the study enhancing the effects of english teaching by classroom eye contact at dong thap university

i



STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP








Dong Thap, April 2012


Nguyen Cong Danh
I certify that the work presented in this research report
has been performed and interpreted solely by myself. I
confirm that this work is submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirement of the B.A Degree and
has not been submitted elsewhere in any other form
for the fulfillment of any other degree or qualification.
ii


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


During the process of carrying out the study, I have received a large amount of
contribution and support from many people.

First, I would like to send my wholehearted thanks to Dean and all the lectures of
the Foreign Languages Department of Dong Thap University who gave me a
chance to study the thesis.
Second, I would like to express my greatest and sincerest appreciation to Mr.
Nguyen Van Tam, M.A, my supervisor, for his precious pieces of advice,
guidance, and support inn the pursuance of this study.
Finally yet importantly, I am grateful to Mr. Pham Van Tac and Ms. Tran Thi
Hien who did allow me to carry out my observation and to other teachers of
English and all the students in the Department of Foreign Languages for what
they have done to help me finish the study.
iii


ABSTRACT

The study is conducted to investigate what is the reality of using classroom eye
contact in English teaching and to raise students‘ awareness of the importance of
nonverbal language, especially eye contact. The questionnaire for teachers and
for students was delivered to seek essential information about the current use of
classroom eye contact and the teachers of English and students‘ attitudes toward
the technique. The observation was also later carried out at two classes to collect
relevant data. Then the data obtained from the above tools was analyzed
including table charts, pie charts and discussions. The results show that most of
the teachers of English have awareness to use classroom eye contact and the
students seem to be more excited joining the teachers‘ activities. Some other
teachers, however, have failed to bring eye contact to play in class and to
combine the speaking technique with other nonverbal means. In brief, the data
gained from the students and the teachers‘ answers as well as the observation
sheets confirmed that classroom eye contact brings great advantages to classroom
management and motivate students‘ participation.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENT

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
ABSTRACT iii
TABLE OF CONTENT iv
INTRODUCTION 1
1. Motivation of the study 1
2. Aims of the study 2
3. Research methods 2
4. Scope of the study 3
5. Significance of the study 3
6. Related previous studies 3
7. Organization of the thesis 3
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 5
1.1 Nonverbal communication 5
1.1.1 Definition of nonverbal communication 5
1.1. 2 The importance of nonverbal communication to language learners 5
1.1.3 Components of nonverbal communication 7
1.2 Eye contact communication 21

1.2.1 Definition of eye contact communication 21
1.2.2 The importance of classroom eye contact 22
1.2.3 Expressions of eye contact in teaching 24
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY 26
v

2.1 Research questions 26
2.2 Research participants 26
2.2.1 The researcher 26
2.2.2 The subjects 26
2.3 Research procedure and data collection 26
2.3.1 Classroom observation 26
2.3.2 Questionnaire 27
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 30
3.1 Results 30
3.1.1 The observation sheets 30
3.1.2 The questionnaires for students 35
3.1.3 The questionnaires for teachers 47
3.2 Discussions 56
3.2.1 Research question 1 56
3.2.2 Research question 2 56
3.2.3 Recommendations 57
CONCLUSION 59
1. Overview of the thesis 59
2. Limitations of the thesis 59
3. Suggestions for further research 60
REFERENCES v
APPENDIX 1 vii
APPENDIX 2 ix
OBSERVATION SHEET xii

