Báo cáo sinh học: "Chromosomal mapping, differential origin and evolution of the S100 gene family" pot

Original article
Chromosomal mapping, differential origin
and evolution of the S100 gene family
Xuan SHANG, Hanhua CHENG
*
, Rongjia ZHOU
*
Department of Genetics and Center for Developmental Biology, College of Life Sciences,
Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
(Received 13 October 2007; accepted 21 December 2007)
Abstract – S100 proteins are calcium-binding proteins, which exist only in vertebrates
and which constitute a large protein family. The origin and evolution of the S100 family
in vertebrate lineages remain a challenge. Here, we examined the synteny conservation of
mammalian S100A genes by analysing the sequence of available vertebrate S100 genes in
databases. Five S100A gene members, unknown previously, were identified by chromo-
some mapping analysis. Mammalian S100A genes are duplicated and clustered on a single
chromosome while two S100A gene clusters are found on separate chromosomes in teleost
fish, suggesting that S100A genes existed in fish before the fish-specific genome duplication
took place. During speciation, tandem gene duplication events within the cluster of S100A
genes of a given chromosome have probably led to the multiple members of the S100A
gene family. These duplicated genes have been retained in the genome either by
neofunctionalisation and/or subfunctionalisation or have evolved into non-coding
sequences. However in vertebrate genomes, other S100 genes are also present
i.e. S100P, S100B, S100G and S100Z, which exist as single copy genes distributed on
different chromosomes, suggesting that they could have evolved from an ancestor
different to that of the S100A genes.
chromosome mapping / S100 / genome duplication / synteny / vertebrate
1. INTRODUCTION
S100 proteins constitute the l ar gest gene family within the EF-hand protein
super-family. In 1965, Moore isolated from bovine brain the first protein mem-
bers of the S100 family: S100A1 and S100B [17]. In the following years, many

other members of the S100 family were identified based o n sequence homology
and similar structural properties. For example, the human S100 family includes
20 members, which share 22% to 57% sequence identity [ 13]. S10 0 proteins are
small acidic proteins (9–14 kDa) and contain two distinct EF-hand motifs. The
C-terminal EF-hand contains a classical Ca
2+
-binding motif, common to all
*
Corresponding authors: ;
Genet. Sel. Evol. 40 (2008) 449–464
Ó INRA, EDP Sciences, 2008
DOI: 10.1051/gse:2008013
Available online at:
www.gse-journal.org
Article published by EDP Sciences
EF-hand proteins while the N-terminal EF-hand differs from the classical
EF-hand motif and constitutes a special characteristic of the S100 proteins.
S100 proteins exhibit a unique pattern of tissue/cell type specific expression
and exert their intracellular ef fects by i nteracting with d if ferent target proteins
that modulate their activity [5,23,31]. Two well-known pairs are S100A11 -
annexin A1 and S100A10-annexin A2 [9,20,24,25,27] and recently, interaction
between S100A11 and annexin A6 has also been reported [3]. Until now, over
90 potential target proteins have been identified [23]. Many studies have
observed an a ltered expression of various S100 proteins in a l arge number of
diseases including cancer, depression, Down syndrome, Alzheimer disease
and cystic fibrosis [1,13,14,26,28,29]. Therefore, S100 proteins could constitute
important diagnostic markers as well as therapeutic targets of many diseases.
All known S100 genes are found only in vertebrates and no S100-like
sequences have ever been detected in invertebrates s uch as insects, nematodes
and protozoa based on the analysis of available genome sequence information.

This suggests that the genes encoding S100 proteins belong to a ‘‘young’’ gene
family i.e. that originated during vertebrate evolution. Interestingly, because of
the short phylogenetic history and the conservation o f the S100A gene cluster
in man a nd mouse [21], their origin in the vertebrate lineages remains a chal-
lenge. Moreover , in non-mammalian systems such as fish species, information
on the S100 gene family evolution and genomic organisation is very scarce
and only a few S100 gene members have been identified [7]. In this work,
we analysed S100 gene sequences of various vertebrates including mammals
and fish from available databases using both comparative genomics and phylo-
genetic methods, and we present a model of the molecular evolution of the
S100 genes, which contributes to a better understanding of the mechanisms of
evolution and biological functions of the S100 gene family.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Sequences and positions on the chromosomes or assembly scaffolds
A search in the G enBank and Ensembl databases (v39) provided 118 sequences
of the S100 gene family from seven mammals whose genomes have been
sequenced. In addition, using human S100 gene sequences as query sequences,
orthologous sequences were found for three teleost fish, Danio rerio, Ta kifugu
rubripes (Japanes e pufferfish), Tetraodon nigr oviridis (freshwater pufferfish).
The complete list of the S100 mammalian and fish sequences compiled in thi s
study together with gene names a nd accession num bers a re given i n Table I.
450
X. Shang et al.
Table I. Vertebrate S100 genes available from NCBI and Ensembl databases.
Organism Gene/code Accession No. Organism Gene/code Accession No.
Homo sapiens S100A1 NP_006262 Pan troglodytes S100a11 ENSPTRG00000001303
S100A2 NP_005969 S100a12 ENSPTRG00000001346
S100A3 NP_002951 S100a13 ENSPTRG00000022794
S100A4 NP_002952 S100a14 ENSPTRG00000024364
S100A5 NP_002953 S100a15 ENSPTRG00000001349

