WATER RESOURCES IN THE MEKONG DELTA: A HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT, A FUTURE OF CHANGE pdf

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WATER RESOURCES IN THE MEKONG DELTA: A HISTORY
OF MANAGEMENT, A FUTURE OF CHANGE
Dr To Van Truong
a
, Tarek Ketelsen
b

Introduction
The Mekong Delta is characterized by change, which occur over a wide range of spatial
and temporal scales. In the past the delta lay submerged below the sea and today it continues
to accumulate sediments from as far away as the Himalayas so that the delta is constantly
changing and reclaiming land from the sea. In fact, because of the delta’s dependence on a
combination of ecosystem functions including tides, rainfall, and erosion that operate over a
short timeframe, it is highly susceptible to human and environmental change. Now the Mekong
Delta, a fringing ecosystem between terrestrial and marine environments, is facing perhaps the
most devastating change of all, unique because Climate Change is bringing changes at a rate
unprecedented in recent history. Whereas in the past change was a comparatively slow
phenomenon with patterns set in motion over thousands of years, current changes require a
sense of urgency as significant changes to the hydrologic regime are occurring over decades
and even years requiring water management initiatives that are flexible and capable of evolving
and adapting close to the speed at which climate change is occurring. Change has therefore
become an issue because of the accelerated scale at which it is operating in both biophysical
and socio-economic environments.
Regardless of what mitigation efforts are taken internationally, climate change impacts
for the next 40 years are inevitable (IPCC, 2007). After 2050, the impacts of climate change will
largely depend on how we, as an international community, respond today, but changes to sea
levels, rainfall regimes and storm frequencies before 2050 are determined by current levels of

CO
2
in the atmosphere. This means that for the vulnerable communities in the world,
adaptation is the most urgent issue. Furthermore, most impacts of climate change will be
transferred to human and ecological communities via the hydrologic cycle, for example, through
sea level rise, storms, flooding, and droughts. This places water resource management (WRM)
at the front lines of human adaptation to climate change. A recent study by the World Bank
(2007) identified Viet Nam as the most vulnerable nation in the developing world in terms of
population, GDP, urban extent and wetlands, and the second most vulnerable in terms of
percentage of total area affected. The Mekong Delta is one of the most vulnerable regions of
Viet Nam. Therefore, planners and engineers working within the delta, face some of the most


a
Lead author and Director of the Southern Institute for Water Resource Planning, 271/3 An Duong Vuong Street,
District .
5, Ho Chi Minh City Viet Nam
b
AYAD (Australian Youth Ambassador for Development) Water Resource Researcher at the Southern Institute for
Water Resource Planning

Deleted: Q
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daunting and challenging problems of WRM in the world. The success of their response to this
challenge will not only impact the livelihood of some 18 million local inhabitants and the national
economic growth of one of South-East Asia’s development success stories, it will also serve as
an example for other vulnerable nations. This places Viet Nam in a unique position, as a nation
with strong technical capacity; it has the potential to become one of the world leaders in climate

change adaptation.
This chapter is divided into four parts. Section 1 provides an historic outline of water
resources and management in the Mekong River basin and the delta in particular. It tracks the
introduction of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and Participatory Irrigation
Management (PIM) into the management superstructure, the rise of the Mekong River
Commission (MRC) and the initiatives of the Vietnamese government in providing for the socio-
economic development of the region and the preservation of vital ecosystem functioning in one
of the most important and diverse river systems in South East Asia, if not the world.
Section 2 then tracks the current debate and consensus on climate change (CC),
culminating with a review of the latest findings by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC). Based on experiences of managing water-related extremes in the delta, the
chapter then qualifies what the regional and local impacts of CC will mean to the current regime
of water management in the delta.
Section 3 continues by exploring the particular vulnerabilities of the delta community,
the future directions of water resource management, and the important interaction between
disaster preparedness and every day IWRM. In particular, this section discusses how these two
fields, often considered mutually exclusive, are being brought closer together in a warming
climate.
The final section explores the relationship between national and international
stakeholders and how these partnerships themselves need to adapt to CC, if the local
communities are to successfully adapt to the rapid changes in our global climate. It also
provides some recommendations to direct future efforts and improve the effectiveness of IWRM
in the Mekong Delta.
1. Water Resources in the Cuu Long Delta (CLD)
1.1 Water Resources in the Lower Mekong River Basin (LMRB)
The Mekong River is one of Asia’s great rivers: it is 4,200km long with a catchment area
of 795,000km² (KOICA, 2000). It flows through six countries (China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia and Viet Nam), incorporates a massive lake system (Tonle Sap Lake) and
downstream of Phnom Penh fans out into a series of channels, before discharging into the
South China Sea. Due to geophysical and political differences, the Mekong River Basin is

divided into two sub-catchments; the Upper Mekong River Basin, including China and
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Myanmar, and the Lower Mekong River Basin (LMRB), considered as the area downstream of
Laos and Thailand. The LMRB constitutes 77% of the total catchment area.
Biodiversity and basin health
Starting in the Tibetan plateau the river forms a wide variety of habitats, before ending
in the sub-humid floodplains of the Mekong Delta. It is the size of the basin, the wide variety of
ecosystems it supports and the minimal regulation of its flow, which contributes to its high
levels of biodiversity and productivity. After the Amazon, the Mekong River basin is considered
to have one of the highest levels of biodiversity on earth, including 1,200-1,700 species of fish
(MRC, 2003; ARCBC, 2009). The LMRB is also home to some 60 million people, most of whom
are agrarian farmers and fishermen and therefore dependent on the ecosystem services of the
LMRB for survival. For instance, 90% of Cambodians rely on the fish for their protein intake,
while Vietnamese fishermen harvest 400,000 tons of fish annually (Cornford et al, 2002; MRC,
2003; ARCBC, 2009). Most of the historic land clearing has been for agricultural purposes,
most extensively in Vietnam and Thailand, while Laos and Cambodia contain the majority of the
remaining forest systems and deforestation rates of 2-3% of the remnant forest cover (White,
2002).
Climate & rainfall regime
The LMRB has two seasons, the rainy and dry seasons. In mountainous regions of the
catchment, rainfall is driven by changes in surface elevation, while the lower reaches of the
basin typically experience rainfall in the afternoon/evening due to convective falls (White,
2002). Rainfall rates are highest in north-eastern Laos (3,500 mm/yr) and lowest in north-
eastern Thailand (1,000 mm/yr) (White, 2002). Relative humidity exhibits a similar broad range
across the LMRB (50-98%), while evaporation rates show smaller variation (1,500-1,800
mm/yr) (White, 2002).
River morphology & flow
The Upper catchment of the Mekong Basin is rugged, forested and mountainous,

especially in China and Laos. It is characterized by steep gorges, narrow river channels and
fast flows. Ground cover and surface gradients result in a high sediment content of run-off and
river flows, which are transported downstream. As the river approaches Cambodia, the terrain
flattens and the river slows and widens. The Mekong Delta starts south of Kratie (Cambodia).
Tonle Sap Lake is one of the dominant hydrological features of the Mekong Delta. The lake is a
unique system which regulates flows in the Mekong River by storing water in the wet season
and releasing it in the dry season, providing the base dry season environmental flows and
preserving the year-round integrity of biodiversity and productivity.
In total, the annual discharge from the Mekong is about 450 billion cubic metres (4.5%
generated within the Mekong Delta), with an average annual discharge of 13,700m
3
/s (Phuong,
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2007; KOICA, 2000). During the wet season, the average discharge can peak at 25,400 m
3
/s,
which results in widespread flooding as the river breaches its banks (Phuong, 2007). In general
flood volumes are greater in the Mekong Delta, but more disastrous in the steeply sloped
upstream sections of the catchment where
areas’ water levels can reach up to 10 m.
The Mekong Delta generally sees water
levels of 4 m or less (Phuong, 2007). During
the dry season flows in the upper catchment
drop significantly and the flows in the
Mekong Delta are sustained by drainage
waters from the Tonle Sap system.
Sediment dynamics and erosion are
one of the key ecosystem functions of the