1




INTRODUCTION
1. Motivation of the study
In the globalization, English is considered to be an international language to
functionate communication as well as transform information and events. It is
the fourth most widely spoken native language in the world and in terms of
accurate number of speakers, it is the most official language in the world.
Teaching and learning English, therefore, becomes a need of society. The fact
is that even though all skills are equally important, people give different favor
for different skills among the four ones: listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. Speaking skill is given more concern as we have to communicate
with people in person at our job and in our normal life.
Communication is regarded as the foundation of successful relationships
both personally and professionally. As Liz & John Soars (1997) “We are
great communicators”. We, human beings, communicate during our whole
life for our own purpose. A child cries (communicates) to his parents as he
needs changing his diaper or feeding. Family members communicate for
help and emotional support and to maintain a good family relationship. At
work, people communicate for the purpose of exchanging ideas,
negotiating… We now are able to come to a conclusion that communication
is very important in our lives, as Hybels (1992:5) claims ―Communication,
then, is vital to our lives. To live is to communicate.‖
We, however, communicate much more than words. In the process of
communication, people do not only send verbal messages but nonverbal
ones as well. Nonverbal communication is understood as a way of
communicating without the use of written or spoken language.

People believe that the most effective way to communicate is verbal.
However, nonverbal communication is still there even when people do not
say a word. There is unexpectedly a sad fact that although important, most
2

teachers of English and even language learners, especially those major in
English teaching do not always care much for this silent language. In this
aspect, eye contact seems to be skipped most.
We all know that eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal
communication since the visual sense is dominant for most people. The way
we look at someone can communicate many things, including interest,
affection, hostility, or attraction. Moreover, it is believed to be better to
control a class, check students‘ understanding, etc. if teachers use eye
contact in their classes. Most teachers, however, do not often care to use eye
contact. Teachers, traditionally, just try to talk, explain, and ask questions,
etc. in such a way that they even do not use any eye contact at their students
to know whether they understand. This makes classes uncontrolled. Hence,
by a lack of eye contact, classes gradually become less effective and
students tent to be inattentive. This is seen as a signal of a failed class hour.
It is, therefore, indispensable for teachers to prepare, use and teach with eye
contact in class. For the sake of this, as an English major student, the
researcher decided to do the study entitled ―Enhancing the effects of English
teaching by classroom eye contact at Dong Thap University”.
2. Aims of the study
The study aims to:
- investigate what is the reality of using eye contact in English teaching at
Dong Thap University;
- raise the awareness of the importance of using nonverbal communication,
especially eye contact in teaching English.
- give suggestions for improvement.

3. Research methods
In the process of doing the study, two research methods will be used to
3

collect relevant data are observation and questionnaires. First, the researcher
will observe two classes to know how teachers use their classroom eye
contact and its effects. Then questionnaires are employed to investigate the
reality of the use of classroom eye contact in English teaching.
4. Scope of the study
The scope of the study is about enhancing the effects of English teaching by
using eye contact at Dong Thap University.
5. Significance of the study
The findings of the study are expected to make a significant contribution to
English teaching. Through the study, teachers may pay more attention to the
use of eye contact and apply them more frequently in teaching. Besides,
with the suggestions given, teachers may become more successful in
controlling their classes with a new way ever by silent language.
Additionally, the study is believed to be able to raise English majoring
students‘ awareness of using eye contact in their future teaching.
In short, no matter how the findings are, the study is hoped to bring certain
benefits to students, teachers, and researchers.
6. Related previous studies
7. Organization of the thesis
Introduction
Chapter 1: Literature Review
1.1 Nonverbal communication
1.1.1 Definition of nonverbal communication
1.1.2 The importance of nonverbal communication to language learners
1.1.3 Components of nonverbal communication
1.2 Eye contact communication

1.2.1 Definition of eye contact communication
4

1.2.2 The importance of classroom eye contact
1.2.3 Expressions of eye contact in teaching
Chapter 2: Methodology
2.1 Research questions
2.2 Research participants
2.2.1 The researcher
2.2.2 The subject(s)
2.3 Research procedure and data collection
2.3.1 Classroom observation
2.3.2 Questionnaire
Chapter 3: Results and Discussions
3.1 Results
3.1.1 The observation sheets
3.1.2 The questionnaires for students
3.1.3 The questionnaires for teachers
3.2 Discussions
3.2.1 Research question 1
3.2.2 Research question 2
3.2.3 Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Appendix
5