S100A6 NP_055439 S100a16 ENSPTRG00000023848
S100A7 NP_002954 S100b ENSPTRG00000014026
S100A8 NP_002955 S100g ENSPTRG00000021699
S100A9 NP_002956 S100p ENSPTRG00000015887
S100A10 NP_002957 Danio rerio
a
z55514 ENSDARG00000055514
S100A11 NP_005611 z15543 ENSDARG00000015543
S100A12 NP_005612 z25254 ENSDARG00000025254
S100A13 NP_005970 a55589 ENSDARG00000055589
S100A14 NP_065723 z36773 ENSDARG00000036773
S100A15 NP_789793 z37425 ENSDARG00000037425
S100A16 NP_525127 z09978 ENSDARG00000009978
S100B NP_006263 z38729 ENSDARG00000038729
S100G NP_004048 z57598 ENSDARG00000057598
S100P NP_005971 Takifugu rubripes
a
f129020 NEWSINFRUG00000129020
S100Z NP_570128 f127285 NEWSINFRUG00000127285
Pan troglodytes S100a1 ENSPTRG00000001355 f152973 NEWSINFRUG00000152973
S100a2 ENSPTRG00000001354 f141424 NEWSINFRUG00000141424
S100a3 ENSPTRG00000001353 f137581 NEWSINFRUG00000137581
S100a4 ENSPTRG00000001348 f137599 NEWSINFRUG00000137599
S100a5 ENSPTRG00000001352 f136068 NEWSINFRUG00000136068
S100 gene evolution
451
Table I. Continued.
Organism Gene/code Accession No. Organism Gene/code Accession No.
S100a6 ENSPTRG00000001351 f159674 NEWSINFRUG00000159674
S100a7 ENSPTRG00000001350 f163415 NEWSINFRUG00000163415

S100a8 ENSPTRG00000001347 f159852 NEWSINFRUG00000159852
S100a9 ENSPTRG00000001345 f156133 NEWSINFRUG00000156133
S100a10 ENSPTRG00000001302 f165637 NEWSINFRUG00000165637
Monodelphis domestica S100a1 ENSMODG00000017368 Mus musculus S100b ENSMUSG00000033208
S100a3 ENSMODG00000017395 S100g ENSMUSG00000040808
S100a4 ENSMODG00000017397 S100z ENSMUSG00000021679
S100a5 ENSMODG00000017400 Tetraodon nigroviridis
a
t44001 GSTENG00033944001
S100a8 ENSMODG00000017403 t30001 GSTENG00025230001
S100a9 ENSMODG00000017406 t25001 GSTENG00005225001
S100a10 ENSMODG00000018919 t75001 GSTENG00032575001
S100a11 ENSMODG00000018920 t87001 GSTENG00032587001
S100a12 ENSMODG00000017410 t45001 GSTENG00033945001
S100a13 ENSMODG00000017387 t22001 GSTENG00013622001
S100a14 ENSMODG00000017390 t60001 GSTENG00038360001
S100a15 ENSMODG00000017402 t74001 GSTENG00032574001
S100a16 ENSMODG00000017391 t85001 GSTENG00032585001
S100g ENSMODG00000017180 t99001 GSTENG00011699001
S100p ENSMODG00000002897 Rattus norvegicus S100a1 ENSRNOG00000012410
S100z ENSMODG00000019747 S100a3 ENSRNOG00000012008
Mus musculus S100a1 ENSMUSG00000044080 S100a4 ENSRNOG00000011821
S100a3 ENSMUSG00000001021 S100a5 ENSRNOG00000011748
S100a4 ENSMUSG00000001020 S100a6 ENSRNOG00000011647
S100a5 ENSMUSG00000001023 S100a8 ENSRNOG00000011557
S100a6 ENSMUSG00000001025 S100a9 ENSRNOG00000011483
S100a8 ENSMUSG00000056054 S100a10 ENSRNOG00000023226
452 X. Shang et al.
Table I. Continued.
Organism Gene/code Accession No. Organism Gene/code Accession No.

