SỰ CHUYỂN DI văn hóa TRONG CÁCH SINH VIÊN VIỆT NAM đưa RA lời mời TRONG TIẾNG ANH

Abstract
In the light of theoretical background of speech act, politeness in the light of
cross-cultural communication, this study investigates the cultural transfer on the way
Vietnamese students of English offer English invitations.
Data in this study are gathered via questionnaires. For the purpose of
investigating the dimensions thoroughly, the communicating partners’ social
parameters such as gender, age, and relationship among interlocutors are taken into
consideration.
The findings of all the investigated aspects are presented in the light of cross
cultural communication. The common belief is reassured that the influence of
Vietnamese language on the adoption of Asking assistance in English invitations is
most profound. It is also concluded that in respect of the communicating partners’
parameter of age, the cultural transfer on the use of strategies in English invitations is
strongest.
This study hopefully makes a contribution to the development of an effective
approach to English Language Teaching.
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List of tables and figures
Table 1. Strategies used in inviting same-sex communicating partners
Table 2. Strategies used in inviting opposite-sex communicating partners
Table 3. Strategies used in inviting older communicating partners
Table 4 Strategies used in inviting younger communicating partners
Table 5. Strategies used in inviting close communicating partners
Table 6. Strategies used in inviting nodding acquaintances
Table 7. The employment of inviting strategies as seen from communicating partners’
parameters
Figure 1. Inviting strategies used by Vietnamese Students of English
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACCEPTANCE PAGE i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………ii

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………… iii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES………………………………………………… iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………v
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
PART I. INTRODUCTION
This section will frame the paper by providing a brief description of the topic
and stating the research objectives, its scope of study, and the structure of the study.
1. RATIONALE
With the prevalence of Communicative Language Teaching, there is growing
concern about the close connection between language and culture. Language, in fact,
cannot exist independently but closely integrates with the context it belongs to, which
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is clearly seen in the Levine’s iceberg theory with language considered as the
“exposed part” of culture. Concerning this relationship in communication, Nguyen
Quang states that “There is an obvious correlation between cultural factors, language
and communicative competence, which requires an appropriate consideration”
(Nguyen Quang, 2002). Therefore, it is obvious that linguistic knowledge and cultural
background which are under mutual influences integrate with each other to serve
communication purposes.
When the communication in second language is taken into consideration, the
impacts of native language culture on it do exist with some facilitating the target
language interaction and some interfering with that and causing communication
breakdown. Therefore, for the purpose of successful intercultural interchange, there is
an essential need to control cultural transfer in a favorable way in which positive
effects, known as positive transfer, are encouraged while adverse ones, the
interference, are downplayed. This, in fact, is the essence of second language learning,
which becomes the goal of foreign language teaching.
From this view, the influence of Vietnamese language use on the
communication in English is available for a deep and thorough exploration. By virtue
of this, barriers against intercultural interchange will be exposed, which make a

contribution to the development of effective approaches to English learning and
teaching.
Therefore, an investigation into the cultural transfer in the adoption of strategies
in English invitations by Vietnamese students of English will partially improve
Vietnamese learners’ language competence and facilitate their performance in real-life
communication.
2. AIMS OF THE STUDY
The aims of the research could be clearly identified as follows:
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- To investigate strategies Vietnamese students of English use when offering
invitations
- To study how Vietnamese language exerts its influence on the adoption of
strategies in English invitations
- To figure out what cultural factors affect the cultural transfer in the adoption of
these strategies when seeing from the communicating partners’ parameters
- To contribute to the development of Communicative Teaching Language
3. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The research especially focuses on the use of strategies in English invitations by
Vietnamese students of English with the absence of responding strategies. The
adoption of these strategies is only seen from the communicating partners’ parameters
of gender, age, and relationship while the view from the informants’ parameters is a
matter of further studies. Moreover, the research is only confined to verbal aspects of
inviting while paralinguistic and extra-linguistic factors go beyond the scope of this
study despite their importance in interpersonal communication.
4. RESEARCH DESIGN
As for the design of the study, it is composed of three main parts:
Part I - Introduction – This part introduces the rationale, the scope, aims and
the design of the study
Part II - Development – This section is divided into three chapters.
- Chapter 1 – Literature review - In this chapter, the theory of speech act,