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Nonverbal communication

1.1.1 Definition of nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process of
communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such
messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture,
facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing,
hairstyles or even architecture. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements
such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have
nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words,
or the use of emoticons.
1.1.2 The importance of nonverbal communication to language
learners
The silent language also aims to send messages to receivers by its own
means. Nonverbal messages may communicate the exact same meanings as
verbal messages. The same purposes that were identified for communication
in general are served by nonverbal signals as well. People should take into
consideration the following advantages of communicating nonverbally.
First, nonverbal messages help us to discover to learn, to acquire
information about the world and about other people. Nonverbal messages
the smile, the focused eye contact, the leaning forward, and of course, the
kiss also helps us to establish and maintain relationships. We signal that we
like another person first through nonverbal signals; then, usually at least, we
follow up with verbal messages. At the same time, of course, our nonverbal
messages can help destroy and dissolve interpersonal relationships. When
we avoid eye contact and touching, when we frown more than smile, and
when our voice is without warmth, we are using nonverbal signals to
distance ourselves from the other people. We can also use nonverbal
messages to help.
6

According to Joseph A. DeVito (2002), gently touching an ill person‘s face,

hugging someone who is in pain, or helping an old person walk are common
examples. We use nonverbal messages to persuade; for example, when our
posture and clothing communicate our self-confidence, when our steady
gaze communicates assurance that we are right, or when our facial
expression communicates that the advertised product tastes great.
Nonverbal messages may also be used to play.
Much of nonverbal communication, however, occurs in combination with
verbal messages and serves a metacommunication function. That is,
nonverbal messages often comment on or communicate something about
other messages (often-verbal messages). Six general ways in which
nonverbal communication blends with verbal communication have been
identified and will illustrate the wide variety of metacommunication
functions that nonverbal messages may serve (Knapp & Hall,1997).
Nonverbal messages are often used to accent or emphasize some part of the
verbal message. We might, for example, raise our voice to underscore a
particular word or phrase, beat our fist on the desk to stress our
commitment, or look thoughtfully into someone‘s eyes when saying, ―I love
you.‖
We use nonverbal communication to complement, to add nuances of
meaning not communicated by our verbal message. Thus, we might smile
when telling a story (to suggest that we find it humorous) or frown and
shake our head when describing someone‘s dishonesty (to suggest our
disapproval).
We may deliberately contradict our verbal messages with nonverbal
movements, for example, by crossing our fingers or winking to indicate that
we are lying. Movements may be used to regulate or control the flow of
verbal messages, as when we purse our lips, lean forward, or make hand
gestures to indicate that we want to speak. We might also put up our hand or
7

vocalize our pauses (for example, with ―um‖ or ―ah‖) to indicate that we
have not finished and are not ready to let go by the floor to the next speaker.
We can repeat or restate the verbal message nonverbally. We can, for
example, follow our verbal ―Is that all right?‖ with raised eyebrows and a
questioning look, or motion with our head or hand to repeat our verbal
―Let‘s go.‖ We may also use nonverbal communication to substitute for or
take the place of verbal messages. For instance, we can signal ―OK‖ with a
hand gesture.
1.1.3 Components of nonverbal communication

Since it is said that as little as ten percent of communication takes place
verbally, and that facial expressions, gestures and posture form part of our
culture and language, it seems reasonable that we should at least raise
learners‘ awareness of nonverbal communication in order to improve
their use of natural language, increase confidence and fluency and help to
avoid intercultural misunderstandings. On the grounds that ‗it‘s not what
you say, it‘s the way that you say it‘, there is much to be said for teaching
nonverbal communication either parallel to, or integrated with, a language
and skills based syllabus, in the same way that phonology is often treated.
Nonverbal communication is a system consisting of a range of features
often used together to aid expression. The combination of these features
is often a subconscious choice made by native speakers or even sub-
groups/ sub-cultures within a language group.
According to Dilek Eryilmaz and Steve Darn in “A Nonverbal
Communication Lesson”, the main components of the system are:
Kinesics (body language): body motions such as shrugs, foot tapping,
drumming fingers, eye movements such as winking, facial expressions, and
gestures
Proxemics (proximity): use of space to signal privacy or attraction
Haptics: touch

