Environmental Site Assessment Phase 1: Fundamentals, Guidelines, and Regulations - Chapter 7 ppt

137
Chapter 7
Property and Area
Reconnaissance
Introduction
A site and area reconnaissance is performed to observe existing conditions
and activities. These conditions and activities may or may not have been pre‑
viously identied through other means. If they are not previously identied,
the investigator attempts to nd potential sources of environmental contamina‑
tion not previously encountered and evaluate possible means by which the
soil and water may become contaminated. Sometimes a site visit will conrm
suspicions. At other times, it will open new avenues for further investigation.
Although the process may appear to be quite straightforward, such an
attitude can result in oversights. Some environmental professionals like to
use a checklist. One must keep in mind, however, that checklists can be lim‑
iting, and they often require illogical observations (e.g., conditions of ponds
in a rural environment).
A site inspection requires common sense, an analytical mind, and persis‑
tence. If something appears out of place, it probably is. An old dirt road over‑
grown with vegetation has a reason for being, and it should be questioned.
Although many of these issues are discussed within this chapter, the realm
of possibilities is limited only by one’s imagination. Published recommenda‑
tions and mandates can be limited in scope, but the environmental profes‑
sional should not limit the scope.
The ASTM Standard recommends a visual inspection of the subject prop‑
erty, with no specic requirement to inspect adjoining properties with the
exception of noting anything actually observed from the subject property.
The Rule requires a visual inspection of the subject property and adjoining
properties. If, however, for some reason a visual inspection cannot be per‑
formed, the environmental professional should perform one of, or a combi‑
nation of, the following:

Visually inspect the subject property via another method (e.g., obser‑
vations by air) or from an alternate vantage point (e.g., walk the prop‑
erty line).
Document efforts taken to gain access to the subject property.
Document the use of other sources of information to determine the
existence of potential environmental contamination.
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138 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
Express an opinion about the signicance of the failure to conduct a site
inspection on the ability of the environmental professional to identify
conditions indicative of releases or threatened releases.
The discussions within this chapter go beyond what is recommended by
ASTM or mandated by the All Appropriate Inquiries Rule. It is up to the
environmental professional to limit or extend the search.
Reconnaissance of the Property
A site reconnaissance is a thorough investigation of the grounds and all
buildings on the property. Chapter 9 contains the methodology for evaluat‑
ing buildings, which may be accomplished during the grounds inspection.
All activities performed in and around the buildings have an impact on the
property, and the property may have had other uses than were derived from
the historic usage background search, presented in Chapter 5.
Plan the visit. The site investigator may require special equipment. For
instance, an eight‑hour walk‑through of a densely vegetated, 200‑acre lot, on
a hot, humid day may require a machete, lightweight and heavy duty boots,
a long‑sleeved shirt, a water jug, a backpack, and some form of self‑defense
(e.g., mace) along with paper, writing implements, and a camera. If planning

to collect samples, take the necessary equipment. Think in terms of accessi‑
bility, consolidation of supplies, and reduced bodily discomforts.
Area diagrams are a must. They include a copy of the plat and area map.
Plan on getting them dirty, marking them up extensively (e.g., locating
55‑gallon drums), and taking extensive notes. (See Figure 7.1.)
Too many or a lack of proper supplies can result in extended reconnais‑
sance time. Taking too much can cause a logistics juggling act. Taking too
little may necessitate an additional trip to retrieve needed items and can be
time consuming.
Always carry a clipboard and writing implements. Notes will get wet
and dirty. Use permanent markers or pencils that will not bleed, resulting in
unreadable information.
Prior to departing for the site, review collected information. Take notes
during the planning stages for the site reconnaissance and generate ques‑
tions. The review should include, but not be limited to, the following:
Environmental setting
Historic usage of the property
Building records
Regulatory agency listings
The investigator should attempt a visual evaluation of every square foot of
the property, but it is not always feasible to walk an entire area. To overstate
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 139
the obvious, a at, barren 1‑acre plot of land is easier and less time consum‑

ing than a 1,000‑acre parcel of property with gullies and thick vegetation.
When it is not feasible to investigate every foot of a property, minimum
coverage should include the following:
Around the perimeter of the property
All surface water routes, including dry creek beds
All roads, paved and unpaved
All areas that are reasonably accessible
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Figure 7.1 Search of property. Notes taken during site reconnaissance for signs of
environmental conditions that may have a negative impact on the property.
north
prevailing winds
low t
ra
ffic