LMRB, connecting sub-catchments
thousands of kilometres apart. It is estimated
that 150million tons of sediment is
transported down the main channel into the
Mekong Delta, where 138 million tons
continues down the Mekong River towards
the ocean, while 12million tons flows through
the Mekong’s subsidiary channel (the Bassac
River) entering the ocean.
Figure 1. The Lower Mekong River Basin
The energy potential
One of the contributing factors to the regions biodiversity is the large amount of energy
latent in the natural system. Changes in discharges, flow velocities and water levels are the
fundamental drivers of the key ecosystem functions (flood pulse, the swelling of Tonle Sap
Lake and the erosion/sedimentation processes), which in turn, create and support a diverse
array of habitats and life. The river’s hydraulic potential is also essential for the agricultural and
aquaculture activities of local communities who rely on the transfer of nutrients, sediments and
freshwater driven by the basins ecosystem functions (ICEM, 2003).
Interactions with non-MRC member states are a growing issue for water resource
management, especially as development initiatives, such as hydropower escalate and the scale
of anthropogenic influences on the rivers hydrology increase. The total hydropower potential of
the Mekong River Basin is 54,234 MW (Nguyen et al, 2004). Currently there are 16 dams in the
Mekong River Basin, 14 in the LMRB and 2 in China. There are plans for significant expansion
of hydropower developments in the basin, and this is likely to generate complex conflict and
cooperation linkages between riparian countries (Kummu et al (eds), 2008). China plans to
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Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial
Deleted: In total, the annual
discharge from the Mekong is about
450 billion cubic metres (4.5%

generated within the Mekong Delta),
with an average annual discharge of
13,700m
3
/s (Phuong, 2007; KOICA,
2000). During the wet season, the
average discharge can peak at
25,400 m
3
/s, which results in
widespread flooding as the river
breaches its banks (Phuong, 2007).
In general, flood volumes are greater
in the Mekong Delta, but more
disastrous in the steeply sloped
upstream sections of the catchment
where water levels can reach up to
10m. The Mekong Delta generally
sees water levels of 4m or less
(Phuong, 2007). During the dry
season flows in the upper catchment
drop significantly and the flows in the
Mekong Delta are sustained by
drainage waters from the Tonle Sap
system.¶
Figure 1. The Lower Mekong River
Basin¶
Sediment dynamics and erosion are
one of the key ecosystem functions of
the LMRB, connecting sub-

catchments thousands of kilometres
apart. It is estimated that 150 million
tons of sediment is transported down
the main channel into the Mekong
Delta, where 138 million tons
continues down the Mekong River
towards the ocean, while 12 million
tons flows through the Mekong’s
subsidiary channel (the Bassac River)
entering the ocean less than 50km to
the south of the Mekong. A large
portion of this sediment washes out to
sea where tidal and ocean currents
transfer the sediments south-east
along the coast to the Ca Mau
Peninsula. Competing tidal and
current interactions cause the
sediment to be deposited on the
peninsula fringe, which continues to
expand by up to 50m a year in some
parts. The depths of sediment layers
in the delta vary between 20m in the
inland areas to up to 500m at river
mouths, supporting the hypothesis
that most sediment is flushed out to
sea before it re-enters the terrestrial
environment some 150km to the
south east.¶
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export a large proportion of the generated power, and Thailand, Laos and Viet Nam have all
initiated plans for increased energy trade with China, while Thailand is also making plans with
Myanmar and Cambodia, and Laos is undertaking similar efforts with Viet Nam and Cambodia
(Kummu et al (eds), 2008). The environmental and social impacts of hydropower on
downstream regions, as well as rising energy demands, are some of the key issues facing the
Mekong Basin, and all riparian nations have a vested interest in both the positive and negative
impacts of this energy source.



Figure 2. Hydropower potential
of the Mekong River Basin (%)
(adapted from: White, 2002)



Additionally, the nature of the impacts that the Chinese dams will have is not fully
understood. A recent study on China’s existing Manwan Dam found that the infilling of the dam
in 1992 caused record low water levels in various reaches of the Mekong River (Kummu et al
(eds), 2008). A seasonal analysis comparing data from before (1962–1991) and after (1992–
2003) construction of the dam, revealed that while water levels and discharges were
significantly lower during the dry season, during the wet season they increased slightly.
Furthermore, there was no significant variation in the monthly means before and after the dam
was built (Kummu et al (eds), 2008). The inter-seasonal variability is likely to be further
amplified by the effects of climate change (see Section 3).
Without question low flows are likely to be reduced further as the demand for water
increases in all the riparian countries of the Mekong, however downstream countries need to
investigate thoroughly the interaction between their demand for imported Chinese hydropower
and the water requirements of other sectors. Hydropower dams could either reduce or

exacerbate the inter-seasonal variability in flow depending on the operational regime
implemented. It should also be noted that discharge volumes are just one issue of many for a
river basin with increasing hydropower development. Other issues – such as sediment
transport, migration of fish species, bank erosion, water quality and land clearing – must also
be considered when assessing the impacts of developing hydropower potential.
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1.2 Water Resources in the Cuu Long Delta (CLD)
The Cuu Long Delta (CLD) is the extent of the Mekong Delta within Viet Nam. It covers
some 13 provinces and cities, with a total area of 3.9 million hectares and a population of
approximately 17.5 million people (Phuong, 2007). The topography of the CLD is low-lying with
gentle slopes, and an average elevation of approximately 0.7–1.2m above mean sea level. In
general, sedimentation processes have built up the banks of the main river channels in the CLD
forming a geographic hollow in the inland areas. These hollows form closed floodplains which
store water after the wet season and support wetland and rice-farming systems.
The socioeconomic development of the Mekong Delta, exacerbates stress on natural
systems, particularly through agricultural development and living conditions of farmers.

Upstream
flows into the
Mekong
Delta
Upstream
flows into the
Mekong
Delta
Regulation of
the Greate

Lake
Regulation of
the Greate
Lake
Rainfall in
the Mekong
Delta
Rainfall in
the Mekong
Delta
VIET NAM
VIET NAM
CAMPUCHIA
CAMPUCHIA
Flooding &
Inundation
Acid sulfate soils
Salinity &Drought
Erosion & Sedementaion
Tides
Strong winds
Salt water
Tides
Strong winds
Salt water
Selection of land
and water
development
scenarios
Selection of land

and water
development
scenarios
Objectives for sustainable
development:
Ö Production
Agriculture-
Forestry-Fishery;
Ö Stable resettlemnt;
Ö Infrastructure
development;
Ö Environment protection.
Objectives for sustainable
development:
Ö Production
Agriculture-
Forestry-Fishery;
Ö Stable resettlemnt;
Ö Infrastructure
development;
Ö Environment protection.
Forest Fires

Figure 3. Major impacts and development directions of the CLD (adapted from NN.