Oculesics: eye contact
8

Chronemics: use of time, waiting, pausing
Olfactics: smell
Vocalics: tone of voice, timbre, volume, speed
Sound Symbols: grunting, mmm, er, ah, uh-huh, mumbling,
Silence: pausing, waiting, secrecy
Posture: position of the body, stance
Adornment: clothing, jewellery, hairstyle
Locomotion: walking, running, staggering, limping
Of the above, body language (particularly facial expressions and gestures),
eye contact, proximity and posture are probably those which learners most
need to be aware of in terms of conveying meaning, avoiding
misunderstandings and fitting in with the target culture. In terms of skills
development, nonverbal clues should not be underestimated when
developing both the listening and speaking skills. Like grammatical
structures, nonverbal communication has form, function and meaning, all of
which may vary from language to language.
According to Joseph A. DeVito in “Human Communication”, 2002,
nonverbal communication is probably most easily explained in terms of its
various channels or components through which messages pass. Here we will
survey 10 channels: body, face, eye, space, artifactual, touch, paralanguage,
silence, time, and smell.
1.1.3.1 The Body
Two areas of the body are especially important in communicating messages.
First, the movements we make with our body communicate; second, the
general appearance of our body communicates.
Body Movements
Researchers in kinesics or the study of nonverbal communication through

face and body movements, identify five major types of movements:
emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators, and adaptors (Ekman &
Friesen, 1969; Knapp & Hall, 1997).
9

Emblems are body gestures that directly translate into words or phrases, for
example, the OK sign, the thumbs-up for ―good job,‖ and the V for victory.
We use these consciously and purposely to communicate the same meaning
as the words. However, emblems are culture specific, so it is advisable to
use our culture‘s emblems carefully in other cultures. For example, when
President Nixon visited Latin America and gestured with the OK sign,
intending to communicate something positive, he was quickly informed that
this gesture was not universal. In Latin America, the gesture has a far more
negative meaning. Below are a few cultural differences in the emblems we
may commonly use (Axtell, 1993):
• In the United States, to say ―hello‖ we wave with our whole hand moving
from side to side, but in a large part of Europe that same signal means
―no.‖ In Greece, such a gesture would be considered insulting.
• The V for victory is common throughout much of the world; but if we
make this gesture in England with the palm facing our face, it is as insulting
as the raised middle finger is in the United States.
• In Texas, the raised fist with little finger and index finger held upright is a
positive expression of support, because it represents the Texas longhorn
steer. Nevertheless, in Italy it is an insult that means, ―Your spouse is
having an affair with someone else.‖ In parts of South America, it is a
gesture to defend against evil, and in parts of Africa, it is a curse: ―May you
experience bad times.‖
• In the United States and in much of Asia, hugs are rarely exchanged
among acquaintances; but among Latins and southern Europeans, hugging
is a common greeting gesture, and failing to hug someone may

communicate unfriendliness.
Illustrators enhance (literally ―illustrate‖) the verbal messages they
accompany. For example, when referring to something to the left, we might
gesture toward the left. Most often, we illustrate with our hands, but we can
also illustrate with head and general body movements. We might, for
example, turn our head or our entire body toward the left. We might also use
10

