Volume 01 - Properties and Selection Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys Part 1 docx

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INTERNATIONAL ®




The Materials
Information Company

Volume 1 Publication Information and Contributors
Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys was published in 1990 as Volume 1 of the 10th
Edition Metals Handbook. With the second printing (1993), the series title was changed to ASM Handbook. The Volume
was prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee.
Authors and Reviewers

• LAMET UFRGS
• G. Aggen Allegheny Ludlum Steel DivisionAllegheny Ludlum Corporation
• Frank W. Akstens Industrial Fasteners Institute
• C. Michael Allen Adjelian Allen Rubeli Ltd.
• H.S. Avery Consultant
• P. Babu Caterpillar, Inc.
• Alan M. Bayer Teledyne Vasco
• Felix Bello The WEFA Group
• S.P. Bhat Inland Steel Company
• M. Blair Steel Founders' Society of America
• Bruce Boardman Deere and Company Technical Center
• Kurt W. Boehm Nucor Steel
• Francis W. Boulger Battelle-Columbus Laboratories(retired)
• Greg K. Bouse Howmet Corporation
• John L. Bowles North American Wire Products Corporation

• J.D. Boyd Metallurgical Engineering DepartmentQueen's University
• B.L. Bramfitt Bethlehem Steel Corporation
• Richard W. Bratt Consultant
• W.D. Brentnall Solar Turbines
• C.R. Brinkman Oak Ridge National Laboratory
• Edward J. Bueche USS/Kobe Steel Company
• Harold Burrier, Jr. The Timken Company
• Anthony Cammarata Mineral Commodities DivisionU.S. Bureau of Mines
• A.P. Cantwell LTV Steel Company
• M. Carlucci Lorlea Steels
• Harry Charalambu Carr & Donald Associates
• Joseph B. Conway Mar-Test Inc.
• W. Couts Wyman-Gordon Company
• Wil Danesi Garrett Processing DivisionAllied-Signal Aerospace Company
• John W. Davis McDonnell Douglas
• R.J. Dawson Deloro Stellite, Inc.
• Terry A. DeBold Carpenter Technology Corporation
• James Dimitrious Pfauter-Maag Cutting Tools
• Douglas V. Doanne Consulting Metallurgist
• Mehmet Doner Allison Gas Turbine Division
• Henry Dormitzer Wyman-Gordon Company
• Allan B. Dove Consultant(deceased)
• Don P.J. Duchesne Adjelian Allen Rubeli Ltd.
• Gary L. Erickson Cannon-Muskegon Corporation
• Walter Facer American Spring Wire Company
• Brownell N. Ferry LTV Steel Company
• F.B. Fletcher Lukens Steel Company
• E.M. Foley Deloro Stellite, Inc.
• R.D. Forrest Division FonderiePechinery Electrometallurgie
• James Fox Charter Rolling DivisionCharter Manufacturing Company, Inc.

• Edwin F. Frederick Bar, Rod and Wire DivisionBethlehem Steel Corporation
• James Gialamas USS/Kobe Steel Company
• Jeffery C. Gibeling University of California at Davis
• Wayne Gismondi Union Drawn Steel Co., Ltd.
• R.J. Glodowski Armco, Inc.
• Loren Godfrey Associated SpringBarnes Group, Inc.
• Alan T. Gorton Atlantic Steel Company
• W.G. Granzow Research & TechnologyArmco, Inc.
• David Gray Teledyne CAE
• Malcolm Gray Microalloying International, Inc.
• Richard B. Gundlach Climax Research Services
• I. Gupta Inland Steel Company
• R.I.L. Guthrie McGill Metals Processing CenterMcGill University
• P.C. Hagopian Stelco Fastener and Forging Company
• J.M. Hambright Inland Bar and Structural DivisionInland Steel Company
• K. Harris Cannon-Muskegon Corporation
• Hans J. Heine Foundry Management & Technology
• W.E. Heitmann Inland Steel Company
• T.A. HeussLTV Steel Bar DivisionLTV Steel Company
• Thomas Hill Speedsteel of New Jersey, Inc.
• M. Hoetzl Surface Combustion, Inc.
• Peter B. Hopper Milford Products Corporation
• J.P. Hrusovsky The Timken Company
• David Hudok Weirton Steel Corporation
• S. Ibarra Amoco Corporation
• J.E. Indacochea Department of Civil Engineering, Mechanics, and Metallurgy
University of
Illinois at Chicago
• Asjad Jalil The Morgan Construction Company
• William J. Jarae Georgetown Steel Corporation

• Lyle R. Jenkins Ductile Iron Society
• J.J. Jonas McGill Metals Processing CenterMcGill University
• Robert S. Kaplan U.S. Bureau of Mines
• Donald M. Keane LaSalle Steel Company
• William S. Kirk U.S. Bureau of Mines
• S.A. Kish LTV Steel Company
• R.L. Klueh Metals and Ceramics DivisionOak Ridge National Laboratory
• G.J.W. Kor The Timken Company
• Charles Kortovich PCC Airfoils
• George Krauss Advanced Steel Processing and Products Research CenterColorado Sc
hool of
Mines
• Eugene R. Kuch Gardner Denver Division
• J.A. Laverick The Timken Company
• M.J. Leap The Timken Company
• P.W. Lee The Timken Company
• B.F. Leighton Canadian Drawn Steel Company
• R.W. Leonard USX Corporation
• R.G. Lessard StelpipeStelco, Inc.
• S. Liu Center for Welding and Joining ResearchColorado School of Mines
• Carl R. Loper, Jr. Materials Science & Engineering DepartmentUniversity of Wisconsin-
Madison
• Donald G. Lordo Townsend Engineered Products
• R.A. Lula Consultant
• W.C. Mack Babcock & Wilcox DivisionMcDermott Company
• T.P. Madvad USS/Kobe Steel Company
• J.K. Mahaney, Jr. LTV Steel Company
• C.W. Marshall Battelle Memorial Institute
• G.T. Matthews The Timken Company
• Gernant E. Maurer Special Metals Corporation