Tran, 2004)
The major constraints of the natural conditions include (a) flooding over an area of
about 1.4-1.9 million ha in the upper area of the Delta; (b) salinity intrusion (greater than 4g/l)
over an area of about 1.2-1.6 million ha in the coastal areas; (c) acid sulphate soils and the
spread of acidic water over an area of about 1.0 million ha in the lowland areas; (d) shortage of

fresh water for production and domestic uses over an area of about 2.1 million ha in areas far
from rivers, and close to the coastline; and (e) the impacts of global climate change to the flow
regime in the upstream areas, rainfall, and climate in the Mekong Delta and threat from sea
level rise from the sea.
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Global climate change and its’ subsequent effects on ecosystems, flooding, drought,
riverbank erosion, water pollution, salinity intrusion, animal and human disease are becoming
more and more difficult to forecast, as well as seriously affecting the production and living
conditions of local people. Therefore, in order to further sustainable socio-economic
development including hunger eradication, and poverty alleviation, there is a need to direct the
Mekong Delta towards a general vision of “effective management of natural disasters; wise use
of natural resources for a prosperous and stable economy, and diversification and sustainable
environment in the Mekong Delta"
Climate & rainfall regime
The CLD is under a semi-equatorial monsoon climate with rainfall distributed between
two seasons: the dry season (November to April) and the wet season (May to November). The
average annual rainfall is 1,600mm with 90% concentrated during the wet season. There is
minimal seasonal variation in the average annual temperature, which remains about 26
o
C
throughout the year.
Typhoons and storms are irregular events for the CLD under existing climate conditions.
Generally low-pressure systems originating in the Pacific Ocean sweep west through the
Philippines and past northern and central Viet Nam, however, occasionally some of these
storms track further south crossing the CLD. In recent times major storm events have occurred
and these events are likely to become more common for the CLD under a warming climate.
River morphology & flow

Flow in the Mekong is distributed between two seasons. During the wet season, it is
driven by runoff in the upstream catchment, in particular the rugged Laos subcatchments. In
the CLD water levels rise slowly and peak at 4.0m in September/October, flooding ~1.2–1.9
million ha for 2-5 months (Phuong, 2007). The Tonle Sap Lake is a natural regulatory system
for dry season water levels, and is connected to the Mekong by the Tonle Sap River which joins
the Mekong mainstream at Phnom Penh. During the wet season, the high water levels in the
Mekong main channel transfer water into the Lake, quadrupling its size. Then, as the channel
water level drops with the onset of the dry season, the system’s hydraulic potential reverses the
direction of flow in the Tonle Sap river, and the lake drains back into the Mekong Delta with an
average downstream discharge of 3,000m³/s and an annual low flow of approximately 2,500
m
3
/sec. During the dry season, salt water intrudes into half of the CLD, and up to 50km up the
main channel (Phuong, 2007).
After Phnom Penh, the Mekong River fans out into a series of channels, with the Hau
(Bassac) and Tien (Mekong) rivers being the two main branches. The distribution of discharge
between these channels is important to the hydrologic regime in the upper reaches of the CLD.
On average 83% flows through the Tien River (increasing up to 86% in the wet season and
dropping to 80% in the dry season), which then forces lateral flow and flooding in the area
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between the two channels, such that, after the confluence with the Vam Nao River, the
proportions of discharges between the two channels becomes approximately equal to each
other (51%/49%) (Phuong, 2007). This redistribution of flow between the two main river
channels has been enhanced by an irrigation canal network and is one of the reasons why the
intra-channel riparian zone is some of the most productive land in the entire CLD. The Mekong
river channel reaches a maximum non-flooded width of 1.2km at the Vam Nao confluence
(White, 2002).

Due to the low-lying topography and the fluctuations in the river’s flow regime, the CLD
is affected by two distinct tidal regimes: the semi-diurnal tide in the South China Sea (max
amplitude of 2.5–3.0m); and the mixed tide in the Gulf of Thailand (max amplitude 0.4–1.2m).
During the dry season, the tides drive saline intrusion deep in land, while high tides during the
wet season hinder the discharge of floodwaters in upstream areas, exacerbating inundation
times and depths.
Based on these hydrological factors, water resources are managed by dividing the CLD
into three distinct areas (Table 1).
Table 1. Hydrological Zones of the CLD (adapted from: Phuong, 2007)
ZONE TYPE DESCRIPTION
ZONE A Flood Zone Northern part of the CLD, ~300,000 ha including An
Giang and Dong Thap
ZONE B Flood and Tidal
mixed zone
~ 1.6 million ha bounded by the Cai Lon River, Xeo
Chit rivulet, Lai Hieu Canal, Mang Thit-ben Tre rivers
and Cho Gao Canal
ZONE C Tidal zone ~ 2.0 million ha along coastal areas, especially
adjacent to the South China Sea
The flood pulse
The flood pulse is perhaps the most important process in the ecology of the floodplains,
and the main reason for the delta’s high productivity. It facilitates the transfer of water to dry
land and plant matter to the water, the latter provides energy and nutrients for the aquatic biota,
while both facilitate biomass transportation (Phuong, 2007; Kummu et al (eds), 2008). The flood
pulse is characterized by its timing, duration, amplitude, spatial extent, continuity, number of
peaks and rate of inundation and subsidence (Kummu et al (eds), 2008). Most of these
characteristics are vulnerable to changes in the flow of the Mekong River. In the future, flow in
the CLD is likely to be affected by the dramatic escalation in upstream hydropower dams,
conflict in water sharing based on increased agricultural activity in newly developing countries
such as Cambodia, increased run-off in the mountainous catchments of China and Laos due to

deforestation and other land-clearing practices, and also climate change. Furthermore, there
will also be feedback between these impacts, for example climate change and hydrodams will
increase inter-seasonal variability, or the dams could stagger their releases to synchronize with
the dry season and thus curb reductions in the low flow of the Mekong River.
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Human communities and their influence
Over hundreds of years, farmers have built up a complex system of irrigation and
drainage works in the CLD to support agricultural activity. To this day, fishing and farming
remain the key economic activities in the Mekong Basin, making water resource management
one the most important management issues. Rice crops dominate agriculture in the LMRB, with
up to three crops a year in highly developed areas and just one rain-fed crop in less developed
regions. However, other crops include maize, vegetables, mung beans, soya beans, sugar
cane, fruit trees and coconuts (Phuong, 2007). Aquaculture and fisheries in the LMRB are two
of the oldest and most important sectors. Inland areas are dominated by fishing, especially in
the Tonle Sap system, while coastal areas utilize estuarine environments to support shrimp
farming.
Of the 17.5 million people in the CLD, nearly 80% live in rural areas (Phuong, 2007).
Population density is strongly correlated to proximity to fresh water sources, highest densities
occur along the Hau and Tien rivers (i.e. Zone A and B), while areas of Zone C (Ca Mau, Bac
Lieu and Kien Giang) have some of the lowest population densities. Farm land per capita
follows a reverse pattern, along and between the Hau and Tien rivers the average farmer has
0.1 – 0.2ha, increasing to 1ha per farmer in more remote areas (Phuong, 2007). The economic
basis of the CLD remains in the sectors of agriculture and aquaculture (generating 70%-90% of
the income), however recent years have seen the diversification of the local economy,
especially with the growth of the industrial and manufacturing sectors. Average income per-
capita is estimated at 400 – 470USD, however distribution is uneven, with 20 – 30% of the
population living in poverty (Phuong, 2007).
Most of the existing irrigation works in the CLD were built during the 1960s, and 1970s.

