Critical Care Obstetrics part 32 doc

Thromboembolic Disease
299
Postpartum m anagement
Conversion from heparin to warfarin anticoagulation should be
initiated post partum in the hospital to minimize the maternal
risk of complications. Once the patient has delivered and is suf-
fi ciently stable, full heparin anticoagulation should be resumed.
Then, oral warfarin therapy should be started with 10 – 15 mg
orally per day for 2 – 4 days, followed by 2 – 15 mg/day as indicated
by the INR or PT [109] . Heparin and warfarin therapy should be
overlapped for the fi rst 5 – 7 days post partum until an INR of
approximately 2. 0 – 3.0 has been achieved. One approach is to
give the warfarin sodium at 6 p.m., then draw an INR or PT at 6
a.m. the following day, adjusting the dose for the subsequent
day ’ s warfarin according to that morning ’ s results. Once the
patient is therapeutically anticoagulated, heparin is discontinued.
Postpartum suppression of lactation with estrogen is associated
with a much higher incidence of thromboembolic complications
and is contraindicated [175,176] .
Prophylaxis of t hromboembolism
The dosage of heparin needed during pregnancy appears to
increase because of increases in heparin - binding proteins, plasma
volume, renal clearance, and heparin degradation by the placenta.
All contribute to a decreased bioavailability of heparin. Due to a
lack of adequate prospective trials, a number of different prophy-
lactic regimens have been proposed. Low - dose prophylaxis with
UFH may be administered via 5000 – 7500 units every 12 hours
during the fi rst trimester, 7500 – 10,000 units every 12 hours
during the second trimester, followed by 10,000 units every 12
hours during the third trimester unless the aPTT is elevated.
Alternatively, LMWH may be used. For low - dose prophylaxis,

dalteparin 5000 units once or twice daily or enoxaparin 40 mg
once or twice daily may be used. Adjusted - dose prophylaxis may
be accomplished with either dalteparin 5000 – 10,000 units every
12 hours or enoxaparin, 30 – 80 mg every 12 hours [165] . An
increase from 5000 units to 7500 – 10,000 units in the third tri-
mester [42] is often recommended [177] . Except for doses
exceeding 8000 units, laboratory monitoring is not usually
required [42] . Caution should be used in the patient with dimin-
ished renal function, such as seen during pre - eclampsia, which
may elevate heparin levels.
Employing perioperative (cesarean) prophylaxis may be con-
sidered for certain patients, such as individuals who are obese,
have diffi culty ambulating or have been at prolonged bed rest.
Conservative mechanical methods, such as intermittent pneu-
matic compression boots or graduated elastic compression stock-
ings, may be used. A recent decision analysis investigated the use
of thromboprophylaxis after cesarean delivery. The authors
compared four methods: universal subcutaneous heparin
prophylaxis, heparin prophylaxis only for patients with a genetic
thrombophilia, use of pneumatic compression stockings, and no
thromboprophylaxis. Use of pneumatic compression stockings
after cesarean delivery was the strategy with the lowest numbers
of adverse events. Universal prophylaxis with heparin was associ-
ated with an excess risk of heparin - induced thrombocytopenia
clotting profi le and hematocrit should be drawn. There are three
basic choices in the approach to anticoagulant management in
such patients.
1 Continue therapeutic anticoagulation. This approach is recom-
mended for particularly high - risk patients, such as those with
recent PE, iliofemoral thrombosis or mechanical heart valve pros-

theses. Because a more uniform therapeutic heparin level is desir-
able, the patient may be changed from subcutaneous injection to
continuous IV infusion. A heparin level of 0.4 units/mL or a low
therapeutic aPTT (close to 1.5 times normal) may be desirable in
these surgical patients.
2 Reduce the subcutaneous heparin dose. In patients at lower risk
of thromboembolism, the heparin dose can be reduced to a pro-
phylactic level (5000 units every 12 hours); this dose is not associ-
ated with increased surgical bleeding.
3 Stop or withhold heparin administration. For patients at
increased risk for operative bleeding (i.e. suspected placenta
accreta) and at relatively low risk of clot propagation, heparin
may be temporarily withheld or its effects reversed with prot-
amine sulfate. Non - pharmacologic prophylaxis (e.g. pneumatic
compression stockings) may be substituted during the intraop-
erative period.
With patients who are anticoagulated and in whom rapid reversal
is deemed essential, protamine sulfate can be used to reverse
either UFH or LMWH. One milligram of protamine sulfate neu-
tralizes 100 units of heparin. To determine the proper dose of
protamine, several approaches are available. One is to calculate
the amount of circulating heparin by estimating the plasma
volume at 50 mL/kg of body weight and multiplying the plasma
volume by the heparin concentration [17] . In most institutions,
however, this procedure may not be technically feasible. If heparin
level is not available, the amount of protamine sulfate to give
should be underestimated or slowly titrated to the whole - blood
clotting time because of the short half - life (rapid metabolism) of
heparin and the irreversible anticoagulant effect of excess prot-
amine. No single dose should exceed 50 mg. A 50 mg dose is