S100a9 ENSMUSG00000056071 S100a11 ENSRNOG00000010105
S100a10 ENSMUSG00000041959 S100a13 ENSRNOG00000012393
S100a11 ENSMUSG00000027907 S100a15 ENSRNOG00000033352
S100a13 ENSMUSG00000042312 S100a16 ENSRNOG00000012053
S100a14 ENSMUSG00000042306 S100b ENSRNOG00000001295
S100a15 ENSMUSG00000063767 S100g ENSRNOG00000004222
S100a16 ENSMUSG00000074457 S100z ENSRNOG00000017998
Bos taurus S100a1 ENSBTAG00000005163 Canis familiaris S100a1 ENSCAFG00000017540
S100a2 ENSBTAG00000000463 S100a2 ENSCAFG00000017547
S100a4 ENSBTAG00000019203 S100a3 ENSCAFG00000017548
S100a5 ENSBTAG00000000644 S100a4 ENSCAFG00000017550
S100a6 ENSBTAG00000000643 S100a5 ENSCAFG00000017552
S100a7 ENSBTAG00000008238 S100a6 ENSCAFG00000017553
S100a8 ENSBTAG00000012640 S100a8 ENSCAFG000000175571
S100a9 ENSBTAG00000006505 S100a9 ENSCAFG00000017558
S100a10 ENSBTAG00000015147 S100a13 ENSCAFG00000017542
S100a11 ENSBTAG00000015145 S100a14 ENSCAFG00000017544
S100a12 NP_777076 S100a15 ENSCAFG00000017554
S100a13 ENSBTAG00000021378 S100a16 ENSCAFG00000017545
S100a14 ENSBTAG00000024437 S100b ENSCAFG00000012228
S100a15 ENSBTAG00000014204 S100p ENSCAFG00000014333
S100a16 ENSBTAG00000004777 S100g ENSCAFG00000012583
S100g ENSBTAG00000017020
S100z ENSBTAG00000020201
a
Codes of fish genes were defined by authors.
S100 gene evolution
453
The c hromosomal localisation of these genes is based on the Ensembl v39 geno-
mic location data.

2.2. Gene prediction
In order to detect sequences that may contain unknown S100 sequences,
genomic sequences were aligned with the exons of homologous human genes
by Vector NTI s oftware a nd those identified were assembled into putative
mRNA sequences. These mRNA sequences were translated into protein
sequences, w hich were aligned with the corresponding human proteins to test
the validity of the prediction.
2.3. Sequence alignment and construction of phylogenetic trees
Multiple alignments were performed with the Vector NTI software and
Neighbour-Joining phylogenetic trees were built using the Phylip program
(Joseph Felsenstein, Washington Univer sity). The reli ability of the trees was
measured by bootstrap a nalysis with 1000 replicates and t he trees were edited
and viewed b y Treeview software.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Mammalian S100A genes are duplicated and clustered
on one chromosome
The chromosomal organisation and location of the S100A genes identified in
seven mammalian s pecies i.e. man, chimpanzee, cow, dog, rat, mouse and opos-
sum were determined using the Ensembl database. The results revealed that in
each of these seven mammals the S100A genes are clustered on a single chro-
mosomeandcompriseupto16members(Fig.1 and Tab. I). Although these
genes are located on a single chromosome, two subgroups (SGs) were identified:
SG1inwhichS100A10 and S100A11 are always tightly linked and SG2 in
which other members (S100A1–9 and 12–16) are generally clus tered together
(Fig. 1). The distance between the two SGs covers several megabases, whereas
only a few kilobases separates genes within each SG. Interestingly, the relative
positions of the genes on the chromosomes are c onserved a mong these mamma-
lian species, which indicates a high level of conserved synteny ( Fig. 1). In addi-
tion, other putative S100A gene members, previously unknown, were predicted
from available genome sequence data based on information of c onserved syn-