• Joseph McAuliffe Lake Erie Screw Corporation
• Thomas J. McCaffrey Carpenter Steel DivisionCarpenter Technology Corporation
• J. McClain Danville DivisionWyman-Gordon Company
• T.K. McCluhan Elkem Metals Company
• D.B. McCutcheon Steltech Technical Services Ltd.
• Hal L. Miller Nelson Wire Company
• K.L. Miller The Timken Company
• Frank Minden Lone Star Steel
• Michael Mitchell Rockwell International
• R.W. Monroe Steel Founders' Society of America
• Timothy E. Moss Inland Bar and Structural DivisionInland Steel Company
• Brian Murkey R.B. & W. Corporation
• T.E. Murphy Inland Bar and Structural DivisionInland Steel Company
• Janet Nash American Iron and Steel Institute
• Drew V. Nelson Mechanical Engineering DepartmentStanford University
• G.B. Olson Northwestern University
• George H. Osteen Chaparral Steel
• J. Otter Saginaw DivisionGeneral Motors Corporation
• D.E. Overby Stelco Technical Services Ltd.
• John F. Papp U.S. Bureau of Mines
• Y.J. Park Amax Research Company
• D.F. Paulonis United Technologies
• Leander F. Pease III Powder-Tech Associates, Inc.
• Thoni V. Philip TVP Inc.
• Thomas A. PhillipsDepartment of the InteriorU.S. Bureau of Mines
• K.E. Pinnow Crucible Research CenterCrucible Materials Corporation
• Arnold Plant Samuel G. Keywell Company
• Christopher Plummer The WEFA Group
• J.A. Pojeta LTV Steel Company
• R. Randall Rariton River Steel

• P. Repas U.S.S. Technical CenterUSX Corporation
• M.K. Repp The Timken Company
• Richard Rice Battelle Memorial Institute
• William L. Roberts Consultant
• G.J. Roe Bethlehem Steel Corporation
• Kurt Rohrbach Carpenter Technology Corporation
• A.R. Rosenfield Battelle Memorial Institute
• James A. Rossow Wyman-Gordon Company
• C.P. Royer Exxon Production Research Company
• Mamdouh M. Salama Conoco Inc.
• Norman L. Samways Association of Iron and Steel Engineers
• Gregory D. Sander Ring Screw Works
• J.A. Schmidt Joseph T. Ryerson and Sons, Inc.
• Michael Schmidt Carpenter Technology Corporation
• W. Schuld Seneca Wire & Manufacturing Company
• R.E. Schwer Cannon-Muskegon Corporation
• Kay M. Shupe Bliss & Laughlin Steel Company
• V.K. Sikka Oak Ridge National Laboratory
• Steve Slavonic Teledyne Columbia-Summerill
• Dale L. Smith Argonne National Laboratory
• Richard B. Smith Western Steel DivisionStanadyne, Inc.
• Dennis Smyth The Algoma Steel Corporation Ltd.
• G.R. Speich Department of Metallurgical EngineeringIllinois Institute of Technology
• Thomas Spry Commonwealth Edition
• W. Stasko Crucible Materials CorporationCrucible Research Center
• Doru M. Stefanescu The University of Alabama
• Joseph R. Stephens Lewis Research CenterNational Aeronautics and Space Administration
• P.A. Stine General Electric Company
• N.S. Stoloff Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
• John R. Stubbles LTV Steel Company

• D.K. Subramanyam Ergenics, Inc.
• A.E. Swansiger ABC Rail Corporation
• R.W. Swindeman Oak Ridge National Laboratory
• N. Tepovich Connecticut Steel
• Millicent H. Thomas LTV Steel Company
• Geoff Tither Niobium Products Company, Inc.
• George F. Vander Voort Carpenter Technology Corporation
• Elgin Van Meter Empire-Detroit Steel DivisionCyclops Corporation
• Krishna M. Vedula Materials Science & Engineering Department
Case Western Reserve
University
• G.M. Waid The Timken Company
• Charles F. Walton Consultant
• Lee R. Walton Latrobe Steel Company
• Yung-Shih Wang Exxon Production Research Company
• S.D. Wasko Allegheny Ludlum Steel DivisionAllegheny Ludlum Corporation
• J.R. Weeks Brookhaven National Laboratory
• Charles V. White GMI Engineering and Management Institute
• Alexander D. Wilson Lukens Steel Company
• Peter H. Wright Chaparral Steel Company
• B. Yalamanchili North Star Steel Texas Company
• Z. Zimerman Bethlehem Steel Corporation
Foreword
For nearly 70 years the Metals Handbook has been one of the most widely read and respected sources of information on
the subject of metals. Launched in 1923 as a single volume, it has remained a durable reference work, with each
succeeding edition demonstrating a continuing upward trend in growth, in subject coverage, and in reader acceptance. As
we enter the final decade of the 20th century, the ever-quickening pace of modern life has forced an increasing demand
for timely and accurate technical information. Such a demand was the impetus for this, the 10th Edition of Metals
Handbook.
Since the publication of Volume 1 of the 9th Edition in 1978, there have been significant technological advances in the