politeness, cultural transfer as well as the related studies are critically discussed
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- Chapter 2 – Methodology – This chapter outlines the research methods used
and presents the following procedures by giving research questions, describing
the participants, the research instruments, and the procedure of data collection
and analysis.
- Chapter 3 – Results and Discussion – In this chapter, the data analysis and
findings of the research are displayed with the demonstration of tables and
figures. The strategies adopted in invitations by Vietnamese students of English
are figured out, and the cultural transfer in the employment of these strategies is
drawn from detailed analysis of data.
Part III – Conclusion – This part summarizes the key points of the whole
study before offering implications for English Language Teaching. It also mentions the
limitations of the study and suggestions for further studies.
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PART II. DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section presents the theoretical framework of the study, literatures related
to inviting strategies in the light of cross-cultural communication
1.1 SPEECH ACTS
People perform intended actions while communicating to serve the purposes of
interpersonal interaction. Because of the close link between speech acts and language
functions, the theoretical framework of speech acts is developed by a lot of theorists
with two most basic ideas formulated by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969).
The concept of speech acts by Austin (1962) which is primarily grounded on
the axiom “Say is part of doing” or “Words are connected to actions” views a speech
act is a speaking unit, and serves different communicative functions. Accordingly, in
his work, Austin classified utterances into five categories including Verdictives,
Exercitives, Commisives, Behabitives, and Expositives.
Developing from this approach, Searle (1969) who views speech acts from the

speaker’s perspective proposes the taxonomy with five subclasses named as
Commissive, Directive, Declarative, Expressive, and Representative.
Commissive: a speech act that commits the speaker to perform the action
described in the statement (for example, a promise or a threat)
Directive: a speech act in which the speaker expects the hearer to do something
(for example, a suggestion, a request, or a command)
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Declarative: a speech act that makes a change to the situation related to the
statement (for example, an announcement)
Expressive: a speech act that reflects the speaker’s senses and attitudes about
something (for example, an apology, a complaint)
Representative: a speech act that depicts an event having true or false value.
(For example, an assertion, a claim, or a report)
From this interpretation, Yule (1997: 55) summarizes these five fundamental
functions of speech acts as follows:
Speech act type Direction of fit S= speaker
X= situation
Declarations
Representatives
Expressives
Directives
Commissives
Words change the word
Make words fit the world
Make words fit the world
Make the world fit words
Make the world fit words
S causes X
S believes X
S feels X

S wants X
S intends X
These theories have substantially contributed to the understanding of speech
acts as well as their functions in communication. In spite of their importance, I am
convinced that the idea of Searle plays a prominent role in forming the central and
focal thoughts for analysis of the following part of the study.
1.2. SPEECH ACT OF INVITING
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “invite” is “to ask
somebody to come to social event” or “to ask somebody formally to go somewhere or
do something”
In the light of Searl’s speech acts theory, inviting belongs to directive subclass
in which there is a speaker’s expectation that the hearer will do the action mentioned
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in the statement. This action may be going somewhere or attending a particular social
event, mainly the one hosted by the speaker.
1.3. THEORY OF POLITENESS
The theoretical framework of politeness consists of a lot of concepts in respect
of three most basic ideas developed by Lakoff (1973, 1975), Leech (1983), and Brown
and Levinson (1987).
Lakoff (1973) views politeness as an interaction facilitator in interpersonal
relations which targets conflict and friction minimization in human communication,
and is associated with three crucial rules named as “Do not impose”, “Offer options”,
and the intimacy or “camaraderie”. Meanwhile, Leech’s notion of politeness adhere to
six maxims concerning the tact, the generosity, the approbation, the modesty, the
agreement, and the sympathy which reflect interlocutors’ effort to avoid conflicts as
well as preserve the comity in their interchange.
In spite of these theories’ popularity, I was convinced that ideas of Brown and
Levinson (1987) primarily grounded on Goffman’s notion of face is most influential
1.3.1. Notion of face
Goffman (1967) defines face as “the positive social value a person effectively

