Báo cáo lâm nghiệp: "Fire behaviour and severity in a maritime pine stand under differing fuel conditions" pdf

537
Ann. For. Sci. 61 (2004) 537–544
© INRA, EDP Sciences, 2004
DOI: 10.1051/forest:2004048
Original article
Fire behaviour and severity in a maritime pine stand
under differing fuel conditions
Paulo A.M. FERNANDES*, Carlos A. LOUREIRO, Hermínio S. BOTELHO
Centro de Estudos em Gestão de Ecossistemas / UTAD, Departamento Florestal, Univ. Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro,
Quinta de Prados, 5000-911 Vila Real, Portugal
(Received 25 July 2003; accepted 23 January 2004)
Abstract – An experimental fire was conducted in the summer in a 28-year old maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) plantation in northeastern
Portugal. Fuel conditions within the stand were age-dependent and comprised four situations: treated with prescribed fire at differing times,
respectively 2, 3, and 13 years before the study, and undisturbed, where fuel accumulation time equalled stand age. The rate of fire spread did
not respond to factors other than wind speed, in spite of the fuel-complex diversity. A high-intensity fire involving partially or totally the tree
canopy and killing all trees was experienced in the older treatment area and in the untreated part of the stand, but the benefits of fuel management
were still detectable in the former. Surface fire intensity, crown fire potential and fire severity (including tree mortality) were drastically reduced
where prescribed fire had been carried recently. Fuel and fire management implications are discussed.
fire behaviour / fire severity / experimental fire / fuel management / Pinus pinaster
Résumé – Comportement et sévérité d'un feu dans un peuplement de pin maritime pour des conditions de végétation variées. Un feu
expérimental a été réalisé pendant l’été dans une plantation de pin maritime (Pinus pinaster) âgé de 28 ans, situé au Nord-Est du Portugal. Les
conditions du combustible dans le peuplement étaient dépendantes de la période d’accumulation, avec quatre situations; trois traitées avec
brûlage dirigé en différents moments, respectivement 2, 3, et 13 ans avant l’étude, et une jamais traitée, où le temps d’accumulation de
combustible était égal à l’âge du peuplement. Malgré la diversité des caractéristiques du combustible, la vitesse de propagation du feu n’a été
influencée que par la vitesse du vent. La partie du peuplement traitée 13 ans auparavant et celle non traitée ont connu un feu d’une intensité
élevée, qui a touché partiellement ou totalement le couvert arboré et tué tous les arbres, mais les effets bénéfiques du traitement furent encore
décelables dans la partie brûlée antérieurement. En revanche, l’intensité du feu de surface, le potentiel à engendrer un feu de cime et la sévérité
du feu (y compris la mortalité des arbres) ont été fortement réduits dans les zones où un brûlage dirigé avait été conduit récemment. Les
conséquences en terme de gestion du combustible et du feu sont discutées.
comportement du feu / sévérité du feu / feu experimental / gestion du combustible / Pinus pinaster
1. INTRODUCTION

Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) is one of the major forest
species in the southwest of Europe, both geographically and
economically. As with most pine plantations [7], stands of mar-
itime pine are unfortunately also known for their flammability
and susceptibility to wildfire, in Portugal [10], Spain [38] and
France [26], even if the species has traits allowing a fast rees-
tablishment [47, 48].
Fire behaviour models offer an objective basis to evaluate,
select and plan stand and fuel management practices aimed at
safeguarding forest resources from high-intensity and stand-
replacement wildfires. Regardless of the adopted modelling
approach, field-burning trials are essential to the overall proc-
ess, providing the necessary real world data to develop, validate
and calibrate the models. Several studies have explicitly
addressed the behaviour of low to moderate-intensity fires in
maritime pine stands [12, 25, 30, 65], frequently in the frame
of prescribed burning research. However, quantitative docu-
mentation on the characteristics of high-intensity wild or exper-
imental fires in maritime pine is absent from the European lit-
erature, and is limited to Australasian sources [9, 16, 17, 40,
44, 57]. Furthermore, well-document cases of conifer crown
fire behaviour are scarce in the USA [56], and high-quality
crown fire data is almost restricted to Canadian Boreal forest
types [8, 58, 59, 61].
* Corresponding author:
538 P.A.M. Fernandes et al.
Fuel management is expected to diminish the extent of wild-
fires and their damage, mainly by lessening fire intensity and
increasing the efficiency of fire suppression, even if the exact
role of fuel characteristics in fire behaviour remains unclear,