field of metallurgy. The goal of the present volume is to document these advances as they pertain to the properties and
selection of cast irons, steels, and superalloys. A companion volume on properties and selection of nonferrous alloys,
special-purpose materials, and pure metals will be published this autumn. Projected volumes in the 10th Edition will
present expanded coverage on processing and fabrication of metals; testing, inspection, and failure analysis;
microstructural analysis and materials characterization; and corrosion and wear phenomena (the latter a subject area new
to the Handbook series).
During the 12 years it took to complete the 17 volumes of the 9th Edition, the high standards for technical reliability and
comprehensiveness for which Metals Handbook is internationally known were retained. Through the collective efforts of
the ASM Handbook Committee, the editorial staff of the Handbook, and nearly 200 contributors from industry, research
organizations, government establishments, and educational institutions, Volume 1 of the 10th Edition continues this
legacy of excellence.
• Klaus M. Zwilsky
President
ASM INTERNATIONAL
• Edward L. Langer
Managing Director
ASM INTERNATIONAL
Preface
During the past decade, tremendous advances have taken place in the field of materials science. Rapid technological
growth and development of composite materials, plastics, and ceramics combined with continued improvements in
ferrous and nonferrous metals have made materials selection one of the most challenging endeavors for engineers. Yet the
process of selection of materials has also evolved. No longer is a mere recitation of specifications, compositions, and
properties adequate when dealing with this complex operation. Instead, information is needed that explains the correlation
among the processing, structures, and properties of materials as well as their areas of use. It is the aim of this volume the
first in the new 10th Edition series of Metals Handbook to present such data.
Like the technology it documents, the Metals Handbook is also evolving. To be truly effective and valid as a reference
work, each Edition of the Handbook must have its own identity. To merely repeat information, or to simply make
superficial cosmetic changes, would be self-defeating. As such, utmost care and thought were brought to the task of
planning the 10th Edition by both the ASM Handbook Committee and the Editorial Staff.
To ensure that the 10th Edition continued the tradition of quality associated with the Handbook, it was agreed that it was

necessary to:
•
Determine which subjects (articles) not included in previous Handbooks needed to be added to the 10th
Edition
• Determine which previously published articles needed only to be revised and/or expanded
• Determine which previously published articles needed to be completely rewritten
• Determine which areas needed to be de-emphasized
• Identify and eliminate obsolete data
The next step was to determine how the subject of properties selection should be addressed in the 10th Edition.
Considering the information explosion that has taken place during the past 30 years, the single-volume approach used for
Volume 1 of the 8th Edition (published in 1961) was not considered feasible. For the 9th Edition, three separate volumes
on properties and selection were published from 1978 to 1980. This approach, however, was considered somewhat
fragmented, particularly in regard to steels: carbon and low-alloy steels were covered in Volume 1, whereas tools steels,
austenitic manganese steels, and stainless steels were described in Volume 3. After considering the various options, it was
decided that the most logical and user-friendly approach would be to publish two comprehensive volumes on properties
and selection. In the present volume, emphasis has been placed on cast irons, carbon and low-alloy steels, and high-
performance alloys such as stainless steels and superalloys. A companion volume on properties and selection of
nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials will follow (see Table 1 for an abbreviated table of contents).
Table 1 Abbreviated table of contents for Volume 2, 10th Edition, Metals Handbook

Specific Metals and Alloys
Wrought Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Cast Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum-Lithium Alloys
Aluminum P/M Alloys
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys
Cast Copper Alloys
Copper P/M Products
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Beryllium-Copper and Beryllium-Nickel Alloys

Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Tin and Tin Alloys
Zinc and Zinc Alloys
Lead and Lead Alloys
Refractory Metals and Alloys
Wrought Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Cast Titanium Alloys
Titanium P/M Alloys
Zirconium and Hafnium
Uranium and Uranium Alloys
Beryllium
Precious Metals
Rare Earth Metals
Germanium and Germanium Compounds
Gallium and Gallium Compounds
Indium and Bismuth
Special-Purpose Materials
Soft Magnetic Materials
Permanent Magnet Materials
Metallic Glasses
Superconducting Materials
Electrical Resistance Alloys
Electric Contact Materials
Thermocouple Materials
Low Expansion Alloys
Shape-Memory Alloys
Materials For Sliding Bearings
Metal-Matrix Composite Materials

Ordered Intermetallics
Cemented Carbides
Cermets
Superabrasives and Ultrahard Tool Materials
Structural Ceramics
Pure Metals
Preparation and Characterization of Pure Metals

Properties of Pure Metals
Special Engineering Topics
Recycling of Nonferrous Alloys
Toxicity of Metals

Principal Sections
Volume 1 has been organized into seven major sections:
• Cast Irons
• Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
• Hardenability of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
• Fabrication Characteristics of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
• Service Characteristics of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
• Specialty Steels and Heat-Resistant Alloys
• Special Engineering Topics
Of the 53 articles contained in these sections, 14 are new, 10 were completely rewritten, and the remaining articles have
been substantially revised. A review of the content of the major sections is given below; highlighted are differences
between the present volume and its 9th Edition predecessor. Table 2 summarizes the content of the principal sections.
Table 2 Summary of contents for Volume 1, 10th Edition, Metals Handbook
Section title Number of

articles
Pages

Figures
(a)