15 de
gr
ee slope o
f
la
nd
cyc
lone fence
@ per
imeter
patch of

de
ad veget
ation
me
ta
l building
patche
s in concrete
poss
ib
le e
vi
dence of
under
g
round
stor
age
effluent dr
ain
ap
pa
rent chemical st
ai
ns

sanita
ry
s
ew

er
sani
ta
ry
s
ew
er
mode
ra
te tr
affic
I,I,I-tri
chlor

(no spill cont
ai
n.)
hard packed soi
l,

weeds
, native

gr
as
se
s
50
-gallon t
ank

Spencer Street
5th Street
5’
high

dir
t mound
di
stre
ssed
veget
ation
8’
out

fr
om building
500
-
ga
llon
ta
nk

sulf
ur
ic acid w/spill
protection dike
CHEMICAL PACKAGING PLANT

(vacated)
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140 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
Some of the more common techniques used to ensure adequate coverage
of “accessible land” include the following:
Parallel coverage—Property can be walked in parallel patterns, with
5‑ to 20‑foot separations from the center. The distance from each cen‑
terline should depend on the ground visibility.
Expanding circles/squares—Property can be walked by starting at the
center and walking outward in a methodical fashion. This may involve
a walk around a high point or an accessible portion. Property with a
central focal point (e.g., a hill) with a shape conducive to this approach
is the most likely candidate for this technique.
Last, prior to departure to the site, contact the people designated as the
contact for the property. They will want to be kept informed if the investiga‑
tor is not to be escorted, and they will require notication if the investigator
needs an escort.
Once on site, the investigator must be aware of all possibilities and then
some. The succeeding items are those most frequently included on an item‑
ized checklist, along with a few other considerations generally overlooked
or ignored.
Topographic Conditions
The topographic conditions of the site and surrounding areas should be
observed and compared with the topographic maps for the area. These will
most likely be similar, but topographic maps are not updated frequently. A
comparative analysis will disclose outdated maps.
Dated information becomes highly important, especially where there
is the likelihood for migration of hazardous substances and/or petroleum
products through the soil or into surface water and groundwater. In some

instances, the city may have recently contracted for planimetric ground con
‑
touring of the area. Planimetric maps are typically more detailed than topo‑
graphic maps and generally more dated.
General Description of Structures, Roads, and Fences
All structures and other improvements or usage passageways should
be described and identied on a schematic of the property. The size and
number of buildings should be estimated (and conrmed later) along with
approximate construction date, number of stories, and probable usage. (See
Figure 7.2.)
Dirt roads, foot paths, streets, and parking facilities provide i
nformation
as to type, volume, and pathways of travel. Fences and walls conne areas
that may have had a designed purpose and subsequent use. Each item should
be identied on the schematic.
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 141
Inside Structural Observations
Whether a building is complete or only partial, an effort should be made
to observe in‑structure impact components that may be indicators of envi
‑
ronmental contamination. This should include, but not be limited to, the
following:
Means of heating and cooling (e.g., gas, oil, or electric): If gas or oil were
used, you should locate the storage tank/container.
Stains and corrosion: If stains and/or corrosion are observed, you
should question the source or cause.

Drains and sumps: If there are oor drains and/or sumps (i.e., a pit
for draining, collecting, or storing liquids), you need to question their
intent and use.
Although an industrial building generally poses a greater concern than a
residence, illegal dumping and illegal drug labs do occasionally occur in
residences. Signs and symptoms of environmental contamination in any
structure should result in further investigation at a later date.
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Figure 7.2 Old, abandoned structure with asbestos‑containing transite siding.
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142 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
Septic Systems
Especially in rural environments, waste is managed by some form of ground
waste management system, whether it is conventional leaching elds, leach‑
ing chambers, or aerobic systems. Many of today’s waste disposal systems
are engineered, but the older systems may have been installed in ground
that allows the wastewater to percolate down to the subsurface water table
(e.g., aquifer) or run off into surface water (e.g., streams). Some structures,
past and present, are built on the cheap, with a big hole in the ground, not
unlike an outhouse without a collection system. The environmental profes‑
sional should determine, by records or interviews, the age and type of sys‑
tem installed—if one was installed.
Sanitary Sewers
The location of all sanitary sewers should be noted. One should also iden‑
tify the drain locations, because sanitary sewer water typically does not get
treated while being emptied into a river, stream, or creek beds. These are
paths whereby runoff of surface water containing hazardous substances and