claims for himself by the lines others assume he has taken during a particular contact”;
in other words, it is the reflection of self worth in the light of accepted social attributes.
Goffman claims that a person’s face is featured by wants to be seen as
consistent, as valuable, and as worthy of respect. In his view, the thoughtfulness and
the respect are crucial to the maintenance of face.
Developing from this interpretation, Brown and Levinson (1987) see face as
“the public self-image” related to people’s desires for the conversational appreciation
and for the “freedom from imposition” among interactants across social
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communication. The former called “positive face” is the wants of approval while the
latter known as “negative face” is the wants of self-determination.
According to Brown and Levison, because of the mutual vulnerability of face,
speakers are expected to be persistently heedful of their own and the hearers’ faces and
responsible for maintaining them for the duration of social interaction. If participants
are not able to defend their faces from threats, they may confront the humiliated or
“losing face” that results in communication breakdown. For the purpose of saving
face, Brown and Levinson develop the theory of face-threatening acts.
1.3.2. Face-threatening acts (FTAs)
From the view of Brown and Levinson, face threatening acts are ones that are
inherent in social interaction and may infringe on interlocutors’ autonomy. They not
only impede self-determination but also undermine both positive face and negative
face of interactants, resulting in the interpersonal communication failure as
conversations are obviously built in the spirit of mutual maintenance of face.
The growing concern for the communication breakdown leads to an essential
requirement to minimize the face-threatening or to save the faces. Considering this
issue, Brown and Levinson develop a theory seeing politeness as the minimization of
face-loss. They present some politeness strategies used by interlocutors to manage
their conversation by dint of the following chart:
Flowchart of politeness strategies ordered against estimated threat to face
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lesser
Speaker’s estimation
of threat to face
Do
the
FTA
greater
Don’t do the FTA
On
record
Off
record
Without
redressive
action, baldly
With
redressive
action
Positive
politeness
Negative
politeness
Overall Politeness of speech
act
lesser
more
There is a set of five available possibilities favored to minimize the risk of
losing face, ranging from the best case with “do not perform the FTA” that perfectly
preclude face threats to the worst one.
If FTA is performed, interlocutors may do it “on record” or “off record” in the

spirit of explicitness with the former being more direct than the other. If interactants
perform FTA by going “off-record”, they tend to leave a hint for their counterparts to
interpret. By virtue of making the alternative interpretation open to the hearer, the self-
determination is preserved and the imposition is avoidable in social interaction.
In the case that “on record” strategy is employed, the act may be claimed baldly
or with redress. To go “on record” and “baldly” entail that the speaker’s intentions is
conveyed bluntly and without softeners, exposing the hearer’s face to the threatening
thrust. Hence, the great difference between statements with and without redress is that
the former comes with the presence of redressive language to mitigate the speech act
force though it is expressed unambiguously like the latter. Therefore, the “with
redressive act” strategy is of smaller losing face risk and preferable.
In respect of “on-record” strategy with redress, Brown and Levison concern the
negative politeness and positive politeness in parallel with the theory of negative and
positive face.
1.3.3 Positive Politeness Strategies
There are fifteen substrategies addressed to the hearer’s positive face
1) Strategy 1: Notice, attend to hearer (her/his interests, wants, needs,
goods…)
Eg: You must be hungry…
2) Strategy 2: Exaggerate (interest, approval, sympathy with H)
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Eg: Oh Lan, you are the only one I want to see today!
3) Strategy 3: Intensify interest to the hearer in the speaker’s contribution
Eg: You’ll never guess what is happening. So strange!
4) Strategy 4: Use in-group identity markers in speech
Eg: What’s going on, darling?
5) Strategy 5: Seek agreement in safe topics
Eg: Yes, the weather is wonderful today, isn’t it?
6) Strategy 6: Avoid disagreement
Eg: Well, you may be right, but you may want to revise it.

7) Strategy 7: Presuppose, raise, and assert common ground
Eg: People like you and me rarely say like that.
8) Strategy 8: Joke to put the hearer at ease
Eg: How about lending me a few fivers?
9) Strategy 9: Assert or presuppose knowledge of and concern for hearer’s
wants
Eg: I know you like “Breaking Dawn”, so I bought two tickets.
10) Strategy 10: Offer, promise
Eg: I’ll drop by sometime next week.
11) Strategy 11: Be optimistic that the hearer wants what the speaker wants,
and that the face threatening act is slight
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Eg: I am sure you won’t mind if I take this from you.
12) Strategy 12: Include both speaker and hearer in the activity
Eg: Let’s have a drink next week
13) Strategy 13: Give or ask for reasons
Eg: I think you’ve had a bit too much to drink.
14) Strategy 14: Assert reciprocal exchange or tit for tat
Eg: If you help me prepare the dinner, I’ll go shopping with you on
Thursday.
15) Strategy 15: Give gifts to hearer (goods, sympathy, understanding,
cooperation)
Eg: I’m really sorry to hear about your cat.
1.3.4. Negative Politeness Strategies
The following ten strategies are related to hearer’s negative face
1) Strategy 1: Be conventionally indirect
Eg: Could you please pass the salt?
2) Strategy 2: Do not assume willingness to comply. Question, hedge
Eg: I don’t suppose you could pass the salt.
3) Strategy 3: Be pessimistic about ability or willingness to comply. Use