Tables
(b)


References

Cast Irons 6 104 155 81
108
Carbon and Low-Allow Steels 21 344 298 266
230
Hardenability of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 3 122 210 178
28
Fabrication Characteristics of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels

4 44 56 10
85
Service Characteristics of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 6 140 219 22
567
Specialty Steels and Heat-Resistant Alloys 11 252 249 163
358
Special Engineering Topics 2 27 29 11
50
Totals
53 1033 1216 731 1426

(a)

Total number of figure captions; some figures may include more than one illustration.
(b)

Does not include unnumbered in-text tables or tables that are part of figures

Cast irons are described in six articles. The introductory article on "Classification and Basic Metallurgy of Cast Irons"
was completely rewritten for the 10th Edition. The article on "Compacted Graphite Iron" is new to the Handbook. Both of
these contributions were authored by D.M. Stefanescu (The University of Alabama), who served as Chairman of Volume
15, Casting, of the 9th Edition. The remaining four articles contain new information on materials (for example,
austempered ductile iron) and testing (for example, dynamic tear testing).
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels. Key additions to this section include articles that explain the relationships among
processing (both melt and rolling processes), microstructures, and properties of steels. Of particular note is the article by
G. Krauss (Colorado School of Mines) on pages 126 to 139 and the various articles on high-strength low-alloy steels.
Other highlights include an extensive tabular compilation that cross-references SAE-AISI steels to their international
counterparts (see the article "Classification and Designation of Steels") and an article on "Bearing Steels" that compares
both case-hardened and through-hardened bearing materials.
Hardenability of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels. Following articles that introduce H-steels and describe
hardenability concepts, including test procedures to determine the hardening response of steels, a comprehensive
collection of hardenability curves is presented. Both English and metric hardenability curves are provided for some 86
steels.
Fabrication Characteristics. Sheet formability, forgeability, machinability, and weldability are described next. The
article on bulk formability, which emphasizes recent studies on HSLA forging steels, is new to the Handbook series. The
material on weldability was completely rewritten and occupies nearly four times the space allotted in the 9th Edition.
Service Characteristics. The influence of various in-service environments on the properties of steels is one of the
most widely studied subjects in metallurgy. Among the topics described in this section are elevated-temperature creep
properties, low-temperature fracture toughness, fatigue properties, and impact toughness. A new article also describes the
deleterious effect of neutron irradiation on alloy and stainless steels. Of critical importance to this section, however, is the
definitive treatise on "Embrittlement of Steels" written by G.F. Vander Voort (Carpenter Technology Corporation).

Featuring more than 75 graphs and 372 references, this 48-page article explores the causes and effects of both thermal and
environmental degradation on a wide variety of steels. Compared with the 9th Edition on the same subject, this represents
a nearly tenfold increase in coverage.
Specialty Steels and Heat-Resistant Alloys. Eleven articles on wrought, cast, and powder metallurgy materials
for specialty and/or high-performance applications make up this section. Alloy development and selection criteria as
related to corrosion-resistant and heat-resistant steels and superalloys are well documented. More than 100 pages are
devoted to stainless steels, while three new articles have been written on superalloys including one on newly developed
directionally solidified and single-crystal nickel-base alloys used for aerospace engine applications.
Special Engineering Topics. The final section examines two subjects that are becoming increasingly important to the
engineering community: (1) the availability and supply of strategic materials, such as chromium and cobalt, used in
stainless steel and superalloy production, and (2) the current efforts to recycle highly alloyed materials. Both of these
subjects are new to the Handbook series. A second article on recycling of nonferrous alloys will be published in Volume 2
of the 10th Edition.
Acknowledgments
Successful completion of this Handbook required the cooperation and talents of literally hundreds of professional men
and women. In terms of the book's technical content, we are indebted to the authors, reviewers, and miscellaneous
contributors-some 200 strong-upon whose collective experience and knowledge rests the accuracy and authority of the
volume. Thanks are also due to the ASM Handbook Committee and its capable Chairman, Dennis D. Huffman (The
Timken Company). The ideas and suggestions provided by members of the committee proved invaluable during the two
years of planning required for the 10th edition. Lastly, we would like to acknowledge the efforts of those companies who
have worked closely with ASM's editorial and production staff on this and many other Handbook volumes. Our thanks go
to Byrd Data Imaging for their tireless efforts in maintaining a demanding typesetting schedule, to Rand McNally &
company for the care and quality brought to printing the Handbook, and to Precision Graphics, Don O. Tech, Accurate
Art, and HaDel Studio for their attention to detail during preparation of Handbook artwork. Their combined efforts have
resulted in a significant and lasting contribution to the metals industry.
The Editors
General Information
Officers and Trustees of ASM INTERNATIONAL (1990-1991)
• Klaus M. Zwilsky President and TrusteeNational Materials Advisory BoardNational Academy
of Sciences