petroleum products may depart the property.
The river, stream, or creek bed into which the sanitary sewer water emp‑
ties may be on the property or on environmentally sensitive adjoining prop
‑
erties. For this reason, the destination of associated sewer water should also
be determined.
Water Wells
Today, the installation of water wells is a controlled process. Twenty years
ago, it was not. Now, the well‑drilling operator is required by law to cement
the surface casing and/or cement intervals where inter‑aquifer transfer may
occur. The intent is to prevent travel of soil contaminants from one segre‑
gated geologic layer to the next or to the groundwater. In the past, the driller
was not required to comply with any of these procedures, thus older wells
pose a greater threat to the groundwater than those more recently installed
in accordance with acceptable practices. For a rendering of a poorly installed
water well, see Figure 7.3.
Abandoned wells may pose a problem as well. Besides providing a hot spot
for someone to fall into, abandoned wells may serve as an easy means for ille‑
gal dumping of hazardous materials. The well water may be associated with
an aquifer that is used by others who may unknowingly drink the contami‑
nated water. A small community using well water may develop an increased
incidence of an exotic illness. The occurrence of miscarriages and/or deformed
fetuses may increase. A rare debilitating disease may affect large numbers of
a community. A rare form of cancer may prevail. Sometimes these latter sce‑
narios are the only reason for suspicion within a given population.
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 143
There have been cases where abandoned wells doubled for a septic sys‑
tem. Household waste has been innocently piped out to a big hole in the

ground. Although human waste generally breaks down to a non‑hazardous
substance, there is a potential for conveyance of the par
asites and bacteria in
feces. Other wastes also may have been disposed of, such as household paint
products or motor oil.
Some second‑world countries still have systems in which the water
wells are not encased and adequately separated from the community
septic system. They have no more than a hole into which household and
septic waste is discharged. Next to the waste hole is an unpr
otected water
rock formation
water formation
Rope and Bucket
direct access to
groundwater
Unprotected
Surface Area
no concrete pad to
protect from
surface contaminants
Open Top
no protection from
dumping and debris
surface soil
sand and gravel
Porous Curbing
potential for
subsurface
contamination
Figure 7.3 Depiction of unprotected well. (Source: Partial extraction from Texas

Department of Health: Individual Home Water Supplies. Austin, Texas. Stock No. 2‑105,
Oct. 1970, p. 18.)
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144 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
well. These countries have a lot of problems with diseases conveyed by
fecal matter.
All water wells should be evaluated and the possibilities considered. Fur‑
ther research may be indicated after the site visit.
Drinking Water Sources and Quantity
The drinking water may come from personal water wells, cisterns, or city
supplies. The city water source may be a lake, reservoir, river, or aquifer.
Today, personal water wells are initially analyzed for quality, and unless
the owner is suspicious, the well may not get checked again. Contamination
may occur subsequent to the initial check, but the owner or potential buyer
may not be aware of the contaminant. If there is reason to be suspicious, the
investigator may collect a sample of the water and have it analyzed for the
suspect hazardous substance. This may require collection of the water in a
sterile, quart‑sized, glass jar with inert sealing material. Prior to collection,
information concerning the methodology for taking the sample and means
for shipping it should be conrmed with the analytical laboratory that will
perform the analysis.
A cistern is a water retention device, built into the ground, for collection
and storage of bathing and/or drinking water. It may be a rain collection
container at the base of a roof drain spout. It may be a primitive hole in the
ground, or it may be an insulated, contained bladder built into the ground.
An abandoned cistern may serve as a means for contaminant disposal, or
it may even be physically dangerous (e.g., a child could fall in). Some older
cisterns contained lead sealant, a source for lead contamination of the envi‑
ronment. (See Figure 7.4.)

The city water may be on an old system, and lead solder may have been
used in some of the soldered joints where there are metal pipes, or lead pipe
may even be present. The city can provide information concerning lead con
‑
tent of the supply lines.
The lines leading from the supply main may also have lead. Lead content
in the water can be determined as per Chapter 9. If the results of a sample
from a home or other building exceed the acceptable limit of 15 ppb (parts
per billion), this should be compared with the supply line analysis performed
by the municipality.
Debris
Many properties that have yet to be developed have become a convenient
dumping ground. Dumping is generally in the form of household junk and
motor oil, but industrial dumping may occur as well.
Domestic dumping may include old tires, auto parts or whole automobiles,
plastic jugs, paper, roong material (possibly containing asbestos), cleaning
product containers, unused paint, and so on. (See Figure 7.5.)
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 145
Figure 7.4 Old cistern found around an old, vacant cabin.
Figure 7.5 Domestic debris with asbestos‑containing roof shingles.
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146 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
Industrial dumping comes in all sizes, shapes, and forms. Containers gen‑
erally are not labeled and certainly are not traceable. A number of scenarios
are possible. As the cost of industrial disposal increases, the temptation for
illegal dumping increases.
Chemical Storage Containers/Drums