especially in a severe weather environment, e.g. [36]. This
assumption is soundly supported by theory, common sense and
informal observation, which might explain the surprising pau-
city of studies examining the subject in a scientific context with
field data, by looking at fire behaviour and severity differences
between adjacent treated and untreated forest stands [31, 45].
This paper describes the behaviour and severity of an exper-
imental summer fire conducted in the frame of a cooperative
European Union project in a maritime pine (Pinus pinaster)
stand in northern Portugal comprising various fuel conditions.
A study of this type is a unique opportunity that serves the dual
purpose of obtaining high-intensity fire data in an experimental
setting for validation purposes, and comparing the characteristics
and effects of a fire propagating under dissimilar fuel influ-
ences, thus offering potential insights into the issue of fuel man-
agement effectiveness.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Most of the maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) plantations in the
Padrela upland of northeastern Portugal experienced a 3000 ha stand-
replacement wildfire in the summer of 1998. Within the wildfire
perimeter, one unburned 1-ha patch (roughly 200 × 50 m) in communal
land under Forestry Service management was the elected experimental
burning site, at 41
o
27’ N, 07
o
30’ W and an elevation of 970 m. Mean
annual rainfall and air temperature in the Padrela region are 1000 mm
and 12
o

C, respectively [3].
Selection of the experimental site was primarily motivated by the
existence of four distinct and contiguous fuel situations, but also by
its relatively level ground (thus removing the effect of terrain slope
on fire behaviour), easy access to fire crews, and isolation from other
forest stands. Prior fuel management actions had not been undertaken
in the undisturbed (U) portion of the stand, where the time of fuel accu-
mulation equalled stand age, i.e. 28 years. The remaining area could
be divided in three different zones (RX13, RX3, RX2) which had been
subjected, respectively 13, 3 and 2 years before, to low-intensity
experimental fires [11, 30] that mimicked prescribed burning opera-
tions for fuel hazard reduction; part of the RX2 and RX3 area was
burned twice, since it also had prescribed fire 13 years before this
study.
One 25 × 25 m plot was located per fuel condition (Fig. 1). Plots
RX13 and U were contiguous and their demarcation was guided by
physical evidence of the previous fire boundaries, i.e. the presence of
charred tree boles, thus minimizing the edge effect on fire character-
istics. Visual references to assist the quantification of fire behaviour
were provided by 2-m height poles with 0.5-m increments, placed on
each plot at 5-m intervals along the longitudinal axis of the stand, the
anticipated direction of fire propagation. All trees within each plot
boundaries were measured in diameter at breast height (1.3 m), height,
live crown base height (CBH), and crown diameter.
Quantitative description of the fuel-complex resorted to non-
destructive procedures. Litter depth (to the nearest mm) was measured
at 40 random points per plot, separating the loose, freshly cast needles
(L layer) from the underlying and more compact fermentation horizon
(F layer). Shrubs Erica umbellata Loefl. and Chamaespartium triden-
tatum (L.) P. Gibbs, typical of Mediterranean-type heathland of the

Ericion umbellatae Loefl. alliance [49], dominated the understorey
vegetation. Ground coverage of this shrub layer was assessed with the
line-interception method [19] by locating three 15-m transects on each
plot. Canopies intercepted by the transects were measured in height,
which was defined as the vertical distance (cm) between litter surface
and the general vegetation top. A representative height was calculated
for each plot as the weighted (by cover) average of the individual
height measurements.
Mean plot estimates of fuel load, i.e. fuel weight by unit area (t·ha
–1
),
were generated for the fine fuels (diameter < 6 mm) that control fire
propagation [50]. Total and upper (L-layer) litter depths were trans-
lated into weight by the use of bulk density relationships, respectively
of 3.13 t·ha
–1
·cm
–1
[32] and 1.84 t·ha
–1
·cm
–1
[29]. For the shrub stra-
tum we have applied site-specific bulk density values of 1.85 and
1.67 kg·m
–3
[29], respectively in the RX plots and the U plot, after cal-
culating vegetation volume (m
3
·ha

