During collaborative writing, learners are able not only to obtain but also provide feedback. Such feedback is instantly available and throughout the entire process of text creation, unlike teacher’s feedback and feedback of peer <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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response activities which are usually given when the writing has been completed (Storch, 2013). According to Brooks and Swain (2009)'s study, peer feedback provided during collaborative writing activities may be more useful than teacher’s feedback and therefore more productive. Additionally, an apparent benefit of using collaboration in a writing class is the reduction of papers to be evaluated (Louth et al., 1993). Students have to write in pairs or groups and therefore this reduces the workload of scoring papers by half or two thirds.

<b>2.1.5. Previous studies about collaborative writing </b>

Most empirical studies in the previous parts have showed the benefits of collaborative writing. It provides learners with opportunities to improve the performance, the quality of the writing texts compared to individual writing. However, various factors may affect the results during the collaborative process. These factors include change of peers, proficiency level, pair and group formation, and computer-mediated collaboration. Each of them is discussed below.

<i><b>2.1.5.1. Effects of changing peers on students’ interaction and writing process </b></i>

Exploring the optimal conditions for collaborative writing has been a new field of research, and there are only a few studies exploring this. One of the conditions that not many researchers have paid attention to is changing peers in pairs or groups. Three studies below exploring this condition employ different designs to investigate different aspects of this condition.

With regard to the proficiency level and interaction among the peers when they were changed, the first study was conducted by Watanabe (2008) with the aim of investigating how adult ESL learners communicated with a partner with either a higher- or lower level of proficiency during pair problem solving, as well as how they interpreted their partners' interactions through interviews. There were 12 participants, and each of the three ESL students participated in a three-stage challenge that included writing in pairs, noticing in pairs, and solitary writing with two other students, one with a higher L2 proficiency level partner than their own and the other with a lower L2 proficiency level partner than their own. The type of interaction and how they felt toward the <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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18 interactions of each pair were studied.

When the higher- and lower-proficiency partners collaborated, the data showed that both could offer opportunities for learning. Furthermore, regardless of the proficiency level, all three students chose to collaborate with a partner who "shared several ideas". With different partners, a learner might play a variety of roles (dominant/passive/expert/novice/equal). These results showed that discrepancy in proficiency was not the most important factor influencing the nature of peer assistance. Rather, the pattern of interaction that learners co-create could have a bigger effect. Owing to time constraints, this study had a significant limitation. Despite the importance of using stimulated recalls and interviews in post-tasks to include participants' perspectives in peer-peer interaction review, the researcher was only able to perform these interviews with the core participants. As a result, only one learner's viewpoint was revealed for each pair, and the study did not include how the other learners viewed his or her interactions with pairwork. Furthermore, since the data collection took place outside of the classroom for such a brief period of time, the study might not have taken into account the importance of spending time building the requisite social relationships for collaboration. Lastly, this study lacked a quantitative study to examine the difference in learners’ writing performance.

Moreover, the change of peers in collaborative writing also brings numerous benefits. The other study by Mulligan and Garofalo (2011) also assigned students in pairs and employed qualitative design to explore how students felt toward the change of peers in collaborative writing. However, the difference between this study and that of Watanabe (2008) was that the students could choose their own partners. Moreover, this study used surveys instead of the interviews to review a collaborative writing technique they developed for their EFL university courses, in which students collaborated in pairs to create joint paragraphs and essays. This curriculum included four courses from a private university. The researcher conducted a poll in class to represent as many student interests as possible. The vast majority chose their own partners and switched partners after each essay-writing period. As a result, the teacher encouraged students to select their own partners. Students used the target language to prepare, discuss, draft, and <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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rewrite their writing assignments during the step-by-step procedure, demonstrating meaningful, task-based use of numerous skills at all stages of the process. The teachers asked their students to provide written responses about their experience at the end of the year-long course in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the collaborative method.