Today, all chemical storage containers that are shipped directly from a manufac‑
turer or distributor must be labeled with the trade name, manufacturer, and
specic hazards associated with the chemical. Labels provide information as
to chemicals used on site in a manufacturing operation. Take notes, even if
there appears to be no associated problem with the containers.
Sometimes a container is not labeled. Labels may get damaged in ship‑
ment, worn away by weather, torn off through rough handling, or eaten away
by chemicals (e.g., sulfuric acid dripping down the side of a glass bottle).
Some of the worst hazardous waste sites within the United States contain
hundreds of thousands of such drums. Many leak, and the chemicals in two
adjacent containers may not be compatible. In other words, they may leak
out, mix with one another, and result in a re or explosion, or react with one
another to produce a toxic gas. Some may have a residue in the lid, around the
ope
ning, causing an explosion when the container is opened. For example,
oxidized hydrogen peroxide crystals formed in the cap of a storage container
have been known to explode simply by the friction of turning the cap.
Likewise, the drum may never have had a label. A chemical may have been
transferred from a marked container to an unmarked container. A drum may
contain only water or it may contain explosives. Unmarked drums that no one
can identify should be handled with extreme caution, and unless properly
trained to manage unknowns, the environmental professional should seek
the aid of someone experienced in management of unknown containers.
Sometimes the contents of drums are known, but their whereabouts are
unknown. For instance, witnesses know that several me
rcury‑containing
drums were buried in a eld, but they do not know their exact location. Steel
drums have a “maximum life expectancy” of fty years, and locating suspected
burial sites requires speculation and extensive soil sampling (i.e., a Phase II
assessment). Some may also be detected by the use of a magnetometer.

Do not be surprised to nd drums in the middle of undeveloped land.
After three hours walking beautiful country property you may begin to
wonder why you are spending so much time with no ndings. Then you bust
out into an opening and nd rusting drums oozing with black goop. You just
never know. (See Figure 7.6.)
Soil Mounds
Backll is identied by obvious disturbances in the surface of the soil. In
a eld of vegetation and/or grass, newly placed backll will have nothing
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 147
growing on it. Within weeks, however, grass will grow and the site may be
recognizable only by the presence of a mound. (See Figure 7.7.)
Containerized and non‑containerized substances may have been dumped
into a hole and backlled. The method of hole preparation and soil coverage
may be that of a modern‑day landll, with special liners and soil‑type precau
‑
tions, or it may involve a blatant disregard for the environment. A chemical may
be poured into a hole of highly porous soil with no attempt to contain its spread,
or drums with a limited life expectancy may be randomly placed into a hole.
Look for mounds that seem out of place. For example, a 10‑foot high, 20‑foot
wide mound in the center of a at eld with no explanation or rationale for its
presence would be suspicious. A mound may be nothing more than the excess
from property leveling, or it may be a small landll of drums containing haz‑
ardous wastes. The owner may be able to explain its purpose; but if there is no
rationale for its presence, a mound will require further speculation.
Ground Depressions
Concave surfaces may be found over an area where the contents of a drum
have seeped into the ground and all the containers have collapsed under the
pressure of the soil or where buried debris has degraded. This area may be

Figure 7.6 Deteriorated drum found in a cattle grazing pasture.
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148 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
a small, 5‑foot‑diameter depression in the soil, or it could be a hundred feet
across. In the latter, it is easier to observe a depression by looking at aerial
photos than by walking the area. (See Figure 7.8.)
Where obsolete underground storage tanks may collapse, asphalt/con‑
crete surface covering will cave in also. There may be other signs of the exis‑
tence of such a structure, or all other evidence may have been destroyed. In
the latter situation, there may be no other clue as to the presence of such a
tank, without the observed ground depression.
Distressed, Stained Soil
Mishandled chemicals may result in contaminated grounds. This may
involve spills, container leaks, or intentional dumping. In the soil, the
contaminant may migrate into the subsurface soils, surface water, and
groundwater. Some of the signs of mishandling include extreme dryness,
cracking, discoloration, a distinct wet spot next to a chemical storage
container or where one used to be, noticeable sheen, or a residue ring.
These items should be noted for possible investigation at a future date.
(See Figure 7.9.)
Poor or No Growth of Vegetation
Lack of vegetation in an area that is typically vegetated may indicate poi‑
soning, either from an herbicide or from contamination by a hazardous
Figure 7.7 Depiction of a soil mound concealing deteriorated drums that poten‑
tially contain hazardous chemicals.
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 149
substance or material that will not allow growth. Further investigation is