–1
) as the product of covered area
(m
2
·ha
–1
) and shrub height.
Canopy base height, canopy fuel (foliage) load, and canopy bulk
density are the structural properties that describe the tree layer as a fuel
complex [56]. Tree-level foliage weight was estimated according to
[32], using the crown length and crown width measurements taken on
each tree. A fuel load figure for the plot was obtained by summing the
individual trees and expressing the result on an area basis. Canopy bulk
density (CBD) was calculated by dividing canopy fuel load (CFL) by
the average crown length of the trees in the plot [6].
An automatic portable weather station was set up on-site, approx-
imately 50 m up-wind the stand, so as not to be endangered or influ-
enced by the fire, and in open terrain, given the absence of tree cover
in the vicinity. Records of ambient temperature, relative humidity, and
wind speed and direction were taken continuously at a 2-m height for
the duration of the burn.
Fine fuel samples for moisture content determination (on a dry
weight basis) were collected throughout the stand immediately before
ignition, sealed, and later oven-dried at 65
o
C for 48 h. Individual plots
were not sampled independently because heterogeneity in the expo-
sure to solar radiation was higher within plots than between plots.
Three dead fuel categories were considered, respectively L-layer litter
(n = 5), F-layer litter (n = 3), and standing dead shrub biomass (n =5).

One sample was taken of each of the following live fuel components: very
fine (foliage and woody biomass of diameter < 3 mm) Chamaespartium
Figure 1. Fuel condition map in the study stand, plot layout and loca-
tion of the video cameras.
An experimental fire in a maritime pine stand 539
tridentatum, very fine Erica umbellata, shrub fuel of diameter 3–
6 mm, and Pinus pinaster needles. The differences in sampling inten-
sity are justified by the major role dead fuels have on fire propagation;
nevertheless, each sample is made up of plant material gathered from
various locations, which should compensate the minimum sampling
effort that was devoted to live fuels.
Two drip-torch operators ignited a fire line along 40 m of the wind-
ward edge of the stand, which propagated freely with the wind down
the length of the stand. Plot location in relation to the fire path followed
the sequence RX13-U-RX2-RX3. Fire behaviour was monitored by a
pair of observers on each side of the fire and walking parallel to its
main direction of propagation. The observers timed (with stop-
watches) the flame base arrival to reference points in order to estimate
the rate of fire spread, and made visual estimates of flame height and
flame tilt angle [5]. Flame height was estimated in 0.2-m and 0.5-m
classes, respectively for flames shorter and taller than 2 m, and tilt
angle was estimated to the nearest 5
o
, assigning 0
o
to vertical flames.
Flame length was determined from these two variables by trigonometry.
We were especially interested in acquiring detailed fire behaviour
data for plots RX13 and U, because of the utility of such information
to assess the temporal effectiveness of fuel management. This goal was

reached by using one stationary video camera on each side of the fire,
placed at the centre of a field of view encompassing plots RX13 and
U (see Fig. 1). Subsequent analysis of the resulting imagery, crossed
with the visual observations taken near the fire, allowed spread rate
measurements and mean flame characteristics estimates at 1-min. inter-
vals. The duration of surface fire and crown fire propagation for each
period was also measured, and expressed as a percentage of the obser-
vation interval.
Fire severity, the overall immediate effect of fire on the ecosystem
[54], was evaluated by several descriptors. Depth of burn, the vertical
extent of forest floor combustion, is a broadly used and important indi-
cator of the downward heat pulse. The random placement of 20-cm
metallic pins on each plot just before ignition allowed the subsequent
assessment of burn depth. Each pin was pressed into the forest floor
until its flat extremity was level with the litter top [41].
Depth of burn was measured (mm) at each pin, averaged for the
plot, and converted to forest floor mass consumption with the bulk den-
sity figures previously mentioned. The reduction in shrub loading was
inferred from the measurement (n = 15 on each plot) of the minimum
tip diameter of the remaining branches and stems with a calliper [43].
Rate of fire spread, the estimated fuel consumption, and a standard low
heat of combustion value of 18 000 kJ·kg
–1
[34] were multiplied to
yield, for each plot, the mean fire intensity, defined by Byram [18] as
the rate of heat release per unit length of fire edge (kW·m
–1
).
The fire impact on the overstorey vegetation was appraised by
inspecting the plots two weeks and twelve months after the burn,