• Stephen M. Copley Vice President and TrusteeIllinois Institute of Technology
• Richard K. Pitler Immediate Past President and TrusteeAllegheny Ludlum Corporation
(retired)
• Edward L. Langer Secretary and Managing DirectorASM INTERNATIONAL
• Robert D. Halverstadt TreasurerAIMe Associates
Trustees
• John V. Andrews Teledyne Allvac
• Edward R. Burrell Inco Alloys International, Inc.
• H. Joseph Klein Haynes International, Inc.
• Kenneth F. Packer Packer Engineering, Inc.
• Hans Portisch VDM Technologies Corporation
• William E. Quist Boeing Commercial Airplanes
• John G. Simon General Motors Corporation
• Charles Yaker Howmet Corporation
• Daniel S. Zamborsky Consultant
Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (1990-1991)
• Dennis D. Huffman (Chairman 1986-; Member 1983-)The Timken Company
• Roger J. Austin (1984-)ABARIS
• Roy G. Baggerly (1987-)Kenworth Truck Company
• Robert J. Barnhurst (1988-)Noranda Research Centre
• Hans Borstell (1988-)Grumman Aircraft Systems
• Gordon Bourland (1988-)LTV Aerospace and Defense Company
• John F. Breedis (1989-)Olin Corporation
• Stephen J. Burden (1989-)GTE Valenite
• Craig V. Darragh (1989-)The Timken Company
• Gerald P. Fritzke (1988-)Metallurgical Associates
• J. Ernesto Indacochea (1987-)University of Illinois at Chicago
• John B. Lambert (1988-)Fansteel Inc.
• James C. Leslie (1988-)Advanced Composites Products and Technology
• Eli Levy (1987-)The De Havilland Aircraft Company of Canada

• William L. Mankins (1989-)Inco Alloys International, Inc.
• Arnold R. Marder (1987-)Lehigh University
• John E. Masters (1988-)American Cyanamid Company
• David V. Neff (1986-)Metaullics Systems
• David LeRoy Olson (1982-1988; 1989-)Colorado School of Mines
• Dean E. Orr (1988-)Orr Metallurgical Consulting Service, Inc.
• Edwin L. Rooy (1989-)Aluminum Company of America
• Kenneth P. Young (1988-)AMAX Research & Development
Previous Chairmen of the ASM Handbook Committee
• R.S. Archer (1940-1942) (Member, 1937-1942)
• L.B. Case (1931-1933) (Member, 1927-1933)
• T.D. Cooper (1984-1986) (Member, 1981-1986)
• E.O Dixon (1952-1954) (Member, 1947-1955)
• R.L. Dowdell (1938-1939) (Member, 1935-1939)
• J.P. Gill (1937) (Member, 1934-1937)
• J.D. Graham (1966-1968) (Member, 1961-1970)
• J.F. Harper (1923-1926) (Member, 1923-1926)
• C.H. Herty, Jr. (1934-1936) (Member, 1930-1936)
• J.B. Johnson (1948-1951) (Member, 1944-1951)
• L.J. Korb (1983) (Member, 1978-1983)
• R.W.E. Leiter (1962-1963) (Member, 1955-1958, 1960-1964)
• G.V. Luerssen (1943-1947) (Member, 1942-1947)
• G.N. Maniar (1979-1980) (Member, 1974-1980)
• J.L. McCall (1982) (Member, 1977-1982)
• W.J. Merten (1927-1930) (Member, 1923-1933)
• N.E. Promisel (1955-1961) (Member, 1954-1963)
• G.J. Shubat (1973-1975) (Member, 1966-1975)
• W.A. Stadtler (1969-1972) (Member, 1962-1972)
• R. Ward (1976-1978) (Member, 1972-1978)
• M.G.H. Wells (1981) (Member, 1976-1981)

• D.J. Wright (1964-1965) (Member, 1959-1967)
Staff
ASM International staff who contributed to the development of the Volume included Robert L. Stedfeld, Director of
Reference Publications, Joseph R. Davis, Manager of Handbook Development; Kathleen M. Mills, Manager of Book
Production; Steven R. Lampman, Technical Editor; Theodore B. Zorc, Technical Editor; Heather F. Lampman, Editorial
Supervisor; George M. Crankovic, Editorial Coordinator; Alice W. Ronke, Assistant Editor; Scott D. Henry, Assistant
Editor; Janice L. Daquila, Assistant Editor; Janet Jakel, Word Processing Specialist; Karen Lynn O'Keefe, Word
Processing Specialist. Editorial assistance was provided by Lois A. Abel, Robert T. Kiepura, Penelope Thomas, and Nikki
D. Wheaton.
Conversion to Electronic Files
ASM Handbook, Volume 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys was converted to
electronic files in 1997. The conversion was based on the Fourth Printing (1995). No substantive changes were made to
the content of the Volume, but some minor corrections and clarifications were made as needed.
ASM International staff who contributed to the conversion of the Volume included Sally Fahrenholz-Mann, Bonnie
Sanders, Scott Henry, Grace Davidson, Randall Boring, Robert Braddock, and Kathleen Dragolich. The electronic version
was prepared under the direction of William W. Scott, Jr., Technical Director, and Michael J. DeHaemer, Managing
Director.
Copyright Information (for Print Volume)
Copyright © 1990 by ASM International
All Rights Reserved.
Metals Handbook is a collective effort involving thousands of technical specialists. It brings together in one book a wealth
of information from world-wide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range
problems.
Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that no warranties,
express or implied, are given in connection with the accuracy or completeness of this publication, and no responsibility
can be taken for any claims that may arise.
Nothing contained in the Metals Handbook shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or
reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered
by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in the Metals Handbook shall be construed as a defense
against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such

infringement.
Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (for Print Volume)
Metals Handbook/Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee _10th ed. Includes
bibliographies and indexes. Contents: v. 1. Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys.
1. Metals Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II. Title: ASM Handbook.
TA459.M43 1990 620.1'6 90-115
ISBN 0-87170-377-7 (v.1)
SAN 204-7586
ISBN 0-87170-380-7
Printed in the United States of America
Classification and Basic Metallurgy of Cast Iron
Doru M. Stefanescu, The University of Alabama