indicated. (See Figure 7.10.)
Dead Wildlife
Dead animals around a water source can certainly indicate contaminated,
poisoned waters. However, do not assume the water is contaminated with
chemicals. The deaths may be due to disease or some other factor that may
Figure 7.8 Depiction of a ground depression with hidden, collapsed containers that
potentially contain hazardous chemicals.
Figure 7.9 Stained soil, indicating potentially hazardous chemicals leaking into
the ground.
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150 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
not be readily apparent. This denitely deserves investigation (i.e., a Phase
II site assessment).
Oftentimes, sh are used in laboratories for chemical toxicity testing
because of their extreme sensitivity to toxic substances. Generally, the sh
in a stream of contaminated water will die before other wildlife is affected.
Check surface waters that normally contain sh. Note whether the sh are
ourishing or the water is lifeless. For instance, along the Gulf of Mexico, a
manufacturer was dumping heavy metal contaminants into an estuary that
was spilling into gulf waters. During this time, catsh were dying and wash‑
ing up on the beach, a sh being deposited every other foot all along the
shore. Catsh are bottom feeders. They were poisoned by the heavy metal
that had settled to the bottom of the gulf shoreline.
Consider again dead animals around a source of water. If mammals are
dead but the sh are thriving, look for other potential causes. If both are
dead, it is probably the water. Regardless, further research is indicated.
Evidence of Surface Water Contamination
Surface waters include, but are not limited to, lakes, rivers, streams, springs,
and creeks. Use your senses to evaluate these—look, touch, and smell.

Observe the top of the surface waters. Look for oating debris and surface
sheen or a layer of apparent differentiation (e.g., a thin red layer of an uniden‑
tied muck oating on the top of the water). (See Figure 7.11.)
Excessive soil runoff into the water supplies nutrients and mud to the
water. You may not be able to see any sh in such waters, yet they would
thrive quite well. The use of surface water as a viable shing hole may
provide clues as to the existence of sh. Surface algae would also indicate the
probability of high nutrient levels.
Fecal material may enter the surface water by a makeshift human waste
discharge. It may also occur from large numbers of cattle, horses, sheep, and/
or other farm animals. This waste will elevate coliform bacterial growth,
Figure 7.10 Hardened, cracking wastewater sludge taken from landll.
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 151
carry disease, and provide a breeding ground for undesirable bacteria. The
odor may provide a clue.
The edges of the surface water may show signs of contaminants. If the
water level has recently dropped or if there is an area where the water has
been restricted from entry by a dike, the edges may be observed for deposits.
An oil deposit will be black and slimy to the touch.
During dry spells, creeks may not have any water. Yet, in the rainy sea‑
son, the investigator should expect the creek beds to retain water, unless
there is a means for water seepage into rock formations. Lack of water in a
creek during the rainy season could be signicant if the water is, or becomes,
contaminated. The surface water is going deeper, increasing the poten‑
tial for groundwater contamination where there is known surface water
contamination. Even where the soil and rock provide a very poor means for
contaminants to travel to the groundwater and/or aquifers, ssures in the
creek bed may provide direct, easy access to a local private water well or

to a reservoir. Material may also migrate by entering shallow, non‑potable
groundwater and be conveyed to other properties.
Figure 7.11 Waste and debris oating in recreational surface water.
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152 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
Smell the surface water (but do not drink it). Does it have an odor? If so,
describe the odor in your notes. Understand, however, that no two people
will describe a given odor the same way. Although there may be complaints
of foul‑tasting water, avoid the temptation to taste the water. Simply note
others’ comments. Odd smells and/or tastes should be further investigated.
Surface Impoundments
According to the EPA, a surface water impoundment is a contained surface
enclosure (e.g., pits, ponds, and lagoons).
1
Surface water impoundments may
be used as settling ponds for separating particulates and/or chemicals from
water. In industry, surface impoun
dments have been used to contain con
‑
taminated wastewater. In 1986, the EPA reported that there were more than
195,000 waste treatment surface impoundments nationwide. The breakdown
was as follows:
2
Oil/gas related: 65%
Mining: 10%
Agriculture: 9%
Industrial: 8%
Municipal: 1.2%
Other: 6.8%