respectively to measure crown scorch height, i.e. the maximum aver-
age height to which foliage is lethally damaged by fire, and to classify
individual trees regarding their live or dead condition. Crown scorch
ratio was calculated as the scorched proportion of total crown length,
thus providing a more meaningful indication of physical damage than
scorch height alone.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Fire environment
Differences in tree morphology between plots are not rele-
vant (Tab. I), but a wider gap between tree canopy and the
ground is apparent in plots RX2 and RX3, due to the defoliation
imposed by the recent fire treatments on the lower branches.
Canopy fuel load and bulk density are higher where tree density
is higher, but the differences between plots are sufficiently
small to be irrelevant as a source of crown fire hazard variation
[62]. All CBD values are well above the tentative threshold of
0.10 kg·m
–3
required to sustain the spread of an active crown
fire [1, 23].
The characteristics of the surface fuel complex were highly
variable over the experimental area. The plots without previous
surface fuel management (U) and where prescribed fire had
been carried 13 years before (RX13) exhibited a low and aer-
ated, relatively continuous shrub stratum and notorious litter
accumulation. In contrast, plots RX2 and RX3 had sparse
shrubs and a litter layer that was thinner by 2/3 to 1/2. Plots U
and RX13 were statistically different (p<0.05) from RX2 and
RX3 regarding all the examined fuel descriptors, whereas U
and RX13 were significantly different from each other in litter

thickness but not in shrub height and cover.
Table I. Descriptors of stand and fuel characteristics (mean ± standard error) by fuel condition in the study site.
Characteristics
Plot
U RX13 RX3 RX2
Density (trees·ha
–1
) 2192 1480 1856 1760
DBH (cm) 12.4 ± 0.3 a 12.4 ± 0.4 a 13.4 ± 0.3 a 12.3 ± 0.4 a
H (m) 9.1 ± 0.1 a 8.5 ± 0.2 a 10.1 ± 0.2 b 9.1 ± 0.1 a
CBH (m) 4.7 ± 0.1 a 4.0 ± 0.1 b 5.4 ± 0.1 c 5.2 ± 0.1 c
CFL, t·ha
–1
10.56 8.45 10.85 8.57
CBD, kg·m
–3
0.24 0.19 0.23 0.22
Shrub cover (%) 84.9 ± 4.6 a 84.6 ± 5.5 a 21.4 ± 6.7 b 17.3 ± 1.6 b
Shrub height (m) 0.52 ± 0.03 a 0.50 ± 0.03 a 0.31 ± 0.05 b 0.30 ± 0.07 b
Litter depth (cm) 12.1 ± 0.5 a 9.1 ± 0.4 b 5.9 ± 0.2 c 5.6 ± 0.3 c
SFL (t·ha
–1
) 45.46 36.41 12.07 11.23
U = untreated; RX = prescribed burned, respectively 13, 3 and 2 years before the experimental burn. DBH = tree diameter at 1.3 m. H = tree height.
CBH = crown base height. CFL = canopy fuel load. CBD = canopy bulk density. SFL = surface (shrubs and litter) fine fuel load. Means followed by the
same letter within a row are not different at the 5% significance level, according to the Tukey-Kramer HSD test.
540 P.A.M. Fernandes et al.
The experimental burn took place on the 16th July of 2002
under a Fire Weather Index [63] value of 40, i.e. fire danger
rated Very High [67], and on-site attendance by fire fighting