Classification
Historically, the first classification of cast iron was based on its fracture. Two types of iron were initially recognized:
• White iron
: Exhibits a white, crystalline fracture surface because fracture occurs along the iron carbide
plates; it is the result of metastable solidification (Fe
3
C eutectic)
• Gray iron
: Exhibits a gray fracture surface because fracture occurs along the graphite plates (flakes); it
is the result of stable solidification (Gr eutectic)
With the advent of metallography, and as the body of knowledge pertinent to cast iron increased, other classifications
based on microstructural features became possible:
• Graphite shape
: Lamellar (flake) graphite (FG), spheroidal (nodular) graphite (SG), compacted
(vermicular) graphite (CG), and temper graphite (TG); temper graphite results from a solid-
state

reaction (malleabilization)
• Matrix: Ferritic, pearlitic, austenitic, martensitic, bainitic (austempered)
This classification is seldom used by the floor foundryman. The most widely used terminology is the commercial one. A
first division can be made in two categories:
• Common cast irons: For general-purpose applications, they are unalloyed or low alloy
• Special cast irons: For special applications, generally high alloy
The correspondence between commercial and microstructural classification, as well as the final processing stage in
obtaining common cast irons, is given in Table 1. A classification of cast irons by their commercial names and structure is
also given in the article "Classification of Ferrous Casting Alloys" in Casting, Volume 15 of ASM Handbook, formerly
9th Edition Metals Handbook.
Table 1 Classification of cast iron by commercial designation, microstructure, and fracture
Commercial designation Carbon-rich phase Matrix
(a)


Fracture
Final structure after
Gray iron Lamellar graphite P Gray
Solidification
Ductile iron Spheroidal graphite F, P, A Silver-gray
Solidification or heat treatment
Compacted graphite iron Compacted vermicular graphite

F, P Gray
Solidification
White iron Fe
3
C P, M White
Solidification and heat treatment
(b)

Mottled iron Lamellar Gr + Fe
3
C P Mottled
Solidification
Malleable iron Temper graphite F, P Silver-gray
Heat treatment
Austempered ductile iron

Spheroidal graphite At Silver-gray

Heat treatment

(a)
F, ferrite; P, pearlite; A, austenite; M, martensite; At, austempered (bainite).
(b)
White irons are not usually heat treated, except for stress relief and to continue austenite
transformation.

Special cast irons differ from the common cast irons mainly in the higher content of alloying elements (>3%), which
promote microstructures having special properties for elevated-temperature applications, corrosion resistance, and wear
resistance. A classification of the main types of special cast irons is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Classification of special high-alloy cast irons. Source: Ref 1

Reference cited in this section
1.

R. Elliot, Cast Iron Technology, Butterworths, 1988

Principles of the Metallurgy of Cast Iron
The goal of the metallurgist is to design a process that will produce a structure that will yield the expected mechanical
properties. This requires knowledge of the structure-properties correlation for the particular alloy under consideration as
well as of the factors affecting the structure. When discussing the metallurgy of cast iron, the main factors of influence on
the structure that one needs to address are:
• Chemical composition
• Cooling rate
• Liquid treatment
• Heat treatment
In addition, the following aspects of combined carbon in cast irons should also be considered:
• In the original cooling
or through subsequent heat treatment, a matrix can be internally decarburized or
carburized by depositing graphite on existing sites or by dissolving carbon from them
• Depending on the silicon content and the cooling rate, the pearlite in iron can vary in
carbon content.
This is a ternary system, and the carbon content of pearlite can be as low as 0.50% with 2.5% Si
•
The conventionally measured hardness of graphitic irons is influenced by the graphite, especially in
gray iron. Martensite microhardness may b
e as high as 66 HRC, but measures as low as 54 HRC
conventionally in gray iron (58 HRC in ductile)
• The critical temperature of iron is influenced (raised) by silicon content, not carbon content
The following sections in this article discuss some of the basic principles of cast iron metallurgy. More detailed
descriptions of the metallurgy of cast irons are available in separate articles in this Volume describing certain types of cast
irons. The Section "Ferrous Casting Alloys" in Casting, Volume 15 of ASM Handbook, formerly 9th Edition Metals
Handbook, also contains more detailed descriptions on the metallurgy of cast irons.
Gray Iron (Flake Graphite Iron)
The composition of gray iron must be selected in such a way as to satisfy three basic structural requirements:
• The required graphite shape and distribution

• The carbide-free (chill-free) structure
• The required matrix
For common cast iron, the main elements of the chemical composition are carbon and silicon. Figure 3 shows the range of
carbon and silicon for common cast irons as compared with steel. It is apparent that irons have carbon in excess of the
maximum solubility of carbon in austenite, which is shown by the lower dashed line. A high carbon content increases the
amount of graphite or Fe
3
C. High carbon and silicon contents increase the graphitization potential of the iron as well as its
castability.