An additional 3,200 surface impoundments were associated with known
hazardous waste management facilities for treatment, storage, and disposal
purposes. Then, too, some facilities discharged their wastes directly into
nearby surface waters.
2
Cities may have surface impoundments to which initial street and soil
runoff is conveyed for evaporation, leaving behind the contaminants. These
contaminants may then be cleaned up and properly di
sposed of, or in
the past they have been left behind when the need no longer existed. (See
Figure 7.12.)
Where a surface impoundment is (or was) present, there may be (or were)
hazardous substances improperly contained. Further investigation is indi‑
cated, and the EPA has published A Manual for Evaluating Contamination
Potential of Surface Impoundments,
which provides more in‑depth guidance.
l
Aboveground Structures Other than Buildings
Aboveground structures include, but are not limited to, chemical storage con‑
tainers, chemical treatment vats, railroad tracks, sheds, and storage facilities.
Aboveground butane storage containers generally provide a fuel source
for heating and cooking. Improper connections and/or management may
result in an explosion, leveling buil
dings and other structures in the imme
‑
diate vicinity.
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 153
Chemicals may be contained within large metal storage containers. Find
out what they hold. Look for corrosion, leaks, and spills. Check for secondary
spill containment structures (e.g., dikes and concrete pads).
In a sawmill, where wood was being treated with pentachloroph
enol, the
surface water and groundwater were becoming contaminated as the wood
came off the treatment line and was stacked on the unprotected ground next
to a stream. The soil was not only sandy but highly porous, and the stream
was within 20 feet of the off‑load stacking area.
Railroad cars frequently carry chemicals. A derailment or an unobserved
leak of contents may result in the release of hazardous substances. The area
around railroad tracks should be inspected.
Storage facilities are generally no more than an old wood shack. The structure
itself may not pose a problem, yet it may be used to isolate hazardous substances
from the main building. Many ammable chemicals are kept in shacks. These
should be checked for content (past and present), leaks, and spills. If any of these
appear to be a potential problem, note the structure of the shack, the surfacing
material, and the proximity to other points of interest on the property.
All aboveground structures should be noted. Further investigation may
be required.
Signs of Subsurface Structures
Subsurface structures include sanitary sewers, underground transformer
vaults, gas/oil pipelines, and underground storage tanks. Most will have
Figure 7.12 Depiction of a surface impoundment with a liner that is leaking haz‑
ardous substances into the ground.

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154 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
some form of visible structure that can be identied. The older they are and
the longer they have been obsolete, the greater the chance that the investiga‑
tor is looking for a “needle in a haystack.”
Sanitary sewers should be located and plotted on the area diagram. They
may be used by those on site or in the periphery for illegal dumping of haz‑
ardous waste, or they may provide a conduit for hazardous ground contami
‑
nants to travel from a remote site to other properties. Gasoline may enter into
a crack in the sanitary sewer, travel up the line into someone’s home around
an ignition source, and explode.
Structures may contain hazardous chemicals that have traveled from a remote
area. There may be an odor. There may be illnesses. Yet, there is no immediately
apparent source, and the chemical may go unidentied without a clue as to where
it came from or what it might be. This requires a little more investigation.
Transformer vaults are buried in the ground. They are compartmentalized
and may have several transformers.
Gas and oil pipelines are frequently identied by a warning sign posted
every 100 feet along the easement, or by long stretches of ground where trees
and bushes have not grown, which are more apparent from the air. The pre‑
viously trenched ground appears to have been disturbed and is frequently
differentiated from the surrounding terrain. Leaks may be associated with
odor or discoloration.
Underground storage tanks may be in use at present, or they may have
been closed, with the access port sealed and covered with soil or concrete. If
not obsolete, they should have relief valves and monitoring ports, but do not
assume they do. When looking for signs of existing underground storage
tanks, examine the grounds for closure plates, adapters for usage, attach‑