crews was naturally required. The average and extreme obser-
vations collected by the weather station during the period
(16:08–16:35) of fire propagation inside the study plots are
reported in Table II, which also includes fuel moisture con-
tents. Air temperature and relative humidity (the minimum
daily value was attained during the burn) were reasonably con-
stant, contrarily to wind speed. Dead fuels were very dry, but
the live fuel moisture status was just slightly below the spring
maximums indicated by a previous study [27] conducted in the
region.
3.2. Fire behaviour and severity
Table III quantifies fire behaviour in the different plots. Ground
slope along the fire propagation axis was 0–5% throughout the
stand, thus implying a wind and fuel-driven variation in fire
behaviour. The fire was generally slow moving, undoubtedly
because of the prevailing weak winds. It must be noted that 2-m
wind speeds inside the stand, as measured by the fire observers,
were three to five times lower than the concurrent winds meas-
ured by the weather station.
The most striking discrepancies in fire characteristics
between plots are related to flame size and type of fire, i.e., sur-
face or crown fire. Flame length and fire intensity increased
with surface fuel accumulation. Three fire behaviour levels can
be distinguished, respectively: (i) a surface fire of low (RX2)
to moderate (RX3) intensity, with flames never exceeding 3 m
in height; (ii) an intense surface fire with crowning periods
(RX13); and (iii), a relatively continuous wall of flames involv-
ing both the surface and the tree canopy layers in plot U. Short-
distance (5–15 m) spotting was observed in RX13 and U,
demanding suppression efforts to be taken in the shrubland that

bordered the stand.
According to the crown fire classification of Van Wagner
[62], the observed fire behaviour level (ii) is readily qualified
as a passive crown fire. The horizontal wind strength was una-
ble to overcome the fire’s buoyancy in the RX13 plot, and the
fire front advance was apparently restrained by indrafts, an
inference drawn from the upright flame position that prevailed
most of the time. Tree torching always succeeded the surface
fire and usually occurred during periods of higher wind veloc-
ity, when fire intensity and flame depth increased. Because of
wind, convective heat transfer to the canopy attains its peak
before radiative heat transfer does [24]. Convection from a sur-
face fire might be insufficient to initiate crowning, but the igni-
tion temperature required for vertical fire development can still
be attained if the radiative heat flux that follows the passage of
the main flame front is strong enough.
Fire behaviour level (iii) does not fully conform to the def-
inition of an active crown fire, because the surface and crown
components of the fire rarely moved together as a linked unit
and the crown fire phase lagged behind the surface fire in most
instances; this is why a distinction is made in Table III between
surface and crown flame lengths. Active crown fires typically
display flame extensions above the canopy in the order of half
Table II. Mean and range in fire weather descriptors and mean fuel
moisture contents.
Weather
Temperature (°C) 29 (29–30)
Relative humidity (%) 25 (24–27)
Open 2-m wind speed (km·h
–1

)
1-min. mean values
1-min. max. values
12 (1–19)
17 (10–27)
Fine fuel moisture (%)
L-layer litter 3.4
F-layer litter 7.3
Shrubs, dead fuel 4.8
Shrubs, < 3 mm live fuel
Chamaespartium tridentatum
Erica umbellata
104.4
90.8
Shrubs, 3–6 mm live fuel 64.5
Pinus pinaster live needles 116.5
Table III. Fire behaviour description in the study plots (mean ± standard error, range in brackets).
Parameter
Plot
U (n = 7) RX13 (n =9) RX3 RX2
R (m·min
–1
) 3.6 ± 0.6 a
(2.4–6.7)
1.9 ± 0.5 b
(0.8–5.2)
2.6 1.2
L
s
(m) 5.4 ± 0.4 a

(4.0–6.9)
3.8 ± 0.2 b
(3.0–4.8)
2.5 1.2
I
s
(kW·m
–1
) 4925 1520 931 399
L
c
(m) 13.6 ± 1.8 a
(9.1–23.3)
9.4 ± 0.3 b
(8.0–10.2)
––
Crown fire % 100 ± 0 a 35 ± 7 b 0 0
R = rate of fire spread; L
s
= surface fire flame length; I
s
= surface fire intensity; L
c
= crown fire flame length. Mean, standard error and observed rang
e
are provided for plots U and RX13. Within a row, U and RX13 means followed by the same letter are not different at the 5% significance level, accor
-
ding to the Tukey-Kramer HSD test.
An experimental fire in a maritime pine stand 541
to twice the stand height [7, 53], but such magnitudes were