Fig. 3 Carbon and silicon composition ranges of common cast irons and steel. Source: Ref 2

The combined influence of carbon and silicon on the structure is usually taken into account by the carbon equivalent
(CE):
CE = % C + 0.3(% Si)
+ 0.33(% P) - 0.027(% Mn) + 0.4(% S)


(Eq 1)
Additional information on carbon equivalent is available in the article "Thermodynamic Properties of Iron-Base Alloys"
in Casting, Volume 15 of ASM Handbook, formerly 9th Edition Metals Handbook. Although increasing the carbon and
silicon contents improves the graphitization potential and therefore decreases the chilling tendency, the strength is
adversely affected (Fig. 4). This is due to ferrite promotion and the coarsening of pearlite.

Fig. 4 General influence of carbon equivalent on the tensile strength of gray iron. Source: Ref 2

The manganese content varies as a function of the desired matrix. Typically, it can be as low as 0.1% for ferritic irons and
as high as 1.2% for pearlitic irons, because manganese is a strong pearlite promoter.
From the minor elements, phosphorus and sulfur are the most common and are always present in the composition. They
can be as high as 0.15% for low-quality iron and are considerably less for high-quality iron, such as ductile iron or

compacted graphite iron. The effect of sulfur must be balanced by the effect of manganese. Without manganese in the
iron, undesired iron sulfide (FeS) will form at grain boundaries. If the sulfur content is balanced by manganese,
manganese sulfide (MnS) will form, which is harmless because it is distributed within the grains. The optimum ratio
between manganese and sulfur for an FeS-free structure and maximum amount of ferrite is:
% Mn = 1.7(% S) + 0.15


(Eq 2)
Other minor elements, such as aluminum, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, lead, magnesium, cerium, and calcium, can
significantly alter both the graphite morphology and the microstructure of the matrix.
The range of composition for typical unalloyed common cast irons is given in Table 2. The typical composition range for
low- and high-grade unalloyed gray iron (flake graphite iron) cast in sand molds is given in Table 3.
Table 2 Range of compositions for typical unalloyed common cast irons

Composition, %
Type of iron
C Si Mn P
S
Gray (FG) 2.5-4.0

1.0-3.0

0.2-1.0 0.002-1.0

0.02-0.25

Compacted graphite (CG)

2.5-4.0

1.0-3.0

0.2-1.0 0.01-0.1
0.01-0.03

Ductile (SG) 3.0-4.0

1.8-2.8

0.1-1.0 0.01-0.1
0.01-0.03

White 1.8-3.6

0.5-1.9

0.25-0.8

0.06-0.2
0.06-0.2
Malleable (TG) 2.2-2.9

0.9-1.9

0.15-1.2

0.02-0.2 0.02-0.2
Source: Ref 2
Table 3 Compositions of unalloyed gray irons
Composition, %

ASTM A 48 class

Carbon
equivalent

C Si Mn P
S
20B 4.5 3.1-3.4

2.5-2.8

0.5-0.7 0.9

0.15

Both major and minor elements have a direct influence on the morphology of flake graphite. The typical graphite shapes
for flake graphite are shown in Fig. 5. Type A graphite is found in inoculated irons cooled with moderate rates. In general,
it is associated with the best mechanical properties, and cast irons with this type of graphite exhibit moderate
undercooling during solidification (Fig. 6). Type B graphite is found in irons of near-eutectic composition, solidifying on
a limited number of nuclei. Large eutectic cell size and low undercoolings are common in cast irons exhibiting this type
of graphite. Type C graphite occurs in hypereutectic irons as a result of solidification with minimum undercooling. Type
D graphite is found in hypoeutectic or eutectic irons solidified at rather high cooling rates, while type E graphite is
characteristic for strongly hypoeutectic irons. Types D and E are both associated with high undercoolings during
solidification. Not only graphite shape but also graphite size is important, because it is directly related to strength (Fig. 7).

Fig. 5 Typical flake graphite shapes
specified in ASTM A 247. A, uniform distribution, random orientation; B,
rosette groupings; C, kish graphite (superimposed flake sizes, random orientation); D, interdendritic
segregation with random orientation; E, interdendritic segregation with preferred orientation

Fig. 6 Characteristic cooling curves associated with different flake graphite shapes. T
E
, equilibrium eutectic
temperature

Fig. 7 Effect of maximum graphite flake length on the tensile strength of gray iron. Source: Ref 3

Alloying elements can be added in common cast iron to enhance some mechanical properties. They influence both the
graphitization potential and the structure and properties of the matrix. The main elements are listed below in terms of their
graphitization potential:

High positive graphitization potential (decreasing positive potential from top to bottom)
Carbon
Tin
Phosphorus
Silicon
Aluminum
Copper
Nickel
Neutral
Iron
High negative graphitization potential (increasing negative potential from top to bottom)

Manganese
Chromium
Molybdenum
Vanadium

This classification is based on the thermodynamic analysis of the influence of a third element on carbon solubility in the
Fe-C-X system, where X is a third element (see the section "Influence of a Third Element on Carbon Solubility in the Fe-