illustrators to communicate the shape or size of objects we are talking about.
Body Appearance
Our general body appearance also communicates.
Height, for example, has been shown to be significant in a wide variety of
situations. Tall presidential candidates have a much better record of winning
the election than do their shorter opponents. Tall people seem to be paid
more and are favored by interviewers over shorter applicants (Keyes, 1980;
Guerrero, DeVito, & Hecht, 1999; Knapp & Hall, 1997).
Our body also reveals our race (through skin color and tone) and may give
clues as to our more specific nationality. Our weight in proportion to our
height will also communicate messages to others, as will the length, color,
and style of our hair.
Our general attractiveness is also a part of body communication. Attractive
people have the advantage in just about every activity we can name. They
get better grades in school, are more valued as friends and lovers, and are
preferred as coworkers (Burgoon, Buller, & Woodall, 1996). Although we
normally think that attractiveness is culturally determined—and to some
degree it is—research seems to indicate that definitions of attractiveness are
becoming universal (Brody, 1994). A person rated as attractive in one
culture is likely to be rated as attractive in other cultures—even in cultures
whose people are widely different in appearance.
1.1.3.2 Facial Communication

Throughout our interactions, our face communicates various messages,
especially our emotions. Facial movements alone seem to communicate the
degree of pleasantness, agreement, and sympathy felt; the rest of the body
does not provide any additional information. However, for other emotional
messages, for example, the intensity with which an emotion is felt—both
facial and bodily cues are used (Graham, Bitti, & Argyle, 1975; Graham &
Argyle, 1975).
So important are these cues in communicating our full meaning that graphic
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representations are now commonly used in Internet communication. In
graphic user interface chat groups, buttons are available to help us encode
our emotions graphically. Table 1.1 below identifies some of the more
common ―emoticons,‖ icons that communicate emotions.

TABLE 1.1 Some Popular Emoticons
Here are a few of the many popular emoticons used in computer
communication. The first six are popular in the United States; the last three are
popular in Japan and illustrate how culture influences such symbols. That is,
because Japanese culture considers it impolite for women to show their teeth
when smiling, the emoticon for a woman‘s smile shows a dot signifying a
closed mouth.

Emoticon Meaning Emoticon Meaning
:-) Smile; I‘m kidding *This is important* Substitutes for
underlining or
italics
:-( Frown; I‘m feeling <G> Grin; I‘m
down kidding
* Kiss <grin> Grin; I‘m

kidding
{} Hug ^.^ Woman‘s
smile
{*****} Hugs and kisses ^_^ Man‘s smile
_This is important_ Gives emphasis, ^ o ^ Happy
calls special attention to

Some researchers in nonverbal communication claim that facial movements
may express at least the following eight emotions: happiness, surprise, fear,
anger, sadness, disgust, contempt, and interest (Ekman, Friesen, &
Ellsworth, 1972). Facial expressions of these emotions are generally called
primary affect displays: They indicate relatively pure, single emotions.
12

Other emotional states and other facial displays are combinations of these
various primary emotions and are called affect blends. We communicate
these blended feelings with different parts of our face. Thus, for example,
we may experience both fear and disgust at the same time. Our eyes and
eyelids may signal fear, and movements of our nose, cheek, and mouth area
may signal disgust.
1.1.3.3 Eye Communication
Research on the messages communicated by the eyes (a study known
technically as oculesis) shows that these messages vary depending on the
duration, direction, and quality of the eye behavior. For example, in every
culture there are strict, though unstated, rules for the proper duration for eye
contact. When eye contact falls short of this amount, we may think the
person is uninterested, shy, or preoccupied. When the appropriate amount of
time is exceeded, we may perceive the person as showing unusually high
interest.
The direction of the eye also communicates. In much of the United States,

we‘re expected to glance alternately at the other person‘s face, then away,
then again at the face, and so on. The rule for the public speaker is to scan
the entire audience, not focusing for too long on or ignoring any one area of
the audience. When we break these directional rules, we communicate
different meanings—abnormally high or low interest, self-consciousness,
nervousness over the interaction, and so on. The quality of eye behavior—
how wide or how narrow our eyes get during interaction—also
communicates meaning, especially interest level and such emotions as
surprise, fear, and disgust.
1.1.3.4 Space Communication
Our use of space to communicate—an area of study known technically as
proxemics—speaks as surely and as loudly as words and sentences.
Speakers who stand close to their listeners, with their hands on the listener‘s
13