never observed, further adding to the impression that the fire
did not develop to its full crowning potential anywhere in the
stand. Assuming the consumption of 90% of the canopy needle
mass, total fire intensity in plot U averages 5 955 kW·m
–1
and
peaks at 11 040 kW·m
–1
, values in the low range of the possible
intensity of a crown fire [53]. Had windier conditions prevailed
during the experiment and the combination of abundant and
very dry fuel would presumably lead to extreme fire behaviour
in plots U and RX13.
There is no doubt that fire behaviour moderation in plots
RX2 and RX3 is a direct consequence of the recent fuel treat-
ment, but to what extent is the hazard-reduction effect persist-
ent in time? This question was addressed by a comparative fire
behaviour analysis between plots U and RX13.
The one-minute interval data available for plots RX13 and
U shows significant (p<0.05) correlations between all fire
behaviour descriptors, and a consistently strong and positive
association between wind speed and fire characteristics
(Tab. IV and Fig. 2). Flame length and fire rate of spread
increased from RX13 plot to U plot (Tab. III), but the same is
true for wind speed, with significantly different mean values
of 6.4 ± 1.5 km·h
–1
and 12.0 ± 0.5 km·h
–1
, according to the

Tukey-Kramer HSD test. Overall, the best fit (r
2
= 0.71) to the
observed overall variation in the spread rate as a function of
wind speed is granted by a power function of the form y = a + bx
c
(with c = 3.8), while 74% of the variation in flame length is
explained by a linear regression in wind speed. The residual
variances after the wind speed effect had been accounted for
cannot be explained by the plot (i.e., the fuel) effect (p = 0.6711
for spread rate and p = 0.2913 for flame length), even if on aver-
age the flame length residual variance after accounting for the
plot effect is 0.4 m higher on plot U. Objectively, surface fire
behaviour differences between plots U and RX13 are not rec-
ognizable as the result of distinct fuel conditions or, in other
words, if a fuel effect exists it is confounded with the wind effect.
The scatterplot in Figure 2 and the coefficient c = 3.8 fitted
by non-linear least squares suggests a far more pronounced
wind effect on spread fire rate than what would be predicted
by surface fire behaviour models [15, 21, 22, 28, 50]. Actually,
this dramatic fire response to a modest increase in wind speed
is the expected trend in the region of transition between surface
and crown fire in conifer stands, especially in plantations with
a well-defined gap between the two fuel layers. A fire is
expected to alternate in a short time span between the surface
fuel and the tree canopy within a certain range of the possible
wind fluctuation [53]. Once a fire crowns the propagation
regime is modified, with the crown phase exerting some degree
of control over fire spread [34, 64]. Surface to crown transition
in fire propagation should be associated, as a minimum, to a

double increase in spread rate [7]. The fire front is vertically
extended to the highly porous tree canopy, which hasten igni-
tion and enhances combustion, involves more fuel thus increas-
ing pre-heating of the adjacent unburned fuels, and indirectly
modifies the wind profile.
Fire spread rate and surface flame length are highly correlated
(Tab. IV). After describing flame length in terms of spread rate
by an equation of the form y = a x
b
(with b = 0.30, r
2
= 0.71),
the non-explained variance can be ascribed to a fuel influence,
because flame length depicts fire intensity and therefore varies
proportionally to rate of spread and fuel availability [18]. The
mean of flame length residuals in plot U is 0.5 m higher than
in plot RX13, again suggesting the existence of an actual fuel
effect, albeit not statistically significant (p = 0.1367) because
Figure 2. 2-m open wind speed versus rate of fire spread and surface
flame length in plots RX13 (triangles) and U (dots).
Table IV. Correlation matrix between fire behaviour variables and
2-m open windspeed for the 1-min observation periods in plots U and
RX13 (n = 16).
R L
s
L
c
Crown fire % Wind speed
R 1 0.79*** 0.68** 0.60* 0.76**
L