C-X System" in the article "Thermodynamic Properties of Iron-Base Alloys" in Casting, Volume 15 of ASM Handbook,
formerly 9th Edition Metals Handbook. Although listed as a graphitizer (which may be true thermodynamically),
phosphorus also acts as a matrix hardener. Above its solubility level (probably about 0.08%), phosphorus forms a very
hard ternary eutectic. The above classification should also include sulfur as a carbide former, although manganese and
sulfur can combine and neutralize each other. The resultant manganese sulfide also acts as nuclei for flake graphite. In
industrial processes, nucleation phenomena may sometimes override solubility considerations.
In general, alloying elements can be classified into three categories. Each is discussed below.
Silicon and aluminum increase the graphitization potential for both the eutectic and eutectoid transformations and
increase the number of graphite particles. They form solid solutions in the matrix. Because they increase the
ferrite/pearlite ratio, they lower strength and hardness.
Nickel, copper, and tin increase the graphitization potential during the eutectic transformation, but decrease it during
the eutectoid transformation, thus raising the pearlite/ferrite ratio. This second effect is due to the retardation of carbon
diffusion. These elements form solid solution in the matrix. Because they increase the amount of pearlite, they raise
strength and hardness.
Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and vanadium decrease the graphitization potential at both stages. Thus,
they increase the amount of carbides and pearlite. They concentrate in principal in the carbides, forming (FeX)
n
C-type
carbides, but also alloy the α Fe solid solution. As long as carbide formation does not occur, these elements increase
strength and hardness. Above a certain level, any of these elements will determine the solidification of a structure with
both Gr and Fe
3
C (mottled structure), which will have lower strength but higher hardness.
In alloyed gray iron, the typical ranges for the elements discussed above are as follows:

Element
Composition, %

Chromium
0.2-0.6

Molybdenum

0.2-1
Vanadium
0.1-0.2
Nickel
0.6-1
Copper
0.5-1.5
Tin 0.04-0.08

The influence of composition and cooling rate on tensile strength can be estimated using (Ref 3):
TS = 162.37 + 16.61/D - 21.78(% C)
-61.29(% Si) - 10.59 (% Mn - 1.7% S)
+ 13.80(% Cr) + 2.05(% Ni) + 30.66(% Cu)

+ 39.75(% Mo) + 14.16 (% Si)
2

-26.25(% Cu)
2
- 23.83 (% Mo)
2


(Eq 3)
where D is the bar diameter (in inches). Equation 3 is valid for bar diameters of 20 to 50 mm (0.78 to 2 in.) and
compositions within the following ranges:

Element

Composition, %

Carbon
3.04-3.29
Chromium
0.1-0.55
Molybdenum

0.03-0.78
Silicon
1.6-2.46
Nickel
0.07-1.62
Sulfur
0.089-0.106
Manganese
0.39-0.98
Copper 0.07-0.85

The cooling rate, like the chemical composition, can significantly influence the as-cast structure and therefore the
mechanical properties. The cooling rate of a casting is primarily a function of its section size. The dependence of structure
and properties on section size is termed section sensitivity. Increasing the cooling rate will:
• Refine both graphite size and matrix structure; this will result in increased strength and hardness
• Increase the chilling tendency; this may result in higher hardness, but will decrease the strength
Consequently, composition must be tailored in such a way as to provide the correct graphitization potential for a given
cooling rate. For a given chemical composition and as the section thickness increases, the graphite becomes coarser, and
the pearlite/ferrite ratio decreases, which results in lower strength and hardness (Fig. 8). Higher carbon equivalent has
similar effects.

Fig. 8

Influence of section thickness of the casting on tensile strength (a) and hardness (b) for a series of gray
irons classified by their strength as-cast in 30 mm (1.2 in.) diam bars. Source: Ref 2
The liquid treatment of cast iron is of paramount importance in the processing of this alloy because it can
dramatically change the nucleation and growth conditions during solidification. As a result, graphite morphology, and
therefore properties, can be significantly affected. In gray iron practice, the liquid treatment used is termed inoculation
and consists of minute additions of minor elements before pouring. Typically, ferrosilicon with additions of aluminum
and calcium, or proprietary alloys are used as inoculants. The main effects of inoculation are:
• An increased graphitization potential because of decreas
ed undercooling during solidification; as a
result of this, the chilling tendency is diminished, and graphite shape changes from type D or E to type
A
• A finer structure, that is, higher number of eutectic cells, with a subsequent increase in strength
As shown in Fig. 9, inoculation improves tensile strength. This influence is more pronounced for low-CE cast irons.

Fig. 9
Influence of inoculation on tensile strength as a function of carbon equivalent for 30 mm (1.2 in.) diam
bars. Source: Ref 2
Heat treatment can considerably alter the matrix structure, although graphite shape and size remain basically
unaffected. A rather low proportion of the total gray iron produced is heat treated. Common heat treatment may consist of
stress relieving or of annealing to decrease hardness.
Ductile Iron (Spheroidal Graphite Iron)
Composition. The main effects of chemical composition are similar to those described for gray iron, with quantitative
differences in the extent of these effects and qualitative differences in the influence on graphite morphology. The carbon
equivalent has only a mild influence on the properties and structure of ductile iron, because it affects graphite shape
considerably less than in the case of gray iron. Nevertheless, to prevent excessive shrinkage, high chilling tendency,
graphite flotation, or a high impact transition temperature, optimum amounts of carbon and silicon must be
selected.Figure 10 shows the basic guidelines for the selection of appropriate compositions.

Fig. 10 Typical range for carbon and silicon contents in good-quality ductile iron. Source: Ref 2

As mentioned previously, minor elements can significantly alter the structure in terms of graphite morphology, chilling
tendency, and matrix structure. Minor elements can promote the spheroidization of graphite or can have an adverse effect
on graphite shape. The minor elements that adversely affect graphite shape are said to degenerate graphite shape. A
variety of graphite shapes can occur, as illustrated in Fig. 11. Graphite shape is the single most important factor affecting
the mechanical properties of cast iron, as shown in Fig. 12.