In 2002, the system supplied water to only 50-60% of the design command area (Molle, 2005).
The Government of Vietnam, recognizing the massive outlay required for infrastructure works,
estimates that USD $750 million is required for repairs and improvements to the existing
system (Oxfam, 2008). It should also be noted that currently, sediment deposition is not
transferred to the floodplains concentrating in the bottom of river channels and canals, due to
inefficiencies in the water distribution network.
Development plans, especially in the deltaic areas of Cambodia and Viet Nam, aim to
increase food production through a combination of expanding crop areas, intensifying
production and improving yields (KOICA, 2000). In Viet Nam, development plans also include
expansion of aquacultural production, enlargement and specialization of fruit tree growing
areas and the controlled expansion of industrial and shipping activities. The main issues facing
agricultural communities in the LMRB are; acid sulphate and saline soils, flooding, drought,
freshwater shortages, storm events, sedimentation, bank erosion, and saline intrusion.

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Wetlands
There remain several key wetland areas of high regional significance. These include
Dong Thap Muoi, Mekong River Estuary, Minh Hai melaleuca forest, Bac Lieu coastal marshes,
Dam Doi bird colony, Cai Nuoc bird colony and Nam Can mangrove forest (ARCBC, 2009). Six
reserves have consequently been established protecting some 20,671 ha of the total 290,000
ha of remnant wetlands (ARCBC, 2009). The support and expansion of these areas is crucial
for survival of the deltaic flora and fauna, and efforts to establish the Tram Chin Nature Reserve
in the 1980s have already seen the return of the Sarus Crane, once thought to be near
extinction (Pacovsky, 2001).
Water quality
Currently, the high volumes of flows in the Mekong system possess very efficient
flushing properties; consequently there are no significant problems with water quality in the

CLD. However, the continued intensification of agricultural activity will see continued growth in
use of pesticides and fertilizers, new industrial developments are likely to increase the pollutant
loading of the delta’s waterways and population growth will increase domestic waste loads, the
combination of which may pose serious risks to water quality.
Water quality will also be affected by the timing of river flows. Changes to the flood
pulse and inter-seasonal variability could increase wet season erosion, while increased water
scarcity in the dry season could result in concentrated contaminant pulses (DWR, 2008).
1.3 Water-related extremes & management issues
According to the Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC), the main natural disasters
facing Viet Nam include windstorms, floods, epidemics, droughts, insect infestation, landslides,
wildfires, with floods droughts and windstorms affecting the most people in recent years
(ADRC, 2006). Floods, other high rainfall storm events and droughts dominate water-related
extremes in the CLD. Water management issues are determined by the season, during the wet
season the main problems are flooding, erosion and the leaching of acidic soils, while drought,
fresh water shortages and saline intrusion are the main issues for dry season water
management.
Flooding
The main factors influencing flooding are; topography, upstream precipitation, regime
flow and run-off, regulation of Tonle Sap Lake, the two tidal regimes, local rainfall and the
existing infrastructure system. All of these factors undergo continual changes between seasons
and even between days, resulting in a complex flood signature in the CLD, forcing communities
to develop a high level of resourcefulness and adaptability in order to prosper, even without
climate change.
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Flooding in the CLD occurs from June to December with a one-month lag on upstream
floods. Floods travel at 1.5-2.0 km/hr between Phnom Penh and Tan Chau, though they can be
slowed if their arrival is synchronized with high tides. On average, flood waters rise and fall by
5-7 cm/day, with observed maximum rates of up to 12 cm/day during big or early floods

(Phuong, 2007). The flood hydrograph usually displays 2 peaks, the lead peak generally occurs
in late August, followed by the dominant peak in the middle of September/beginning of October,
although in rare circumstances the two peaks can be separated by up to 54days (Phuong,
2007).
Typically, 38,000m
3
/s enters the CLD during normal flood seasons, peaking at
43,000m
3
/s during extreme floods (Phuong, 2007). Approximately 82-86% of floodwaters enter
via the two main river channels, while the remainder crosses the Cambodian border as
overland flow. It is this overland flow which dominates flooding in Zone A due to local
geomorphology and topographical features (Phuong, 2007).
For water management purposes, floods are divided into three categories, based on the
water levels measured at upstream gauging stations (figure 3). The similar probabilities of
average and big floods give an indication of the high level of variability in the flooding regime.


Figure 4
. CLD FLOODING: (left) Categories based on river stage recordings & probability of
occurrence; (right) typical area of annual flooding in the Mekong Delta (adapted from: Phuong,
2007; Nguyen, 2009)
The widespread irrigation and drainage works used to make the CLD more productive
have had some effects on the inundation regime. Specifically, in deep inundation areas they
have changed the direction and water level in the fields at the beginning of the flood season,
and altered the signature of the main flood in shallow inundation areas.
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One of the key changes in WRM in the CLD is the acknowledgement that communities
must live with floods, and that flooding brings both negative and positive effects to the delta
(MARD, 2003). The negative impacts are well known (Table 2), however flooding also leaches
the soils of acid, controls harmful insects and fish populations and deposits a huge volume of
sediment.
Table 2. Estimated damage from big floods in the CLD (adapted from: Phuong, 2007)
CLD Unit 1994 1996 2000 2001 2002
1. Estimated total VN Dong (Billions) 2,295.6 2,182.3 4,597.3 1,456.0 456.8
2.Agricultural production VN Dong (Billions) 1,326.4 1,036.0 948.5 372.5 216.1
- Rice reduced productivity Ha 83,981 92,984 198,328 33,036 15,777
- Rice Completely loss Ha 53,994 30,869 57,714 8,955 365
- Orchard seriously damaged Ha 12,145 1,161 4,613 4,985 1,049
- Industrial plant and upland crops Ha 55,497 76,396 63,560 32,785 32,142
Drought
The other major extreme of the climate regime, is drought. Drought is often
underrepresented in discussions about disasters in the CLD, because this is normally a region
associated with an abundance of water and the problems associated with this excess,
furthermore droughts usually operate over a much more subtle time frame than flooding and
can last several years compared to a matter of months or days for storms and flooding. The
most recent drought of significance for the CLD occurred in 2004 (Oxfam, 2006). According to
community surveys undertaken by Oxfam (2006), not knowing what to do in droughts and
insufficient water storage capacity were considered to be major limitations in drought-risk
management.
Predictions suggest that climate change will increase the inter-annual variability in
weather patterns, increasing rainfall in the wet season, decreasing rainfall in the dry season,
shifting the timing of the flood season and prolonging the duration of drought spells (Oxfam,
2006). The study found that despite progress in development works, communities in some
provinces believe they are becoming more vulnerable to natural disasters such as droughts and
floods, which are either the result of increasing vulnerabilities despite development initiatives or
those development initiatives have failed to instill confidence amongst communities. Both of