The students felt that collaborative writing with their chosen partners helped them develop social skills, alleviate stress, save time, increase motivation, and improve writing quality and grammatical accuracy, among other things. It did, however, have some disadvantages, including increased stress; logistical challenges; target language usage; a conflict with personal learning styles; and issues of equality. One flaw in this study, according to the researcher, was the question of how students should be matched to ensure that the amount of work performed for each assignment was fairly distributed. This was the only negative argument that consistently appeared in the student feedback surveys. Another limitation was that the research was based on surveys; therefore, it did not provide statistical evidence about the learner’s writing performance during or after the course.

Collaborative writing also proved to be more successful than individual writing. In a more comprehensive study by Shehadeh (2011) compared to the previous ones, the researcher employed a mixed-method design to investigate the efficacy of collaborative writing with different peers in second language classrooms, as well as students' perception of it. This meaned this study collected both quantitative and qualitative data from the participants, and therefore, provided a deeper insight into the effects of working in pairs with changing peers in comparison with working alone. The study enlisted the participation of 38 first-year students from two separate classes at a large university in the United Arab Emirates. One class had 18 students and was designated as the experimental group, while the other had 20 students and was designated as the control group. Writing tasks were completed by students individually in the control group; however, these tasks were completed in pairs in the experimental group. In the experimental group, students were allowed to switch partners every two to three weeks. Throughout the course, some students worked with just three partners, while others worked with up to five separate partners. Surveys were used in the second step to evoke <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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20 students' attitudes toward collaborative writing.

This study's findings revealed that collaborative writing with changing peers had a substantial impact on students' L2 writing when compared with writing alone. Furthermore, most students believed that changing partners every two to three sessions was beneficial because it provided a positive social environment in the classroom that was conducive to learning, such as learning from partners and not becoming bored. However, because of their close friendship and similar ways of thinking, a few students chose to collaborate with just one or two peers during the semester. There were, however, some drawbacks. First, if the analysis included data on pair chat, it would be able to get a better understanding of the learners' conversations during these collaborative writing task inquiries. Second, while surveys have been used in previous studies to elicit students' opinions and impressions of collaborative pair and groupwork, it must be noted that interviews may be a more effective method to elicit more information and personal opinions from the participants.

<i><b>2.1.5.2. Effects of proficiency level on students’ writing performance </b></i>

Within an L2 class, students can differ in terms of L2 proficiency; therefore, how to group students in collaborative activities have a huge significant impact on the learners’ performance and the nature of the language-related episodes (LREs). An LRE is defined as any part of a discussion where participants negotiate about their language use, criticize their language use, or make self-correction and other corrections (Swain & Lapkin, 1998). It is important to maximize the opportunities of language learning for all students, whether they have low or high language competence. However, there was a mixed result about the effects of the proficiency level of members when working in pairs on their performance.

Pairs with more proficient members tend to achieve more meaningful interaction and higher achievement. In Leeser (2004)’s study, the researcher conducted an experimental study to investigate how grouping learners based on their proficiency affected the quantity, form (lexical or grammatical), and result (correct, unresolved, or incorrect) of LREs generated by 42 adult L2 Spanish. These students were divided into <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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three types of pairs: a pair containing two higher proficiency learners (H–H); a pair containing one higher proficiency and one lower proficiency learner (H–L); or a pair containing two lower proficiency learners (L–L). The instructors of the course rated each learner as either having higher or lower proficiency compared to other students in the class. Dictogloss was used in this experiment and it was conducted in two sessions. The first one was a practice session, with the aim of familiarizing learners with the dictogloss task. They continued with section two a week later, and this time all learners’ dialogues of the interaction were audio-recorded during the reconstruction phase, which lasted less than 10 minutes. To classify the LREs of each pair, the recording of each pair's reconstruction was transcribed.

According to the findings, the number of LREs and the proportion of form-focused LREs decreased in tandem with the pairs' level of proficiency. While the H-H pairs produced the most LREs that focused on grammar, the L-L pairs produced the fewest LREs, with the majority of them focusing on vocabulary. The H-L pairs created more grammatical LREs than the L-L pairs, but the difference was not significant. However, one shortcoming of this study might come from the accuracy of determining the learner’s proficiency level. It was still vague about the procedure of classifying their L2 abilities. Also, the duration of the course was too short to familiarize students with the tasks. These limitations might have affected the result of this study.