almost never needed because it would neutralize 5000 units of
circulating heparin, an amount highly unlikely to be present.
Protamine sulfate should be administered IV over 20 – 30 minutes
to prevent hypotension. In patients receiving adjusted - dose
subcutaneous heparin, a dose of 5 – 10 mg of protamine sulfate
is often suffi cient; further doses may be given, depending on
the aPTT value. It should be emphasized that for vaginal
delivery, even signifi cantly prolonged aPTT values rarely result in
clinical hemorrhage, and thus do not require protamine sulfate
therapy.
Patients who present for delivery on warfarin anticoagulant are
at heightened risk for bleeding with either vaginal or operative
delivery. Parental vitamin K can help to regenerate the clotting
factors within 12 hours. If there is little time or reversal is
not adequate, fresh frozen plasma can be given to supply
clotting factors. Regardless, the pregnant woman should be sta-
bilized and be suffi ciently able to clot before operative delivery is
initiated.
Chapter 21
300
study to prevent postoperative DVT in non - pregnant patients, a
dose of 1 IU/kg/h reduced the incidence of DVT from 22% to 4%.
Thrombolytic t herapy
Defi brinating agents may be indicated in cases of life - threatening
thromboembolism [191 – 194] . Streptokinase, urokinase, and
tissue plasminogen activator activate plasminogen, which sets in
motion the body ’ s natural fi brinolytic system. Although helpful
in early management of massive PE, thrombolysis plus heparin
may not yield improved mortality over heparin alone [191] .
Because of the potential risk of bleeding, thrombolytic therapy

has not been recommended within 10 days of surgery or parturi-
tion [193] . Recommended treatment schedules vary, but all
consist of an IV loading dose followed by continuous infusion
for 12 – 72 hours, depending on the clinical situation [192] .
Thrombolytic therapy is followed by anticoagulant therapy to
prevent recurrence. A review of 172 patients by Turrentine et al.
demonstrated that thrombolytic therapy could be used relatively
safely during pregnancy in selected clinical situations (Table
21.13 ) and that these agents were partially or completely success-
ful in 86 – 90% of recipients [194] . Nonetheless, the authors sug-
gested that traditional therapies should be used fi rst and, if
unsuccessful, thrombolytic agents should be reserved for life - or
limb - threatening VTE with the understanding of the increased
risk of bleeding complications.
Ancrod, derived from Malayan pit viper venom, is contraindi-
cated in pregnancy. Animal studies have shown a high incidence
of fetal death. Postpartum hemorrhage from the placental site
also occurs at a greater frequency.
Inferior v ena c ava fi lter p lacement
The safe placement of inferior vena cava fi lters to prevent PE has
been reported during pregnancy. Eleven patients with DVT and
who were presumed to have an increased risk of PE underwent
placement of a temporary inferior vena cava fi lter between 1998
and 2004. All the fi lters were placed at the suprarenal inferior
vena cava prior to delivery. During fi lter placement, anticoagu-
lant therapy was continued and then stopped intrapartum. No
induced thrombosis and bleeding per VTE [178] . Another group
performed a decision analysis comparing no thromboprophylaxis
to intermittent pneumatic compression and confi rmed that
mechanical thromboprophylaxis is estimated to a cost - effective

strategy [179] . Early postoperative ambulation is also important
in preventing thromboembolism. Low - dose heparin is accepted
as prophylaxis for a variety of surgical procedures [180] . Although
in some general surgical or orthopedic patients dihydroergota-
mine in combination with heparin is felt to be more effective than
heparin alone [181,182] , its use in pregnant or parturient women
has not been studied. Thus, its use cannot be recommended. The
combination of mechanical methods, especially pneumatic com-
pression, and low - dose heparin may be the optimal approach for
high - risk patients [183,184] . LMWH has been found useful in
abdominal surgery; one dose is given preoperatively, followed by
additional doses once every 24 hours [185,186] .
According to the ACCP recommendations, patients with a
history of a single episode of VTE, associated with a transient risk
factor that is no longer present, should undergo antepartum clini-
cal surveillance and postpartum anticoagulation [55] . In patients
with a history of a single episode of VTE and thrombophilia or a
strong family history and not currently on lifelong anticoagula-
tion, antepartum prophylactic or intermediate - dose LMWH or
minidose or moderate - dose UFH, plus postpartum anticoagula-
tion is recommended. Intermediate - dose LMWH is defi ned as
dalteparin 5000 U SC q12 h or enoxaparin 40 mg SC q12 h.
Minidose heparin is UFH 5000 U SC q12 h and moderate - dose
UFH is UFH SC q12 h in doses adjusted to target an anti - Xa level
of 0.1 – 0.3 U/mL [55] . Therapeutic anticoagulation is necessary
during pregnancy for those patients with mechanical heart valves
[187] or inherited defi ciency of a natural anticoagulant such as
AT III [188] . In women with AT III defi ciency, successful out-
comes have been achieved with the use of subcutaneous and IV
heparinization, accompanied by infusion of AT III concentrate at