shoulders and their eyes focused directly on those of the listeners,
communicate something very different from speakers who stand in a corner
with arms folded and eyes down.
Spatial Distances
Edward Hall (1959, 1963, 1976) distinguishes four proxemic distances:
types of spatial distances that define the types of relationships between
people and the types of communication in which they‘re likely to engage
(see Table 1.2). In intimate distance, ranging from actual touching to 18
inches, the presence of the other individual is unmistakable. Each person
experiences the sound, smell, and feel of the other‘s breath. We use intimate
distance for lovemaking, comforting, and protecting. This distance is so
short that most people do not consider it proper in public.
Personal distance refers to the protective ―bubble‖ that defines our personal
space, ranging from 18 inches to 4 feet. This imaginary bubble keeps us
protected and untouched by others. We can still hold or grasp another

person at this distance, but only by extending our arms; this allows us to
take certain individuals such as loved ones into our protective bubble. At the
outer limit of personal distance, we can touch another person only if both of
us extend our arms. This is the distance at which we conduct most of our
interpersonal interactions, for example, talking with friends and family.











14


At social distance, ranging from 4 to 12 feet, we lose the visual detail we
have at personal distance. We conduct impersonal business and interact at a
social gathering at this social distance. The more distance we maintain in
our interactions, the more formal they appear. In offices of high officials, the
desks are positioned so the official is assured of at least this distance from
clients.
Public distance, from 12 to more than 25 feet, protects the speaker. At this
distance we could take defensive action if threatened. On a public bus or
train, for example, we might keep at least this distance from a drunken
passenger. Although at this distance we lose fine details of the face and
eyes, we are still close enough to see what is happening.

TABLE 1.2 Relationships and Proxemic Distances
Relationship Distance


Intimate relationship Intimate distance 0 18 inches
close phase far phase


Personal relationship Personal distance 1
1 ⁄2
4 feet
Close phase far phase

Social relationship Social distance 4 12 feet
Close phase far phase

Public relationship Public distance 12 25+ feet
close phase far phase
15

Influences on Space Communication
Several factors influence the way we relate to and use space in
communicating. Below are a few examples of how status, culture, subject
matter, gender, and age influence space communication (Burgoon, Buller, &
Woodall, 1996).
People of equal status maintain shorter distances between themselves than
do people of unequal status. When status is unequal, the higher-status
person may approach the lower-status person more closely than the lower-
status person would approach the higher-status person.

Members of different cultures treat space differently. For example, people
from northern European cultures and many Americans stand fairly far apart
when conversing; those from southern European and Middle Eastern
cultures stand much closer.
It is easy to see how people who normally stand far apart may interpret the
close distances of others as pushy and overly intimate. It is equally easy to
appreciate how those who normally stand close may interpret the far
distances of others as cold and unfriendly.
When discussing personal subjects we maintain shorter distances than with
impersonal subjects.
In addition, we stand closer to someone who is praising us than to someone
criticizing us. Our gender also influences our spatial relationships. Women
generally stand closer to each other than men do. Similarly, when someone
approaches another person, he or she will come closer to a woman than to a
man. With increasing age, there is a tendency for the spaces to become
larger. Children stand much closer to each other than do adults. These
research findings provide some evidence that maintaining distance is a
learned behavior.
The evaluation we make of a person (whether positive or negative) will also
influence our space. For example, we stand farther from enemies, authority
figures, and higher-status individuals than from friends and peers. We
maintain a greater distance from people we see as different from ourselves,
16

for example, different in race or in physical condition.
1.1.3.5 Artifactual Communication
Artifactual communication is communication via objects made by human
hands. Thus, color, clothing, jewelry, and the decoration of space would be
considered artifactual. We will look at each of these briefly.
Color Communication