teny and protein homology. Five genes were identified, S100A3 and S100A14
454
X. Shang et al.
in the cow, S100A12 in the dog and S100A2 and S100A14 in the rat (Fig. 2 and
Tab. II). Multiple protein sequence ali gnments with the corresponding human
S100A proteins showed a high level of homology (Fig. 2). Thus, these
sequences are not pseudogenes and corresponding expressed sequence tags
(EST) are pre sent in the EST databases (for details see legend of Fig. 2).
Differences in the arrangement of the S100A genes were observed between
the opossum and the other species examined, i.e. SG1 ( S100A10 and 11)
together with S100A1 is located at the 3
0
end of opossum chromosome 2 and
at the 5
0
end of the corresponding chromosomes in the other s pecies (Fig. 1).
Also, in the opossum, the positions of S100A9 and S10012 are reversed compar-
atively to those in the other species. These discordances indicate that chromo-
somal rearrangements having occurred during mammalian speciation have
disrupted the syntenic gene associations.
3.2. Two clusters of S100A genes in teleost fish
A phylogenetic tree was constructed to determine accurate predictions of
orthology and paralogy relationships between fish and mammalian S100A genes
(Fig. 3a). Fish S100A proteins are divided into two SGs as defined in Figure 1.
SG1 includes S100A10 and S100A11 genes wh ile SG2 contains all the other
S100A genes. This distribution is supported by the data on gene organisation
Figure 1. Conserved synteny and subgroup (SG) definition of the S100A gene cluster
in mam mals. The S100A genes from different mammalian species are clustered on a
single chromosome and are divided into two subgroups (SG1 and SG2) based on their
relative localisation on the chromosome. The gene distribution was analysed from

data in the Ensembl databa se (). S100A1–16 genes are
indicated as two blocks of synteny by two colour boxes. Dashed boxes indicate
the predicted genes. The name of the species and chromosome numbers are shown on
the left.
S100 gene evolution
455
for available fish genome assembly scaf folds and human chromosome 1
(Fig. 3b) although in some cases, gene members are only temporarily positioned
on the scaffolds and their definite chromosome localisation needs to be con-
firmed. Seven zebrafish genes classified in the S100A category form two clusters
on chromosome 16 and chromosome 19, respectively. Among the nine takifugu
genes belonging to the S100A category, at least six form two cluster s on
scaffold 37 and scaf fold 252, respectively. Furthermore, in tetraodon, a similar
gene arrangement exists with four genes clustered on chromosome 21 and two
other genes clustered on chromosome 8. Interestingly, in each synteny group,
gene members of both S Gs 1 and 2 are present. Thus overall, these results b ased
on phylogenetic and comparative genomic analyses show the existence of
two S100A gene clusters in fish genomes and only one in mammalian g enomes.
Figure 2. Five S100A predicted genes based on conserved synteny and homology.
Predicted genes include bovine S100a3 (complete CDS) and S100a14 (partial CDS),
rat S100a2 (partial CDS) and S100a14 (partial CDS) and dog S100a12 (complete
CDS). The multiple sequence alignments with the corresponding human S100
proteins are shown in the centre to confirm the identity of predicted genes. Two EST
sequences (GenBank Accession Nos. XM_001063574 and NM_001079634) are
similar to rat and bovine S100a14, especially in the CDS regions. More information is
necessary to confirm that the two sequences correspond to gene S100a14. Two other
EST: DR104796 (canine cardiovascular system biased cDNA, a Canis familiaris
cDNA similar to that of Hs S100 calcium-binding protein A12) and DV924106
(Bos tauru s cDNA clone IMAGE: 8232591 5
0

, mRNA sequence) may be the relevant
bovine and rat genes, S100a3 or S100a2, respectively.
456 X. Shang et al.
3.3. Presence of other single copy S100 genes scattered
in vertebrate genomes
Four other S100 genes i.e. S100P, S100B, S100G and S100Z are present in the
human genome and contrarily to the S100A genes c lustered on chromosome 1
they are distributed on different chromosomes. A similar distribution pattern
of the homologous genes is found in the genomes of the chimpanzee, cow,
dog, rat, mouse and opossum. The absence of gene S100P could be due to
the incomplete g enome sequencing e.g. i n the cow a nd the fish species examined
here or to loss of the corresponding sequences during speciation e.g.inthe
mouse and rat (Fig. 4). Unlike the S100A genes, S100P, B, G and Z genes also
exist as single copies in the three fish genomes according to the phylogenetic
analysis.
4. DISCUSSION
We analysed all a vailable information on S100 genes in seven mammalian
and three fish species and we determined their phylogenetic relationship and
genomic organisation based on abundant sequence resources in databases.
Table II. Chromosome localisation and exon information of predicted S100A genes.
Name Chromosome Exons
No. exon Start End Length (bp)
S100A12_dog
(complete CDS)
7 1 46 170 564 46 170 611 48
2 46 171 134 46 171 291 158
3 46 171 670 46 171 945 276
S100A3_cow
(complete CDS)
3 1 11 224 336 11 224 412 77