the time of abortion or delivery [188] . AT III defi ciency should
be considered when heparin requirements increase beyond
typical dosages. Without such therapy, maternal morbidity or
mortality and fetal loss are extremely high. Defi ciencies of pro-
teins C and S are also associated with thrombotic tendency [189] .
In patients with medical histories remarkable for VTE, a system-
atic comprehensive approach to thrombophilic screening should
be pursued. Knowledge of an individual ’ s thrombophilic status
can be used to better predict VTE recurrence risk [24] .
Antiplatelet agents such as aspirin and dipyridamole may be
helpful in preventing thrombosis in the arterial circulation and
with some prosthetic heart valves. There is no known role for
these agents in the prevention of pregnancy - associated VTE
disease. Perioperative prophylaxis with dextran appears benefi cial
in some surgical patients, but the risk of bleeding is higher than
with heparin, and dextran ’ s usefulness in pregnant patients has
not been established [187] .
A potential but currently unproven approach in pregnancy for
intrapartum prophylaxis in patients without an active thrombotic
process is ultra - low - dose IV heparin [190] . In a randomized
Table 21.13 Maternal and perinatal outcome in 172 patients who received
thrombolytic therapy during pregnancy.
n %
Hemorrhage 14 8
Preterm birth 10 6
Perinatal deaths 10 6
Maternal deaths 2 1
Reproduced by permission from Turrentine MA, Braeems G, Ramirez MM. Use of
thrombolytics for the treatment of thromboembolic disease during pregnancy.

Obstet Gynecol
1995; 50: 534 – 541.
Thromboembolic Disease
301
of opinion regarding heparin prophylaxis during pregnancy,
there is uniform agreement that anticoagulant therapy is war-
ranted in the puerperium [35,37,38,205 – 211] . For patients
with recurrent thromboembolism or a family history of these
defi ciencies, prenatal screening for AT III, protein C, and protein
S appears reasonable.
Antiphospholipid s yndrome ( APS )
Individuals presenting with clinical signs of thrombosis or embo-
lism which is objectively confi rmed should receive heparin, either
unfractionated or low molecular weight, according to accepted
therapeutic regimens. Since minimal doses of heparin may
prolong the aPTT without a therapeutic level being achieved, it
is best to follow these patients with anti - factor Xa levels to ensure
adequacy of therapy. Patients with APS and a prior thrombosis
appear to have a risk of recurrent thrombosis that is substantially
higher than the recurrent risk with most other thrombophilias.
Retrospective studies have shown that up to 70% of APS patients
have recurrent thrombotic events during the 5 – 6 years following
their initial thrombosis [212,213] . Prospective studies have con-
fi rmed a high risk of recurrent thrombosis among APS patients
[214] . As such, most experts recommend long - term thrombopro-
phylaxis in patients with APS who have experienced a thrombotic
event.
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complications occurred at time of fi lter placement. No symptom-
atic PE occurred during or after delivery. Subsequently, all the
fi lters were removed [195] . Placement of a vena cava fi lter has
also been successfully performed during early labor followed by

vaginal delivery without incident [196] .
Surgical i ntervention
With pregnancy, surgical intervention may be indicated in some
clinical situations, such as replacement of a thrombosed cardiac
valve prosthesis, thrombectomy for acute iliofemoral thrombosis,
embolectomy of a life - threatening massive PE, vena cava inter-
ruption for recurrent venous emboli despite adequate anticoagu-
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Embolectomy is a heroic measure, which may occasionally be life
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Special c onsiderations
Antithrombin III d efi ciency
The fi rst evidence of an inherited AT III defect is frequently a
thromboembolic event. Pregnant patients with inherited AT III
defi ciency often require therapeutic anticoagulation through the
pregnancy and the puerperium [188,189,199 – 204] . In addition to
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be accomplished with fresh frozen plasma, but AT III concentrate
is preferable [199,201,202] . The loading dose of AT III is 50 –
70 units/kg. This is followed by 20 – 30 units/kg/day to maintain
an AT III level of 80% of normal [200] . The higher the AT III
level, the less heparin will be required for therapeutic anticoagula-
tion. If these patients remain untreated during pregnancy, 68%

will develop thromboembolism [188,200,203,204] . In patients
who require high doses of heparin to achieve anticoagulation,
prophylactic biweekly doses of AT III concentrate may be neces-
sary [203] . Many patients require lifelong anticoagulation, which
is best achieved by oral anticoagulants when not pregnant and
heparin throughout pregnancy.
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defi ciency in one series were 17% and 0% respectively. The post-
partum risks, however, were similar [204] . While there is a split
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308
Critical Care Obstetrics, 5th edition. Edited by M. Belfort, G. Saade,
M. Foley, J. Phelan and G. Dildy. © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
22
Etiology and Management of Hemorrhage
Irene Stafford
1
, Michael A. Belfort
2
& Gary A. Dildy III
3