these are serious, but they will require different methods of resolution. In response to the
former, the main issue is lack of sufficient knowledge, experience and financial capacity to
undertake adaptation works, while failure to instill confidence in communities about
development initiatives is largely due to issues of knowledge and technology transfer as well as
human resource management and insufficient community participation (Table 3).
Communities were often aware of long-term drought mitigation programs, however, they
often felt no ownership or responsibility for them (Oxfam, 2006). Instead, communities primarily
responded first, by preserving food and seed. NGOs typically responded by providing water-
storage facilities, supplying food grains and disaster training (Oxfam, 2006). Local government
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responses included provision of food grain, building and maintaining community wells and
establishing volunteer community water supply teams, while the central government provided
food and financial assistance (Oxfam, 2006).
Table 3. Limitations of current drought management initiatives (adapted from: Oxfam, 2006;
Phuong, 2007)
Increasing Vulnerability Lack of Confidence in
Development Initiatives

• Insufficient importance given to drought
management,
• Lack of provincial/district and communal drought-
management boards,
• Absence of policies for agricultural assistance, and
poor participation of appropriate authorities in
decision making and development planning,
• Lack of long-term drought preparedness programs,

• Conflict between socio-economic sectors,
• Overlap in authority and decision making powers in
administrative management,
• Lack of regulations for water exploitation,
• Insufficient irrigation management and poor
community participation in long-term drought
mitigation programs,
• Lack of drought resistant crops and animal breeds,
• Lack of financial support during droughts, and
deficits during irrigation projects, and
• No specific budget for drought preparedness at the
provincial level and below.

• Lack of knowledge on
drought preparedness,
• Lack of information on
appropriate agricultural
practices,
• Lack of technical
capabilities and staff to
advise farmers,
• Ill-informed
communities and some
organs of the
government about the
implications of climate
change, droughts and
the environment.
• Lack of community
participation

Saline intrusion
The large seasonal fluctuation in river flow results in changes in the hydraulic differential
between river and oceanic water levels. During the dry season, low water levels in the river
allow tides to drive salt water into approximately half of the CLD area (Fig 4).
Salinity levels of 4ppt can penetrate 50km up the main channels and 100km up the
tributaries such as the Vai Co River (Phuong, 2007). In Ben Tre province alone, saline intrusion
was responsible for USD $37 million worth of damages and productivity losses during 2005
while almost 40% of the provinces population went without fresh water supply during the dry
season (Oxfam, 2008).
The management of saline intrusion is one of the key issues of WRM, because water
salinity determines the type of activity that an area can support. There continues to be conflicts
between rice and shrimp farmers, driven by the development objectives of the government,
fluctuations in the domestic and international market price for rice/shrimp products and the
desires and flexibility of local farmers.
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Figure 5
. CLD Water Resource Extremes: (left) Maximum salinity intrusion; (right) Maximum
water level in flood season (T.V.Truong, 2008)
Typhoons and storms
Unlike the north and central coasts of Vietnam, the CLD has not been regularly hit by
storms and typhoons. However, there have been some catastrophic typhoons in recent times,
the most significant of which was Linda Storm (1997). Linda storm was travelling at 28m/sec
when it hit Ca Mau Peninsula before crossing into the Gulf of Thailand, the typhoon destroyed
more than 200,000 homes, ruined 500,000ha of farm and aquacultural land and killed 355
people (Table 4) (Dillion et al, 1997). The damage was amplified by the fact that the CLD was
largely unprepared for such a disaster and therefore had minimal disaster response systems in

place. Because storms originate in the Pacific Ocean, the impacts are concentrated around the
coastal areas of the CLD. These areas also correspond to some of the highest levels of poverty
and isolated communities.
Table 4. Damage cause by Linda Storm in the CLD (SIWRP, 2008)
DAMAGE UNIT CLD TOTAL IMPACT
Dead no 355
Injured no 1,410
Missing no 1,437
Evacuated no 20,000
Boats (submerged/damaged/missing) no 3,196
Houses (submerged/damaged/collapsed) no 203,485
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Rice Field (inundated/damaged) ha 285,895
Aquaculture (inundated) ha 230,200
Fruit trees & sugar cane
(inundated/damaged)
ha 39,674
Trees (uprooted) ha 40,614
Dikes (Destroyed) km 50
Dikes (breached) km 164
Culverts (collapsed) no 84
Estimated losses (billion VND) VND 5,237
Acid-sulphate soils
Acid-sulphate soils remain a problem for 0.9 – 1.0 million ha of the CLD. The soil matrix
is the result of fresh and marine water interactions, as sulphur from the oceans and nutrients
from terrestrial flows formed a layer of sulphate and saline sulphate soils. Acidic waters are
generated when exposure to oxygen initiates an oxidation process with acidic by-products

contaminating the first flush of rain with detrimental effects on both the receiving environment
and rice production. However, over time a complex layer of vegetation including floodplain
wetlands, expansive grass plains and scattered Melaleuca formed a rich topsoil of
decomposing organic matter which isolated the potentially acidic underlying layer from contact
with oxygen, rendering them inert. Changes in land-use patterns – most notably clearing for
agricultural production and the control of wet season flooding – has exacerbated the problem.
Drainage works have had some success in flushing these acidic waters out to sea, limiting the
problem to the months of May-August and November-January. The issue is compounded
during dry years when there is a shortage of water.
Table 5. CLD: General overview of the major risks
CLD RISK FREQUENCY EFFECTS AREA EFFECTED
Floods  Annually (June –Dec)
 Water level ~4m (rising
average ~5-7cm/d)
 “Large Floods”
(>4.33m) have a 46%
probability of
occurrence
 sustains key ecosystem
functions
 provides water for
agriculture
 destroys homes,
infrastructure, farms
 can result in loss of life
 ~49% of CLD
Saline
Intrusion
 Annually (dry season)  Saline concentrations
greater than 4ppt can

change environments
from fresh to saline
 ~50km up the main
channel
 ~50% of CLD
Droughts  last major drought
peaked in 2004
 “small floods” (<3.83m)
have a 13% probability
of occurrence
 loss of livelihood as
agriculture was
devastated
 water shortages for
domestic use
 mainly effects coastal
areas, the Plain of Reeds,
and Long Xuyen
Quadrangle, which can
become hydrologically
isolated from freshwater if
the rivers do not breach
their banks
Typhoons  Last major storm 1997
(Linda storm), 2000
was also a significant
event
 Destruction of homes
and infrastructure
(canals, roads dykes).