2 11 225 308 11 225 447 140
3 11 225 990 11 226 471 482
S100A14_cow
(partial CDS)
3 1 11 170 356 11 170 386 31
2 11 170 755 11 170 865 111
3 11 171 303 1 171 449 147
4 (partial) 11 171 672 1 171 785 115
S100A14_rat
(partial CDS)
2 1 182 799 278 182 799 757 30
2 182 800 085 182 800 202 118
3 182 800 617 182 800 763 147
4– – –
S100A2_rat
(partial CDS)
21 – – –
2 (partial) 182 871 245 182 871 295 51
3 (partial) 182 872 218 182 872 310 93
S100 gene evolution
457
Until now, S100 proteins have been detected only in vertebrates, suggesting t hat
they first appeared during vertebrate evolution. In the mouse and man [21], it has
been previously shown that all S100A genes are present on a single chromosome
but form two SGs, which agrees with our results on their genomic organisation
and chromosomal localisation in other mammalian species i.e. the cow, dog,
chimpanzee, rat and opossum (Fig. 1). We identified five new previously
unknown S100A genes [18]. The structure of mammalian S100A genes is also
highly conserved, generally, comprising three exons separated by two introns
with the first exon untranslated [6]. The clustered localisations on a single chro-

mosome, the highly conserved synteny and the similarity in exon/intron organi-
sation suggest that gene duplication i s responsible for t he major expansion of
this gene family.
Figure 3. Analysis of the phylogenetic relationships and chromosome mapping of
S100A genes in mammals and fish. (a) Phylogenetic tree of S100A proteins. The
numbers on the branches represent the bootstrap values from 1000 replicates obtained
using the (N-J) method. The tree shows two major subgroups of S100A proteins as in
Figure 1. (b) Localisation of S100A genes on chromosomes or assembly scaffolds. At
least two clusters are observed in fish species but only one in man. Genes are in the
boxes and chromosome or scaffold numbers are shown at the top of each linkage
group or gene. z09878 is an S100 gene member, ictacalcin previously identified in
zebrafish [7].
458 X. Shang et al.
Furthermore, we analysed the organisation of S100A genes in three fish
model species: zebrafish, takifugu and tetraodon. The phylogenetic tree shows
that in these fish species the S100A genes are also subdivided into two major
SGs as observed i n mammalian species. However, in contrast to the existence
of a single c luster in mammalian genomes, at l east two clusters are p resent in
fish genomes (Fig. 3). A comparison of the genomic architecture and arrange-
ments between fish and mammalian S100A genes shows that they are remark-
ably consistent with the occurrence of the fi sh-specific genome duplication
(FSGD or 3R) during vertebrate evolution. More and more studies propose t hat,
during the evolution of vertebrates, two rounds (2R) of genome duplication
occurred first and then later in the stem lineage of ray-finned fishes, not belong-
ing to land vertebrates, a third genome duplication occurred (FSGD or 3R)
[4,10,16]. Indeed, duplicated chromosomes and duplicated S100A genes are
present in zebrafish i.e. chromosomes 1 6 and 19, in tetraodon i.e. chromosomes
8 and 21, and in takifugu i.e. scaffolds 3 7 and 252. In fact, previous studies have
reported that tetraodon chromosomes 8 and 21 and zebrafish chromosomes 16
Figure 4. Phylogenetic tree and distribution of other S100 proteins in vertebrates.