1
Maternal - Fetal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA

2
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Maternal - Fetal Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt
Lake City, UT and HCA Healthcare, Nashville, TN, USA

3
Maternal - Fetal Medicine, Mountain Star Division, Hospital Corporation of America, Salt Lake City, UT and Department of

Obstetrics and Gynecology, LSU Health Sciences Center, School of Medicine in New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
In patients with major obstetric hemorrhage, three measures
must be promptly taken: identify the cause, arrest the bleeding
and management of hypovolemia, anemia and coagulopathy.
Continued hemorrhage, particularly if concealed or underesti-
mated, may result in the onset of irreversible shock. Although
the percentage of death caused by hemorrhage decreased by
approximately one - third between 1979 – 1986 and 1991 – 1997, it
continues to be a leading cause of pregnancy - related mortality
[1 – 3] . An estimated 140,000 women worldwide die every year
from postpartum hemorrhage, with over 50% of these occurring
within the fi rst 24 hours after delivery [4] . Postpartum hemor-
rhage remains among the top three causes of maternal deaths
in the United States, with life - threatening hemorrhage occurring
in 1 in 1000 deliveries [5] . The major obstetric causes for ante-
partum hemorrhage are placental abruption and placenta previa,
while postpartum hemorrhage is most commonly caused by
uterine atony, retained placenta, and genital tract lacerations.
Other less common but sometimes more serious causes include
uterine rupture, uterine inversion and abnormal placental inva-
sion (placenta accreta, increta, and percreta). Management of
these conditions along with management of hemorrhage related
to inherited or acquired bleeding disorders will be discussed in
this chapter. Conditions caused by pregnancy (HELLP syn-
drome, acute fatty liver of pregnancy, amniotic fl uid embolism)
and disseminated intravascular coagulation are discussed in
other chapters.
Massive hemorrhage may also result from surgical causes in
pregnant or postpartum women. These include liver rupture in
HELLP syndrome, and rupture of aortic, splenic, and renal artery

aneurysms. Although rare, these should be considered in patients
with hemorrhagic shock and concealed bleeding in whom an
obstetric cause such as abruption, pelvic hematoma or uterine
rupture is unlikely.
Placental a bruption
Placental abruption is defi ned as the premature separation of a
normally situated placenta, and may be partial or complete. The
underlying mechanism is unknown, but most explanations center
around vascular or placental abnormalities, including increased
fragility of vessels, vascular malformations or abnormal placenta-
tion [6,7] . Often, in the acute setting, the etiology of abruption
may be clear. For example, shearing forces are most likely respon-
sible for abruption resulting from trauma. There is strong evi-
dence linking abruption to abnormal fi rst - trimester changes,
suggesting that abruption may be chronic in nature. Abnormal
serum analytes and placental biology studies support this
notion [8] .
Hemorrhage occurs into the decidua basalis, forming a hema-
toma which splits the decidua [9] . As the hematoma expands,
further placental separation ensues. Large Epidemiol ogic studies
report an incidence ranging from 5.9 to 6.5 per 1000 singleton
births and 12.2 per 1000 twin births [10] . Discrepancies in rates
of abruption are reported, mainly because abruption can also be
discovered upon histologic examination of the placenta in other-
wise normal pregnancies. Pre - eclampsia is the most common risk
factor and is found in approximately 50% of women with placen-
tal abruption [11] . Other risk factors include preterm premature
rupture of membranes, polyhydramnios, advanced maternal
age, cocaine use, smoking, multiparity, chorioamnionitis, blunt
trauma and possibly thrombophilias. Black women are more at

risk than other population groups [12,13] . Bleeding in the fi rst
trimester has been linked with increased rates of abruption later
in pregnancy [14,15] and there is approximately a 10% recur-
rence rate during a subsequent pregnancy. Placental abruption is
associated with multiple adverse perinatal outcomes including a
ninefold increased risk of intrauterine fetal demise, a threefold
rise in preterm birth and a twofold increase in growth restriction.
The risk of stillbirth has been found to correlate with the extent
of placental separation, with higher rates of death associated with