ments, and vents.
If an underground storage tank has been abandoned, the owner may
have gone through proper closure procedures or may have left the tank
with chemicals still in it, with or without sealing the openings. These open‑
ings are your evidence of its existence. If the owner has sealed the open‑
ings and covered the evidence, the obvious signs become more elusive. In
such a case, the ground around the buried tank may show signs of set‑
tling, or additional cement may have been poured over the access ports.
(See Figure 7.13.)
Ground that has been dug and loosely backlled may settle, creating
a concave appearance on the surface. If there was an asphalt or concrete
covering, this material may show signs of cracking. If a surfacing material
(e.g., concrete) existed prior to an underground storage tank installation, the
owner may have had to jack hammer through the material and redo the sur‑
face after installation. In the latter situation, the new surface will vary from
the old. Note these observations.
Today, underground storage tanks are protected from corrosion and
leaks by one or more of the various methods available, and some may have
a backup concrete vault. Gasoline underground storage tanks must undergo
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 155
routine leak testing and are reported to the EPA equivalent for the state in
which the tanks were installed. However, many have not been reported;
some have been in the ground for more than fty years and others for as
long as one hundred years. These are probably steel, are without protection,
and most likely are leaking.
Leaks may be due to corrosion, damage to the tank, or inadequate t‑
tings. Corrosion occurs with evaporation and water settling. Damage can
occur “upon installation,” when the tank is placed on a sharp, hard object;

when excessive weight or pressure is applied to the exterior of the tank
from aboveground activities and inadequate protection; or if the tank had
prior damage (e.g., cracks). Inadequate ttings may result in corroded seals,
improper seals, or damaged seals/ttings.
Odors
Be particularly alert to odor; and, remember, not all hazardous chemicals
smell bad. The presence of an odor that does not have an explanation should
trigger further investigation.
If you smell “something,” do not plan to return later to investigate. Note
the type of odor, the intensity, and the source. If you have time, try to track it
down while the odor is still present. Otherwise, olfactory fatigue will occur,
and you may not be able to: (1) smell the chemical, (2) track its source, or (3)
differentiate the odor from others.
Figure 7.13 Vacated building in a small town. The concrete patches are an indica‑
tion of prior service station gasoline pump usage at this located.
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156 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
Efuence from Buildings
Efuence is a liquid or solid material that is being discharged from a building
or process structure. It may be a hazardous industrial chemical, human waste,
or uncontaminated water. It may be discharged through a pipe into a well or
water source, or it may be discharged through a hole in the wall to the ground
outside. It may pour, or it may dribble. This is how lakes and streams were pol‑
luted prior to passage of strict regulatory requirements. (See Figure 7.14.)
Efuence of any kind should be noted. Track down the source. Determine
the use of all open‑ended pipes that have no explained usage, even if there
is no discharge at the time of the site reconnaissance. Further review and
search for information may be indicated.
Air Emissions

Contaminated air may be exhausted from a building through a stack or
through a vent on the side of a building, or be forced outside. A system may
Figure 7.14 Efuent pipe in the background, discharging from the building onto
the surface, and a septic drain in the foreground.
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 157
be sophisticated and have an associated air scrubbing unit, or it may be a
simple pedestal fan, blowing contaminants out the window. As with efu‑
ence, the air emissions will require further investigation.
Signs of Mining/Quarry Activities
Hazards associated with mining activities have to do with the type of mining
in progress. For instance, granite will oftentimes have radon, and limestone
will have silica. Radon is a radioactive hazard that can cause lung cancer, and
silica dust can cause a debilitating lung disease. The investigator will need
to know not only the type of mining but also the processes and procedures
common to the industry. Figure 7.15 depicts the site of an old quarry—land
that has since been developed.
Figure 7.15 Remains of a quarry, with some of the area having received soil from a
remote location. Additional research was needed to ascertain the source of the soil.
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158 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
A common source of groundwater contamination around mines is
acid‑bearing water. Water that extracts minerals from the mine wastes is
referred to as “acid mine drainage.” Water passes through sulde mineral
components of the tailings (e.g., the unused portion of the extracted, mined
resource), spoil piles, or the mine/quarry itself. Then, the sulde is oxidized to
sulfuric acid. This may occur anywhere the sulde content of the soil is high.
Quarry activities are generally noisy and oftentimes dusty. Past opera‑