s
1 0.80*** 0.76*** 0.86***
L
c
1 0.56* 0.55*
Crown fire % 1 0.79***
Wind speed 1
Correlations significant at the 5, 1 and 0.1% levels are denoted by *,
** and ***, respectively. Symbols for the variables are explained in
Table III.
542 P.A.M. Fernandes et al.
of the reduced number of observations. Vega et al. [66] have
observed in a controlled combustion environment that the
decomposing litter of Pinus pinaster, if dry enough, burns
actively in the fire front and adds to flame size. Surface fuel
descriptors other than total litter depth and load are not distin-
guishable between plots RX13 and U, but other fuel character-
istics not assessed in this study (coarse fuel loading, porosity,
dead fuel percentage) are presumably different and favourable
to more extreme fire behaviour in the untreated portion of the
stand. The difference in fuel accumulation time is expected to
generate a higher load of downed dead woody fuels in plot U,
and a more flammable shrub layer, because Erica umbellata –
Chamaespartium tridentatum communities increase in poros-
ity as they age and are richer in dead components and lower in
live moisture content [33].
The function y = a x
b
(with b = 0.31) also applies to the rela-
tionship between rate of fire spread and crown fire flame length,

even if their association is noticeably weaker (r
2
= 0.37).
Again, a non-significant plot effect (p = 0.3134) arises after
accounting for the effect of spread rate, with the mean residuals
of flame length being 1.6 m longer in plot U. Canopy fuel load
and bulk density increase respectively by 25% and 26% in the U
plot in relation to the RX13 plot (see Tab. I). Whether the
increase in crown flame length in the U plot is caused by the
more vigorous surface fire phase or by the denser canopy is a
matter of speculation, but both factors are probably involved.
The role of fuel in fire behaviour is significant only when
crown fire % is the analysis variable. A stepwise regression
selects the plot (p = 0.0002) and wind speed (p = 0.0107) as the
two sole determinants of crown fire % (R
2
= 0.88). The plot
effect is dominant, since it is associated with a standardised
regression coefficient (β) of 0.65, while for wind speed β =
0.37. If these two variables are removed from the analysis, the
stepwise regression prefers surface flame height (p = 0.0002,
r
2
= 0.63) and surface flame length (p = 0.0007, r
2
= 0.57) to
rate of spread (p = 0.0148, r
2
= 0.35), which is suggestive of a
fuel load effect. A probabilistic model for crown fire initiation

based on a sound data basis has identified surface fuel con-
sumption as a meaningful variable [23]. Fuel consumption was
indeed different between plots RX13 and U (Tab. V) and, as
mentioned before, this might have been true for fuel properties
not examined in this study. Such differentiation naturally led
to a distinct history of heat release rate [4] with potential impli-
cations in the development of crown fire. However, and simi-
larly to crown flame length, the plot effect should also comprise
a crown fuel component, and the results are consistent with the
theory of Van Wagner [62] which relates persistent fire prop-
agation in the canopy to higher values of foliar bulk density.
Table V displays indicators of fire severity for the four study
plots. Surface fine fuels were completely consumed and total
fuel removal was very high. Post-burn fuel differences between
plots and the apparent higher fire severity in RX13 and U are
reflections of the initial fuel presence, i.e. depth of burn is
dependent on pre-burn forest floor thickness, and diameter of the
residual stems is a consequence of pre-burn shrub development.
Depth of burn has been correlated or associated with soil
heating by several authors [13, 14, 35, 53, 55, 60], thus making
it a good indicator of belowground biological impact, with
effects in the density and composition of the vegetation regen-
erating after the fire [42]. In view of the opposing reproductive
strategies of the two dominant shrub species in the study site,
Chamaespartium tridentatum being a vigorous sprouter and
Erica umbellata an obligate seeder [46], the respective
response to variations in the degree of organic soil removal can
be different; which would affect their relative importance in the
post-burn community. In addition, the establishment success of
Pinus pinaster seedlings should decrease with burn depth [20].