 Coastal provinces (Ca
Mau, Bac Lieu, Soc
Trang, Ken Giang)
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2. Climate Change Impacts for the CLD
2.1 Global perspective
Although human-induced climate change has slowly been occurring over centuries,
awareness of the phenomena is a comparatively recent development. Arguably it was not until
the 1992 Rio Earth Summit that the issue began to receive international attention. Since then,
progress on emissions controls has resulted in significant debate and few global measures.
However, it should be remembered that there are two sides to the global climate change
response; mitigation of emissions levels and adaptation to changes in the biosphere. CO
2

emissions have largely been the consequence of industrialization in the developed world and
consequently their efforts have focused on emissions control. On the other hand, the
developing world correlates to areas which are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change and so adaptation has become an urgent necessity (World Bank, 2007; Oxfam, 2008).
Scientific understanding
There are two fundamental drivers of climate change, the natural or base fluctuations in
global climatologic parameters, and the influence of anthropogenic activities. It is widely
accepted that surface temperatures on earth have fluctuated dramatically throughout its history
as part of ongoing long-term geo-physical processes, and these days there is also consensus
amongst the scientific community that global temperatures are increasing. Furthermore, most
research indicates that human activities have played a decisive role in accelerating this process
during the last century, such that climate change is now happening faster than at any other
stage in the earth’s history.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), one of the leading research

bodies on the phenomena, have recently released their fourth Assessment Report (AR4). It
concludes that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere has fluctuated
around a natural range of values for the past 650,000 years, however, recent CO
2
levels have
consistently exceeded this range (IPCC, 2007). Consequently, 11 of the warmest years,
observed since instrumental records began in 1850, occurred during the last 12 years (IPCC,
2007). Furthermore, there has been an increase of 0.74
0
C in the average temperature during
the 20
th
century, with predictions of future global temperature rises in the order of 1.8 – 4.0
0
C
(IPCC, 2007). These temperature changes will have effects across the biosphere, but
especially to the hydrological cycle, including changes to sea levels, precipitation and monsoon
patterns and glacial melt.
Globally, climate change is expected (with a high degree of confidence) to have an
overall negative impact on freshwater systems (IPCC, 2007). Sea levels have already risen by
17 cm during the past 100 years and are predicted to continue rising. Predictions of the
magnitude of sea level rise vary greatly.
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2.2 Regional perspective
Viet Nam is located in the tropical region of Asia and is potentially one of the countries
where a rise in sea level could have the most dramatic impact with nearly a quarter of its
population directly affected (World Bank, 2007). The IPCC suggests that Vietnam is also likely
to face both drought and changes to the prevailing precipitation and flooding regimes (IPCC,

2007). Viet Nam has a population of 84 million, the majority of whom live along its 3,200
kilometres of coastline. It suffered 10 typhoons and severe storms in 2007, and concentrates
much of its food production in the low-lying Mekong and Red River deltas. If sea levels rise by
one metre, Vietnam would lose more than 12 percent of its land, home to 23 percent of its
people. Climate change could also increase the frequency and severity of typhoons, and rising
temperatures and changing rainfall patterns would also affect Vietnam's agriculture and water
resources. Vietnam’s economy grew by over eight percent last year, and is one of the fastest
growing economies in Asia. At the same time, it is also emitting more pollutants, with the
amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) released projected to increase by a factor of 2.3 during
1994-2020.
The IPCC Technical Paper on Climate Change and Water (Bates et al, 2008) outlines
the effects that Climate Change is having on the hydrological cycle. By the middle of the 21
st

century water availability is expected to shift away from arid, semi-arid and dry tropical areas
towards wet tropical and higher altitude areas. Therefore, river run-off is expected to increase in
parts of the LMRB, and there is a likely increase in the risk of flooding and drought, with an
increase in the frequency of heavy rainfall and extreme events (typhoons, hurricanes),
simultaneously, drought frequency is increasing and lasting longer. Natural disasters in China
will challenge the integrity of large hydropower projects, both of which could have disastrous
effects on the downstream communities and ecosystems of the LMRB. Traditionally, typhoons
have been a problem for central and northern Viet Nam, however global warming is likely to
see typhoons tracking further south as well as becoming less frequent but more catastrophic.
Increasing water temperatures and changes to flooding/drought regimes are expected
to affect water quality, exacerbating effects from pollution such as sediments, nutrients,
pathogens, pesticides, dissolved organic carbon, and salt. There will be significant economic,
environmental and health-related ramifications for human communities. These changes to the
hydrological cycle are expected to reduce food security and increase vulnerability of rural
farmers, especially in the Asian megadeltas.
Additionally, climate change is compounded by other global development problems of

rapid population growth. The UN predicts that for the first time in the world’s history 2009 will
see one billion people suffering from hunger.
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2.3 Local perspective
Climate change is altering the flood regime in the Mekong Delta. The following are
some key problems associated with these changes:
Table 6. CLD Summary of the Impacts of Climate Change
Environmental
Characteristic
Impacts Of Climate Change
Temperature  Temperature increase by 0.1Deg C every decade 1931-2000
Rainfall  Annual rainfall average is constant but greater polarization of
wet and dry seasons
 Higher frequency and longer duration of drought in southern
areas of Vietnam,
Storms  Fewer typhoons, but greater intensity/severity and they are
tracking further south
Sea Levels  Sea level rose 2.5 – 5.0cm each decade for the last 50years
 SLR 30-35cm (2050), 40-50cm (2070), 60-70cm (2100)
River flow  Mirrors increased polarization of rainfall
 Flows in the Mekong to increase 7-15% in the wet season,
decrease 2-15% in the dry season
 Increased erosion
 Decreasing water and soil quality, and poorer plant health
Floods  Floods last longer and arrive earlier (especially in Long An
province), with higher levels of inundation in and along the
Cambodian border.
 Increased areas with flood control (i.e. three crops and

inundated all year) which results in a reduced buffer capacity
for flood regulation, limiting of sediment deposition, declining
yields of natural fish stocks, increased risk of diseases, limiting
of river traffic and increased pollution.
Biodiversity  Severe reduction in natural fish stocks
Sea Level Rise (SLR)
The quantification of SLR is difficult, because it incorporates several biophysical
processes, such as glacier and terrestrial ice sheet melt, thermal expansion of the ocean
column, snowmelt, and changes to the water content in terrestrial and atmospheric regions
(figure 6). These factors need to be modeled separately and then combined to give an overall
indication of SLR. Therefore, estimates of SLR by 2100 range from 0.5m to 70m (BBC, 2008).
The process which is least understood is the melting of glaciers and terrestrial ice sheets,
consequently the IPCC omitted these factors in their estimates of SLR, predicting that SLR
would likely be less than 2.0m by the end of this century (IPCC, 2007; BBC, 2008). A study by
the World Bank (2007) on the impacts of SLR on developing nations modeled SLRs of 1.0, 3.0
and 5.0 m, with 1-3 m being considered realistic.
The results of the World Bank study are sobering for Viet Nam. Of the six critical
elements under study, Viet Nam was the most effected nation in the world for four of these
categories (Wetlands, Urban extent, GDP, population) and the second most affected for the
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remaining two categories (Land area, agricultural extent) (World Bank, 2007). Furthermore,
most of these effects will be concentrated on the mega-deltas of the Mekong and Red rivers.
There are three measures to cope with sea-level rise: protection, adaption and
withdrawal. The first step towards effectively coping with SLR is a thorough study to quantify
and determine specific regional areas that will be affected by SLR in accordance with
development scenarios. The simulations of impacts of the nature and the socio-economy under
different sea-level-rise and upstream development scenarios need to be implemented in order
to find out reasonable measures/solutions. For water resources development, the ready-made

plan needs to be re-planned, calculated, supplemented, adjusted in accordance with new
parameters/values of hydrological and hydraulic division, and initiate the short-term and the
long-term structure and non-structure measures/solutions.
The above assessments are based only on the forecast of IPPC and WB, as well as
preliminary estimation of SIWRP. However, newest information on climate change and sea
level rise on the world recently shows that the trend of sea level rise progress will happen faster
than previously forecasted. The phenomena of sea level rise exist and cannot be avoided.
Therefore, considerations to cope with effects of the sea level rise at this time are really urgent
and essential.