tions have used spent oil to keep down the dust and debris on the dirt roads.
Some have had PCBs and other hazardous materials in the oil.
Find out what type of material is being extracted from the land and what
will be done with the resulting hole. Some obsolete holes are used for the
disposal of wastewater sludge—hazardous and/or non‑hazardous material.
Electrical Supply System
Electrical supply systems use transformers to increase or decrease the elec‑
tricity delivered to a site. These transformers contain a coolant used to con‑
tain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs are a suspected liver carcinogen
that is retained in the body for long periods of time. They accumulate in the
body and remain in the fatty tissue for extended periods of time. Thus, it
only adds to the body burden. It is not readily metabolized or eliminated.
The transformers may contain from trace amounts [5 ppm (parts per mil‑
lion)] to 5,000 ppm of PCBs in the oil. It is nonammable; therefore, it has
been an excellent substance for use with electrical delivery systems. In 1975,
PCBs were outlawed for use in new tran
sformers. However, transformers
may have a life expectancy of as much as one hundred years, and the older
transformers have a high probability of PCB content.
PCB‑containing oil does not pose a health hazard unless it gets into the
groundwater or is inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or drunk. Leaks and
spills may result in airborne exposures and/or be a source of skin contact
and absorption. PCB‑containing oil is not an EPA concern unless the amount
of PCB is greater than 50 ppm. As long as the material is contained within
the transformer and there are no leaks, exposure is a low probability.
There are several types of transformers: (1) pole mounted, (2) pad
mounted, and (3) underground vaulted. The pole‑mounted types may be
clearly marked, “No PCBs.” However, they may not be marked, or they may
have a sticker that requires a magnifying glass to read.
The electric company that owns the transformer may have records as

to PCB content. (See Figure
7.16.) However, they generally do not. You may
request a eld evaluation by the electric department, but it may come back
with no more information than you had prior to the request. Where the con‑
tent is unknown and there is a need to know (i.e., the transformer is leaking
onto the site), a sample collection and analysis can be requested from the
electric company or a sample may be taken of the leaked material. Leaks gen‑
erally occur around the seals, including the seals on top of the transformer.
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 159
The oil is under pressure. Damage to the integrity of the transformer may
occur as well. Reports of transformers being subject to target practice are not
unheard of.
The pad‑mounted transformers do not always have a uid. Temporary
construction site transformers do not contain “oil,” and the external cabinet
is generally locked on all pad‑mounted transformers. Those pad‑mounted
transformers that do have oil may also leak around the seals. A few drops
may look like a puddle, and oil stains are generally observed around the con‑
crete pad on which the transformer has been mounted. (See Figure 7.17.)
Underground vaults generally contain multiple transformers, each with
different PCB content in the oil. Although some vaults are partially under‑
ground and accessible for visual inspection, many are under heavy manhole
covers. A special tool and/or equipment may be required to open the cover.
This should be done by the electric company. Once again, look for leaks and
damage to the integrity of the unit.
Cemeteries
Potential pollutants from deteriorated caskets include embalming uid
(e.g., formalin), metals (e.g., arsenic was used for embalming during the
Civil War era), salts, and microorganisms. For each body buried, there is

an average of about 8 quarts of formalin in the grave site. Formalin is a
38% aqueous solution of formaldehyde with 15% methanol. Because it is
Figure 7.16 Pole‑mounted transformers stored in the back of a storage shed in the
country in a residential environment. All old and new transformers are stored on
cracked concrete pad.
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160 Environmental Site Assessment Phase I
water soluble, the formaldehyde‑bearing formalin may easily migrate to
the groundwater.
Consider the following theoretical situation. The formalin has migrated
horizontally to your property, which is located adjacent to the cemetery. This
is a country setting, and your client decides to install a water well. He pen‑
etrates the previously impermeable layers of rock and soil, but the well is
not properly sealed during penetration. The well, thus, creates a means for
formalin contamination of the groundwater. (See Figure 7.18.)
Although the above scenario is not a recorded event as of this publica‑
tion, there have been isolated reports of microbial diseases originating in
graveyards. In Germany during the late 1800s, people living near cemeteries
were reported to have a higher incidence of typhoid fever than the normal
population. This was attributed to proximity to graveyards.
The investigator should also be alert to the potential for a client to install a
water well on property adjoining a cemetery. A new well may provide a con‑
duit for the migrated contaminant to enter the groundwater, or the ground‑
water may already be contaminated. Minimum distances between cemeteries
and drinking water wells have been legislated in England, France, and Hol‑
land—300 feet, 328 feet, and 164 feet, respectively.
3
Figure 7.17 Pad‑mounted transformer with “No PCB” label.
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Property and Area Reconnaissance 161
Other
Note any objects or conditions that appear to be out of the ordinary or the
presence of which you cannot explain. This may include, but not be limited
to, the following:
Drainage pathways and erosion plains
Evidence of old structures
Outcroppings, stockpiles, and embankments
Heavy equipment
Monitoring wells
Gas wells
Pesticides and/or herbicides
Tire tracks in the soil
Many of these will not jump out and scream, “I am here!” They must be
derived from careful observation.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Figure 7.18 Tombstone in an old cemetery with deteriorated grave markers poten‑
tially dating back to the Civil War era, in the mid to late 1800s.
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