There is some evidence that colors affect us physiologically. For example,
respiratory movements will increase with red light and decrease with blue
light. Similarly, eye blinks increase in frequency when eyes are exposed to
red light and decrease when exposed to blue. These responses seem
consistent with our intuitive feelings about blue being more soothing and
red more arousing. When a school changed the color of its walls from
orange and white to blue, the blood pressure of the students decreased and
their academic performance increased (Ketcham, 1958; Malandro, Barker,
& Barker, 1989). Color communication also influences perceptions and
behaviors (Kanner, 1989). People‘s acceptance of a product, for example, is
largely determined by its packaging, especially its color. In one study the
very same coffee taken from a yellow can was described as weak, from a
dark brown can as too strong, from a red can as rich, and from a blue can as
mild. Even our acceptance of a person may depend on the colors he or she
wears. Consider, for example, the comments of one color expert (Kanner,
1989): ―If you have to pick the wardrobe for your defense lawyer heading
into court and choose anything but blue, you deserve to lose the case.‖
Black is so powerful it could work against the lawyer with the jury. Brown
lacks sufficient authority. Green would probably elicit a negative response.
Clothing and Body Adornment
People make inferences about who we are, at least in part, from the way we
dress. Whether these inferences are accurate or not, they will influence what
people think of us and how they react to us. Our socioeconomic class, our
seriousness, our attitudes (for example, whether you‘re conservative or
17

liberal), our concern for convention, our sense of style, and perhaps even
our creativity will all be judged in part by the way we dress (Molloy, 1975,
1977, 1981; Burgoon, Buller, & Woodall, 1996; Knapp & Hall, 1997).
Similarly, college students will perceive an instructor dressed informally as

friendly, fair, enthusiastic, and flexible; they will see the same instructor
dressed formally as prepared, knowledgeable, and organized (Malandro,
Barker, & Barker, 1989).
The way we wear our hair says something about our attitudes—from a
concern about being up to date to a desire to shock to perhaps a lack of
interest in appearances. Men with long hair will generally be judged as less
conservative than those with shorter hair. Our jewelry also communicates
about us. Wedding and engagement rings are obvious examples that
communicate specific messages. College rings and political buttons likewise
communicate specific messages. If we wear a Rolex watch or large precious
stones, others are likely to infer that we are rich. Men who wear earrings
will be judged differently from men who do not. What judgments are made
will depend on who the receiver is, the communication context, and all the
factors identified throughout this text.
1.1.3.6 Touch Communication
The study of touch communication, technically referred to as haptics,
suggests that touch is per-haps the most primitive form of communication
(Montagu, 1971). Developmentally, touch is probably the first sense to be
used. Even in the womb, the child is stimulated by touch. Soon after birth,
the child is fondled, caressed, patted, and stroked. In turn, the child explores
its world through touch. In a short time the child learns to communicate a
wide variety of meanings through touch.
The Meanings of Touch
• Touch communicates a wide variety of messages (Jones & Yarbrough,
1985). Below are five major ones that will illustrate this great variety.
• Touch communicates positive feelings, for example, support, appreciation,
18

inclusion, sexual interest or intent, composure, immediacy, affection, trust,
similarity and quality, and informality (Jones & Yarbrough, 1985; Burgoon,