Figure 6
. Magnitude of response of various biophysical components of Sea Level Rise (DWR,
2008)



Deleted: 5
Deleted: ¶
¶
¶
¶
¶
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Figure 7. Proportion of critical impact elements affected by 1mSLR in Viet Nam (adapted from:
World Bank, 2007)
Rainfall regime

There will be increased inter-seasonal variability between the wet and dry seasons
affecting precipitation regimes. One study suggests that rainfall will increase by more than 17%
in the wet season and reduce by more than 27% during the dry season (see Figure 7). This is
likely to increase the frequency and severity of droughts as well as of floods.








Figure 8. Predicted Max/Min % changes in flow averages (adapted from: Hoang et al, 2004)
Table 7. General Summary of Climate Change impacts on the CLD
SECTOR IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Water
Resources
 Increased variability between wet and dry season rainfall
 Increased frequency and severity of droughts and climate
extremes
 Growing disparity between water supply and demand signatures
 Increased vulnerability to changes in the flow regime and river
regulation (e.g. from hydropower)
Agriculture,
Forestry &
National food
security
 Changes to plant growth, yields, disease risk & crop failure
 Altered timing and number of annual crop cultivation cycles
 Increased risk of plant disease

 Reduced available arable farm land
 Increased fire risk and anthropogenic deforestation/forest
degradation
 Increased vulnerability to continuing deforestation which will alter
runoff regime in the upstream catchments of Laos (where 30% of
flow originates). This could increase sediment loads and
exacerbate worsening flooding problems & infrastructure
inefficiencies in a warming climate
Fisheries  Reduced habitats for freshwater species
 Increased aquaculture potential
Transportation,
construction
and industry
 Increased flood risk for roads
 Increased erosion of road surfaces
 Increased risk of low flow conditions inhibiting navigation
 Increased erosion in wet season (already 70 identified sites of
Deleted: 6
Deleted: 7
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erosion)
Disasters  General increase in the frequency of natural disasters
 Typhoons tracking further south and hitting with increasing
severity
Population  Increase in environmental refugees and migration pathways
 Increased urbanization will place greater strain on water shortages
which are likely to last longer and become more pronounced with
climate change

2.4 Qualitative Assessment of Climate Change Risk
The field of ecology owes its development and success to a recognition that the scale of
inquiry is fundamental for a more accurate understanding of the biophysical processes, and
climate change itself, is perhaps the highest profile example of the importance of scale. In the
past CO
2
emissions were seen as inconsequential, because they seemed small in comparison
to the size of the atmosphere, but at the global scale and over a hundred year time frame they
managed to induce an incremental change in the atmospheric temperature which has produced
much more influential subsidiary effects that now threaten many human communities.
The risk facing the CLD is occurring over two temporal scales. On the one hand, WRM
must plan for the day-to-day realities of communities, matching water distribution, quality and
development to long-term socio-economic and ecological needs of the community and their
living environment. On the other hand, WRM must also accommodate for disaster
management, mitigating the impact of disaster events on the local community as well as
providing for emergency response measures in service and rehabilitation. While the
management initiatives for many of these issues may overlap, and others may already exist,
climate change will force better coordination of efforts at all spatial and temporal scales.
Lastly, Viet Nam and the CLD in particular, must acknowledge that while they played
only a minor role in the escalation of human-induced climate change, they must take control of
adaptation responses to the subsequent impacts, and look to encourage large emitters to do
the same.
3. Water Resource Management - mitigation and adaptation initiatives for
Climate Change
3.1 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) – Role for climate change
mitigation and adaptation
Water resources in the Mekong River, are defined by the Mekong River Basin, which
extends over 6 countries, 60 million people and many different ethnic groups and climatic
regimes. The Mekong River, therefore, is a prime candidate for Integrated Water Resource
Management (IWRM).

IWRM concept and history
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IWRM is defined as a “… multi-resource management planning process, involving all
stakeholders within the watershed, who together as a group, cooperatively work toward
identifying the watershed’s resource issues and concerns as well as develop and implement a
watershed plan with solutions that are environmentally, socially and economically sustainable”
(ADPC, 2006). Additionally, IWRM acknowledges that the scale of inquiry, when addressing
issues, is fundamental to the type of solution that will be generated. This approach constructs
local issues as ‘nested’ within the broader context of basin decision-making (Miller, 2003). It
recommends that issues be seen in the context of the whole river basin, so that all stakeholders
can have their concerns and interests addressed and negotiated resolutions to problems can
be generated in the most equitable manner. Additionally, water resources, while being a sector
onto itself, is also an important component of many other sectors of riparian communities
consequently IWRM planners need to be conscious of the externalities that drive water
resource exploitation.
The introduction of IWRM is closely tied with the emergence of the Mekong River
Commission (MRC), which first manifested as the Mekong Committee, a UN-led initiative in
1957 (MRC, 2008). At that time the LMRB was seen as one of the world’s great ‘untamed
rivers’ and its vast reserves of freshwater could form the backbone of economic development in
the newly emerging independent nations of the basin. Earlier efforts were inspired by the
example of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) which in its prime was considered one of the
basin-wide management success stories (Miller, 2003). During the 1960s US engineering skills
were transported to the Mekong in line with the TVA model to develop its hydro-electric
potential. This can be seen as the precursor to IWRM in the LMRB, when engineering-based
intervention with a strong sectoral focus looked to kick-start economic development (Miller,
2003). Then political instability led to the collapse of the Mekong Committee in the late 1970s,
to be reborn in 1995 as the MRC with a new mission of sustainable development for the
Mekong River Basin. At this time one of the leading examples of best practice was the Murray-