On the other hand, another study by Watanabe and Swain (2007) showed a different result. This study employed a mixed-methods design, which investigated the effects of L2 proficiency variations in pairs and interaction patterns on L2 learning. Non-core participants with higher and lower proficiency interacted with four separate core participants. These learners completed a three-stage task that included pair writing, pair comparison, and individual writing. After the task was completed, the core participants also engaged in a stimulated recall. Each pair’s collaborative dialogue was analyzed based on LREs and patterns of pair engagement as well as each learner’s individual post-test score.

The findings showed that the essence of peer assistance and L2 learning did not seem to be affected by proficiency disparities. The core-high pairs provided a higher <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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frequency of LREs than the core-low pairs in terms of LREs. However, the trend indicated that when working with their lower proficiency partners, the core participants received higher post-test scores on average than when working with their higher proficiency partners. In other words, when the lower proficiency member was in charge of the more dominant position, there was more negotiation and effective resolution of referential conflicts. This suggests that there is certainly value for more capable students to work in pairs with less proficient partners.

<i><b>2.1.5.3. Effects of pair or group formation on students’ writing performance </b></i>

Another important decision that the researcher has to pay close attention to is whether it is best to use pair, small groups or big groups when deploying collaborative writing tasks in their classrooms. In most of the past studies, pairwork has been mainly used in collaborative writing and this has showed more positive results than individual writing. Only a few studies compared the effects of pairs, small groups and large groups on the students’ interaction and writing performance.

Pairwork not only improves writing performance but also promotes collaboration among peers. In a comparative study by Wigglesworth and Storch (2009), the researchers aimed at analyzing the outcomes of two groups: one group worked individually, and another worked in pairs. The performance of the individual participants (n = 48) and the pairs of participants (n = 48) were compared by using analytic metrics of fluency, complexity and accuracy. Learners were required to compose an argumentative essay addressing the benefits and drawbacks of exam-based evaluation, which is a real-life writing task similar to those found in the IELTS or TOEFL exams. Individuals were allowed 40 minutes and pairs were allowed 60 minutes to complete the essay. Their interactions were audio-recorded while they were working on the task, and then they were transcribed. The average number of words, T-units, and sentences per text were used to determine fluency. The proportion of clauses to T-units was used to determine the level of complexity. Global units expressed in terms of the percentage of error-free T-units of total T-units and error-free clauses of total clauses were used to determine <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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The findings showed that when students engaged in pairs on a collaborative writing exercise, they were able to create more correct texts than when they worked alone. It also pushed learners to collaborate when thinking of ideas about the content of their essays. According to the more detailed examination of the interaction, these pairwork activities gave the learners considerable possibilities to discuss ideas and improve their language knowledge. However, the shortcoming of this study was that the students had not been trained to collaborate in writing before. They may not get acquainted with how to work with each other. Moreover, there was no pre-test to ensure that the writing proficiency levels between the two groups’ members were equivalent.

Similarly, pairwork also leads to the accuracy of the text and task performance compared to individual work. Nassaji and Tian (2010) employed a pre-test–post-test study in the classroom to examine if there was any difference in learning English phrasal verbs between the two types of tasks (reconstruction cloze tasks and reconstruction editing tasks) when learners did them collaboratively versus separately. The research took place over the course of a 13-week semester in two intact low-intermediate adult ESL courses in a university in Canada's advanced adult ESL program. In one of the classes, there were 12 students, while in the other, there were 14 students. A pretest, a treatment, and a four-day delayed posttest were applied in the study. It used a within-subject design to reduce the impacts of individual differences, in which all students completed both collaborative and individual tasks. Also, the two classes were instructed by the same teacher, with the same instructional objectives and curriculum.