Mammalian homologous genes were found in NCBI and Ensembl databases. Fish
genes were identified by searching the paralogue of the corresponding human S100
gene. (a) Phylogenetic tree of S100B, S100G, S100P and S100Z proteins. The
numbers on the branches represent the bootstrap values (%) from 1000 replicates
obtained using the N-J method. Eight fish genes are class ified into the S100B, S100G
and S100Z subgroups. (b) Distribution of all known S100B, S100G, S100P and S100Z
genes from seven mammals and three fish species. Chromosome numbers (for
mammals) and chromosome/scaffold numbers with gene names are indicated in boxes
(SF = scaffold, Un = unkno wn).
S100 gene evolution
459
and 19 originate from a common ancestral chromosome L. Furthermore, a high
degree of conserved synteny between individual tetraodon chromosomes and
zebrafish l inkage groups has been observed and suggests a 1:1 chromosome cor -
respondence in both species [8,30]. After the FSGD, interchromosomal rear-
rangement events (including chromosome fissions, fusions and translocations)
probably occurred [10], which would explain our observations that duplicated
S100A genes are asymmetrically distributed and that the gene positions in the
two clusters are a little dif f erent.
We suggest that a single ancestral S100A gene was duplicated and led to the
two gene member types defined as SG1 and SG2 during the 2R genome dupli-
cation event about 450 Myr (million years) ago. Then, fish genomes (e.g. zebra-
fish, tetraodon and takifugu) underwent FSGD (3R) and during fish speciation,
two clusters of S100A genes appeared on two chromosomes about 350 Myr
ago. In mammalian species, because of the absence of a 3R, only one cluster
of S100A genes included in SGs 1 and 2 is present on a single chromosome.
However , to adapt t o diverse environmental c onditions, mammals acquired multi-
ple S100A genes by tandem gene duplications within the cluster on the one chro-
mosome (Fig. 5) as, for e xample, the five c opies of human gene S100A7
Figure 5. Model of the molecular evolution of S100A genes. The genomic

architecture of fish and mammalian S100A genes is shown. The ancestral S100A
gene was duplicated and formed two members defined as SG1 and SG2 during the 2R
genome duplication about 450 Myr ago. Then, fish genomes (e.g. zebrafish, tetraodon
and takifugu) underwent FSGD (3R), which generated two clusters of S100A genes on
two different chromosomes about 350 Myr ago. Other rearrangements also took place
during this process. Mammalian (e.g. human) S100A gene members have increased
only by gene duplications on a single chromosome since a third round genome
duplication (3R) did not occur in mammals.
460 X. Shang et al.
(S100A7a–S100A7e) present at the same locus [11,18]. These duplicated genes
may have been retained in the genome by neofunctionalisation and/or subfunc-
tionalisation mechanisms [ 12] o r may lead to pseudogenes, such as S100A7d
and S100A7e [18]. However, some genes h ave either not been duplicated or have
been lost during speciation, for e xample, S100A2 , A7 or A12, w hich are not found
in the mouse or in the rat, respectively [18].
In the case o f t he S100P, B, G and Z genes, the situation is dif f erent to that of
the S100A genes. In vertebrate genomes, these genes are scattered on different
chromosomes and exist as single copies in both mammalian a nd fi sh species. This
suggests that they could have evolved from an ancestral gene different to that of
the S100A genes. Differences in the mode of the ir interaction with tar get proteins
support this hypothesis. Data on the crystal structure and protein interactions
show that the structures of the S100A10/annexin A 2 [19] and S100A1 1/annexin
A1 [20] complexes are alike. However, the S100B protein can form a complex
with a peptide derived from the C-terminal regulatory domain of p53 [22], or a
TRTK-12 pepti de existing in CapZ [15], or a peptide derived from Ndr-kinase
[2] and the comparison of the structures of these complexes reveals dif ferences
in the orientation of the three peptides a nd in the type of interaction patterns with
S100B protein. Moreover, the structure of the S 100A10/annexin A2 or S 100A10/
annexin A1 complexes is dif ferent to that of all S100B/peptide complexes. These
differences in structure i ndicate a large diversity of S100A and other S100 genes.

However , Marenholz has previous ly reported that S100B , P and Z genes are evo-
lutionarily related to gene S100A1, which might point to a common ancestor of
the S100 gene family [13]. More information, i.e. whole genome comparisons
with other fish species, is necessary to determine w hether these two groups of
S100 genes have evolved from different ancestors or a common one. The analysis
presented here is based on the current information available for whole genome
sequences in public databases. Data on whole genome sequences increase daily
and contig assemblies are frequently updated. W ith the completion of the current
genome projects a nd the beginning of future genome p rojects of other vertebrate
model systems new i nformation will be provided, which w ill help understand the
evolution and function of the S100 gene family.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China, the National Key Basic Research project (2006CB102103), the Program
for New Century Excellent Talents in U niversity and the 11 1 project #B06018.
No financial conflict of interest exists.
S100 gene evolution
461
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