Darling Basin in Australia, however, both this and the previous TVA model were developed in
post-industrial societies and their transference to the LMRB was based on some assumptions
which have suffered some criticism (Miller, 2003). According to Miller (2003) “…the issue is not
so much one of whether or not international experience is relevant, but rather of what is
relevant – packages and models, or processes and principles?…” and if it’s the latter, then how
can development initiatives improve on their ability to pass on processes and principles in
vastly different socio-economic environments and in the midst of political and cultural
institutions that bear little in common with those where the IWRM models were first proposed
and developed. As will be shown, these concerns remain relevant to the CLD today.
In 1995 the Mekong River Agreement (MRA) was signed with the main purposed of
regulating the construction of hydro-dams on the Mekong mainstream. Then, IWRM was
formally coupled to the Vietnamese political will in the government’s 1999 Law on Water
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Resources. This law was the first of its kind in Vietnam and a major step forward for IWRM.
Specifically, the Law addressed (Biltonen, 2008):
 Water rights and the right to benefit from the use of water resources;
 Responsibilities of users to protect the water resource and to prevent and overcome any
harmful effects of water;
 The development of water resources in areas with difficult socio-economic conditions;
 The development of fee-based permit systems for wastewater discharge
The combination of national and regional efforts then led to the formation of River Basin
Organizations (RBOs) for the Red River, CLD and Dong Nai basins in 2001. However, since
the Government of Vietnam believes that the current political institution adequately addresses
the needs and interests of the people, the RBOs are seen more as a coordinating body
between institutions at different administrative scales (Molle, 2005). Consequently, RBOs have
been given the weakened mandate to: “…advise the Minister of MARD on planning and
development projects, management mechanism, policies on other issues relating to
management, exploitation, utilization and protection of water courses in the river basin” (Su et

al., 2004). One of the main problems with the RBO is that it was translated across socio-
political contexts. There is an urgent need for a recontextualization of RBOs to suit the LMRB,
where economic growth and development is varied between member countries
IWRM application in the CLD
The main goals of the water resource management program in the CLD is to; protect
people’s lives, minimize property damage, promote sustainable socio-economic development;
develop storm and flood control and rescue/relief organizational apparatus from province to
district and commune; improve staff capacity and provide more equipment. These key concerns
inform detailed plans and benchmarks set up to track the success of development in the CLD
up to 2020.The past two decades has seen good progress towards developing reasonable
policies and mechanisms for flood-prone areas of the CLD. However, there are still some
shortcomings that will require extra work.
Many regional and national actors in the Mekong Basin have identified the incredible
and largely untapped agricultural potential of the catchment, often denoting the Mekong Basin
as South East Asia’s ‘rice bowl’, with the economic capacity to lift the region out of poverty
(Cornford et al, 2001). Indeed, the Mekong Delta is instrumental in reducing poverty,
stimulating the national economy and developing Viet Nam. Today, Viet Nam is seen as one of
the Asian development success stories and one of the few countries on track to meet its
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Oxfam, 2008). At a national level, it was able to
reduce poverty from 58% in 1993 to just 18% in 2006, a remarkable achievement driven largely
by strong economic growth, pro-poor development policies and strong governmental
commitment (Oxfam, 2008). The most significant economic growth was in the Mekong and Red
River deltas, where water resource planning was able to increase yields as well as facilitate up
Deleted: ¶
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to three crops each year. The Vietnamese government generated a lot of reform from within its
institutional structure, cooperating with international efforts, restructuring its’ economy and
quickly expanding the nation’s technical/knowledge capacity, as well as becoming a key

stakeholder in multi-lateral groups such as the Mekong River Commission (MRC). Furthermore,
water resource management in the Mekong River Basin is at different stages of progress.
Vietnam, along with Thailand and China, have widespread irrigation development and
infrastructure investment, while development in the other MRC countries and Myanmar have
been hindered by war, political conflict or small isolated populations (as is the case for Laos)
(Molle, 2005). For example, Thailand is the regional leader in river bank protection, while on the
opposite bank of the river, Laos is unable to provide the same service and in some places
between 9 – 30m of river bank erodes annually (Kummu et al (eds), 2008).
Table 8. Shortcomings in the existing flood management system, by sector (adapted from:
Phuong, 2007; White, 2002; KOICA, 2000)
SECTOR SHORTCOMINGS
Economic
• Insufficient economic incentives for farmers to adopt mitigation measures,
and poor rural credit for financing flood control measures
• Insufficient funds to increase the frequency of maintenance works on
drainage/irrigation infrastructure, which are underperforming due to
inefficiencies and sediment build up.
Environmental
• Absence of environmental management plans (EMPs), pollution control
measures & flood risk insurances
• Institutional prioritization of ‘hard’ engineering flood control works, to the
detriment of wetland, mangrove and forest ecosystems
Social
• Insufficient number of full-time staff working in the Storm and Flood
Prevention Committees
• Organizational, operational and technical capacity problems with the Storm
and Flood Control –Search and Rescue Steering Committee
• High levels of poverty in some areas
Organizational
• Overlap of duties and responsibilities in some organizations,

• Some incoherency in legal/policy frameworks, and administrative
boundaries and responsibilities at the provincial and local levels
• Lack of integration between policies at the central (national) and local
levels
• Analysis of the effectiveness of institutions, mechanisms and policy has
not been integrated with projects
• Low level of national investment in agricultural and flood
management/mitigation works. This means that the 5,000billion committed
for water resource works up to 2020 amounts to only one quarter of the
amount likely to be needed
Future directions
In recent years developed countries, with low population growth rates, have seen a shift
in Water Resource Management priorities. In the past improving supply and harvesting
techniques was the key priority, so that supply could keep up with demand (Ghassemi et al,
2007; Miller, K., 2005). Now priority is given to water conservation, reuse and improving system
efficiencies, which has seen the emergence of more sophisticated and well researched water
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pricing, trading and reuse options (Ghassemi et al, 2007). However, in developing countries
characterized by rapidly increasing populations, economies and water needs, the main concern
is to satisfy regional water and energy needs (Ghassemi et al, 2007).
The problem facing the developing world remains how to translate the lessons and
successes of the developed world to the developing context. This is reflective of the types of
problems and issues facing all riparian countries in the Mekong River Basin, but it is especially
the case for Viet Nam, because of the high population density in the Mekong Delta
(~423pp/km² compared to ~183pp/km² in the Cambodian delta) and an average regional
growth rate of 8.6% (VCCI, 2008; KOICA, 2000).
Exactly when demand management of water resources is introduced in the LMRB and
CLD, largely depends on the willingness of the international community to cooperate with

riparian countries. Financial and technical support from countries with experience in demand
management would allow the CLD to prepare for the issues and environmental consequences
of a demand-supply imbalance before the impacts reach dangerous levels.
IWRM in the CLD
In the CLD improvements in food production, meant that the national priority of
production to feed the country’s population could be diversified to include other
agricultural/aquacultural products. However, the increasing complexity of agricultural
production, water management and environmental issues meant that an integrated approach
was required. To this end, a Dutch consultancy (NEDECO) helped draft and implement the first
Master Plan for the CLD in the early 1990s. The Master Plan was based on an “Agriculture-
Fisheries-Forestry Development Model”, the primary aims of which, were (Truong et al, 2001):
• limit saline intrusion to 5-10km into terrestrial environments;
• control early flooding and dissuade triple cropping in protected areas;
• extend canal network down to the tertiary network;
• continue diversification of agricultural production, as well as reduce its impacts on
fisheries and wetland ecosystems, and;
• research into potential agriculture-forestry-fisheries production models that are both
sustainable and viable
Initially, this accelerated the implementation of ‘hard engineering’ solutions, including
the construction of wide spread flood control structures in the 1990s. By 2001 there was 2-5m
of canal/ha in single-crop areas and up to 10m/ha in triple-crop areas (Truong et al, 2001). Also
an extensive system of sea dykes began to be built reducing the area affected by salinity
intrusion to 1.1-1.2million ha (~30% of CLD) (Truong et al, 2001). The Vietnamese government,
under the impetus of climate change, is now making a concerted effort to explore ‘soft
engineering’ solutions such as vulnerability reduction and the use of mangrove buffers, which
are considered an area of research in the National Target Plan (NTP) (see below).