Tree mortality in RX13 and U was total, the expected result
after full crown scorch in this species or in any other pine lack-
ing resprouting traits [39]. Approximately half of the trees were
killed in the recently treated areas, but this figure should rise
during the second post-fire year, as indicated by a model for
fire-induced mortality in Pinus pinaster [11] that uses crown
scorch ratio as the independent variable and predicts mortality
levels of 65% and 80% for RX2 and RX3, respectively.
Variability in the fire and in tree morphology are key factors
that determine the degree of tree mortality [51, 52]. Tree injury
differences between plots were determined by fire behaviour,
but differential damage and survival within a plot were only
observed in RX2 and RX3, where fire intensity was sufficiently
low to allow selective, size-determined tree mortality processes
to come into play. In contrast, fire behaviour in plots RX13 and
U was always above some critical threshold for tree mortality.
Fires that burn deeper into the forest floor imply not just the
consumption of more fuel but also longer residence times that
increase the amount of energy delivered to the soil and the
resulting effects on its physical, chemical and biological prop-
erties [37]. So, and even though plots U and RX13 have both
experienced a stand-replacement fire, a comparison of fire
severity can still be made on the basis of the observed differ-
ences in fuel consumption in the ground, surface and tree can-
opy. Such distinction is relevant to the direct impact of the fire,
but also to its secondary consequences on nutrient cycling and
erosion potential.
4. CONCLUSION
A dramatic contrast was observed in fire behaviour and
severity between plots that had received recent fuel management

Table V. Fire severity description in the study plots.
Plot Depth of burn (cm) Shrub terminal diameter (mm) Crown scorch ratio Tree mortality (%)
U 13.9 12 1.00 100
RX13 7.8 8 1.00 100
RX3 5.9 4 0.94 55
RX2 5.5 3 0.88 41
An experimental fire in a maritime pine stand 543
(RX2, RX3) and plots that did not (RX13, U). However, where
within plot variability was quantified (RX13 and U), wind
speed had the chief role in determining the fire behaviour range,
to the point of masking the possible existence of a plot effect
caused by fuel complex differences. Minor wind speed increases
were critical to the transition of a surface fire to a crown fire
or greatly enhanced the propagation and intensity of the crown
fire phase.
In the studied fuel complex – litter from a long-needled pine
combined with schlerophylous and flammable low shrubs – the
fire spread rate was apparently independent of fuel character-
istics. On the contrary, the difference between fire intensity in
the recently treated plots and in the old-treated and unmanaged
plots was obvious. The statistical analysis suggested that pre-
scribed burning benefits in reducing fire intensity had not
entirely vanished 13 years after the treatment and after under-
storey vegetation had regained its former importance: litter
quantity was still below the undisturbed fuel situation level and
the overall flammability was probably lower.
If fuel conditions are very dry but wind speeds are in the low
to moderate range, like in the present study, a pruned long-nee-
dled pine stand recently prescribed burnt will not support a
crown fire and will partially survive a surface fire. The resulting

stand structure is hardly interesting from the strict viewpoint
of forest production, but is considerably more fire-resistant, and
can be managed as a shaded fuel break [2]. Fuel treatments that
eliminate the shrub layer and decrease litter depth in pine stands
should therefore provide an adequate level of protection to
structures and people in the wildland-urban interface, facilitat-
ing fire suppression and greatly increasing its cost-effective-
ness. Even though fuel management has effectiveness limita-
tions, the ecological severity of a wildfire and the feasibility of
fire fighting are undoubtedly dictated by fuel accumulation.
We have examined the characteristics and consequences of
an experimental fire conducted in the wildfire season in a forest
stand. It is the first attempt of this type in southern Europe, or
at least the first one that it is fully documented and reported to
an international audience. Although limited in the conclusions
that can be drawn, this study case provides useful and objective
information about the efficiency of fuel management, and can
be used as a source of data to develop, test and validate fire
behaviour models.
Acknowledgments: This study was carried out in the frame of “FIRE
STAR: a decision support system for fuel management and fire hazard
reduction in Mediterranean wildland – urban interfaces”, an European
Union funded project (no. EVG1-CT-2001-00041). Délio Sousa, Car-
los Brito, Carlos Fernandes, Sónia Mota and Luís Ruas took part in
the fieldwork. Miguel Cruz and two anonymous reviewers provided
valuable insights and suggestions. We also acknowledge Direcção
Regional de Agricultura de Trás-os-Montes, the Civil Government of
Vila Real, and the fire brigade of Vila Pouca de Aguiar. Jean-Luc
Dupuy and Mathilde Cohen from INRA-Avignon (Unité de Recher-
ches Forestières Méditerranéennes) translated the abstract to French.

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