The findings revealed that when learners completed the two output tasks collaboratively rather than separately, they were more successful in completing the activities and producing the target forms through joint activities tend to be more accurate. This is consistent with the results of some research about the effect of collaborative activities on task performance. However, in terms of their effects on learning the phrasal verbs, there was no significant difference between the collaborative and individual activities when the learners' pretest and posttest scores were compared. Although this final finding contradicts earlier collaborative studies on pairwork, it could be influenced <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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by a number of factors. First, the interactions may not have been rich enough to result in the appropriation and internalization of the knowledge of the words. Another cause can be related to the target form's types and the learners' prior knowledge of them. The last reason could be the students' limited skills to collaborate successfully with their peers.

There are, however, compelling reasons for using groupwork in collaborative writing tasks rather than pairwork. Dobao (2012) used a mixed-methods approach to assess the impact of individual, pair, and group collaboration on the complexity, fluency, and accuracy of written texts generated, as well as the type of oral communication between pairs and groups during the writing process. The research was carried out in six intermediate Spanish as a Foreign Language classes at a university in the United States. For the study, six classes of the similar course with 111 volunteering students were randomly chosen. In total, 21 students worked alone, 30 in pairs, and 60 in four-person groups. Hence, there were 15 dyads and 15 groups. Learners received a 15-minute grammar review session focused on the usage of Spanish past tenses on the day of data collection, followed by a writing activity particularly prepared for the study's objectives. The data was taken in the seventh week of the course, after the students had become acquainted with one another and had become accustomed to working in groups. A set of 15 photographs was sent to each pair and group. Learners were told to rearrange the photographs to make a story, set the story in the past to utilize past tenses, then write it down. Collaboration, whether in pairs or small groups, resulted in improved grammatical and lexical accuracy, according to the findings.

The findings revealed that although group activity provided fewer opportunities for individual engagement, it still exerted a positive impact on collaborative communication. Learners who worked in small groups were more attentive to language and more successful at addressing language-related difficulties than those who worked in pairs. As a result, they became more linguistically accurate. Therefore, both group and pair writing activities should be used in the classroom. This study by Dobao is a comprehensive comparison of the effects of individual, pairwork, and groupwork on writing skills. However, the number of participants for each group was limited and this may limit the <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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generalization of the research in other EFL context. Moreover, another factor that may affect the results of the study was that each class was taught by a different teacher. Therefore, the writing skills of the participants in each class were possibly affected by the instructional objects and styles of their teacher.

A related matter of group/pair formation is about whether it is the teacher who assigns students to pairs or small groups or whether students are allowed to self-select their partners in the pair or small group. A qualitative study by Ewald (2005) aimed to examine the small-group quiz interaction that took place among 20 intermediate Spanish students and to highlight the students' impressions of the experience. Students were told that they could opt for working individually or in small groups. Furthermore, they were free to choose their own group mates, and their teacher made no attempt to encourage either independent or collaborative work or to group pupils into certain groups. All 20 students were selected to collaborate with one or more partners. Each student was given a copy of the quiz, and if they agreed to participate in the study, they were asked to turn on the nearest tape recorder (which had previously been positioned throughout the room). Students also completed an individual questionnaire immediately after the quiz to obtain their thoughts on their experiences with collaborative small-group quizzes.

The detailed examination of students’ interaction during small-group quizzes showed that students engaged in numerous discussions through which they made suitable, linguistically accurate responses. Furthermore, questionnaire analysis showed that students themselves recognized the potential for collaborative assessment work to lead to learning opportunities. They reported that their combined efforts allowed them to arrive at the correct solutions. With regard to the self-selection of partners, they felt familiar and comfortable enough to dispute each other's ideas, and they acknowledged the valuable benefits of their group members' knowledge on their own learning and achievement. However, the shortcoming of this study was that this study design did not provide a control group with which to compare students’ levels of interaction. Moreover, the sample size was small, 20 participants, which limited the generalization of the results. In Storch and Wigglesworth (2007), the researchers conducted a comparative study to examine if individuals and pairs created noticeably different writings under similar <small>Effects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performanceEffects of changing peers during collaborative writing on learners' writing performance</small>

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