1991). Touch also stimulates self-disclosure (Rabino-witz, 1991).
• Touch often communicates our intention to play, either affectionately or
aggressively.
• Touch may control the behaviors, attitudes, or feelings of the other person.
To obtain compliance, for example, we touch the other person to
communicate, ―move over,‖ ―hurry,‖ ―stay here,‖ or ―do it.‖ We might also
touch a person to gain his or her attention, as if to say, ―look at me‖ or ―look
over here.‖ In some situations touching can even amount to a kind of
nonverbal dominance behavior.
• Ritualistic touching centers on greetings and departures; examples are
shaking hands to say ―hello‖ or ―goodbye,‖ hugging, kissing, or putting our
arm around another‘s shoulder when greeting or saying farewell.
• Task-related touching is associated with the performance of some
function, as when we remove a speck of dust from another person‘s coat,
help someone out of a car, or check someone‘s forehead for fever.
1.1.3.7 Paralanguage: The Vocal Channel
Paralanguage is the vocal but nonverbal dimension of speech. It has to do
not with what we say but with how we say it. A traditional exercise students
use to increase their ability to express different emotions, feelings, and
attitudes is to repeat a sentence while accenting or stressing different words.
One popular sentence is, ―Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?‖
Significant differences in meaning are easily communicated depending on
where the speaker places the stress.
Consider the following variations:
• Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?
• Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?
• Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?
• Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?
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Each sentence communicates something different; in fact, each asks a
different question, even though the words are exactly the same. All that
distinguishes the sentences is stress, one aspect of paralanguage. In addition
to stress and pitch (highness or lowness), paralanguage includes such voice
qualities as rate (speed), volume (loudness), and rhythm as well as the
vocalizations we make in crying, whispering, moaning, belching, yawning,
and yelling (Trager, 1958, 1961; Argyle, 1988). A variation in any of these
features communicates. When we speak quickly, for example, we
communicate something different from when we speak slowly. Even though
the words may be the same, if the speed (or volume, rhythm, or pitch)
differs, the meanings people receive will also differ.
1.1.3.8 Silence
Like words and gestures, silence, too, communicates important meanings
and serves important functions (Johannesen, 1974; Jaworski, 1993). Silence
allows the speaker time to think, time to formulate and organize his or her
verbal communications. Before messages of intense conflict, as well as
before those confessing endless love, there is often silence. Moreover,
silence seems to prepare the receiver for the importance of these future
messages. Some people use silence as a weapon to hurt others. We often
speak of giving someone ―the silent treatment.‖ After a conflict, for
example, one or both individuals may remain silent as a kind of punishment.
Silence used to hurt others may also take the form of refusing to
acknowledge the presence of another person, as in disconfirmation; here
silence is a dramatic demonstration of the total indifference one person feels
toward the other.
Sometimes silence is used as a response to personal anxiety, shyness, or
threats. We may feel anxious or shy among new people and prefer to remain
silent. By remaining silent, we exclude the chance of rejection. Only when
we break our silence and make an attempt to communicate with another
person do we risk rejection.

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Silence may be used to prevent communication of certain messages. In
conflict situations, silence is sometimes used to prevent certain topics from
surfacing and to prevent one or both parties from saying things they may
later regret. In such situations, silence often allows us time to cool off
before expressing hatred, severe criticism, or personal attacks, which, as we
know, are irreversible.
Like the eyes, face, and hands, silence can also be used to communicate
emotional responses (Ehrenhaus, 1988). Sometimes silence communicates a
determination to be uncooperative or defiant; by refusing to engage in
verbal communication, we resist the authority or the legitimacy of the other
person‘s position. Silence is often used to communicate annoyance,
particularly when accompanied by a pouting expression, arms crossed in
front of the chest, and noses flared. Silence may express affection or love,
especially when coupled with long and longing stares into each other‘s eyes.
Of course, we may also use silence when we simply have nothing to say,
when nothing occurs to us, or when we do not want to say anything. James
Russell Lowell expressed this best: ―Blessed are they who have nothing to
say, and who cannot be persuaded to say it.‖ Silence may also be used to
avoid responsibility for any wrongdoing (Beach, 1990–91).
1.1.3.9 Smell Communication
Smell communication, or olfactory communication, is extremely important
in a wide variety of situations and is now big business (Kleinfeld, 1992).
For example, there is some evidence (though clearly not very conclusive
evidence) that the smell of lemon contributes to a perception of heath, the
smells of lavender and eucalyptus increase alertness, and the smell of rose
oil reduces blood pressure. Findings such as these have contributed to the
growth of aromatherapy and to a new profession of aromatherapists
(Furlow, 1996). Because humans possess ―denser skin concentrations of

scent glands than almost any other mammal,‖ it has been argued that it only
remains for us to discover how we use scent to communicate a wide variety