subjunctive
Eg: You don’t have any envelopes, do you?
4) Strategy 4: Minimize the imposition
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Eg: I just dropped by for second to ask…
5) Strategy 5: Give deference
Eg: We very much look forward to your dining with us
6) Strategy 6: Apologize
Eg: I am sorry to bother you, but I can’t wait anymore.
7) Strategy 7: Impersonalize S and H
Eg: It’s regretted that you can’t get that job.
8) Strategy 8: State the FTA as a general rule
Eg: Passengers are requested to get off the bus
9) Strategy 9: Nominalize
Eg: I am surprised at your failure to reply
10) Strategy 10: Go on record as incurring debt or as not indebting hearer
Eg: I’d be eternally grateful if you could help me with my homework.
1.3.5 Social factors influencing politeness strategies
According to Brown and Levinson (1987:75), the risk of face loss is crucially
determined by the integration of three contextual variables named as the social
distance between the speaker and the addressee (D), the power difference between
them (P), and the ranking of imposition in the particular culture (R). These three
factors, therefore, substantially contribute to the choice of politeness strategies.
1.4 THE ADOPTION OF INVITING STRATEGIES
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Inviting is a directive speech act in which there is an imposition on the hearer;
therefore, from the view of Brown and Levinson (1987), inviting may be a face
threatening act that infringes on invitees’ autonomy, resulting in the interpersonal
communication breakdown.
As a result of that, for the avoidance of communication breakdown, there is a

common tendency that the speakers adopt different strategies in offering invitations in
which they intentionally plan what they are going to say and define what aims they
want to achieve from that.
1.5. PREVIOUS STUDIES ON INVITING STRATEGIES
The study by Toshihiko Suzuki (2009) investigated the linguistic strategies
employed in invitations by American students with the concern given to lexical,
grammatical, and discourse dimensions. The study’s outcomes were achieved from
the analysis of data collected from the discourse completion test carried out with the
assistance of American undergraduates. In her study, Suzuki claimed that inviting
strategies used by native speakers fell into three subclasses including lexical strategies,
grammatical strategies, and discourse strategies. The two initial subtypes dealt with the
utilization of words and structures in invitations while the other concerned the
communicative aspect. The author analyzed the integration of two categories in
utterances, coming to the lexiogrammatical perspective on inviting strategies. In
respect of the remaining type, by dint of the interpretation from data gathered, the
author came up with a detailed classification of conversational strategies which were
presented below:
1. Address
2. Supportive move (event depiction)
3. Head act (interrogative)
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4. Head act (hypothetical and interrogative)
5. Preparatory act (question on hearer’s plan)
6. Head act (hypothetical and declarative)
7. Supportive move (directions)
8. Head act (declarative)
9. Supportive move (encouragement)
10.Head act (present option)
11.Head act (imperative)
12.Supportive move (present option)

13.Preparatory act (specification of reason)
14.Supportive move (speaker’s want to have hearer)
15.Preparatory move (speaker’s want)
16.Preparatory act (question on hearer’s situation)
17.Preparatory act (question on hearer’s will)
18.Preparatory act (speaker’s readiness)
19.Supportive move (specify what hearer can do)
Among of these, the study figured out that five initial strategies were frequently
employed by American students though the combination of different strategies was
more preferable in real-life conversations. In spite of the fact that the study developed
an extensive approach to the adoption of inviting strategies, the deep and thorough
understanding of the issue was not really provided. The author only viewed these
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strategies from their frequency in American invitations with absence of cultural
factors, especially in the case of discourse strategies that actually existed in parallel
with real-life communication. By dint of the mutual connection among culture,
language and communicative competence, there was a requirement to study language
in accordance with culture which obviously influenced the language use. This made a
contribution to the development of Communicative Language Teaching and the
improvement of learners’ language acquisition.
Mahmoud A. Al-Khatib (2006) developed three main ways of inviting
including explicit strategies, implicit strategies, and intensifying devices in his study
on pragmatics of offering invitations in Jordanian society.
1. An explicit way of inviting
2. An implicit way of inviting
3. Intensifying devices
• Stressing common membership
• Swearing (by all that’s holy and valuable) so as to make
the invitee accept the invitation
• Promise of repay

• Offering good-wishes
Following different pattern from Suzuki’s study, this research was an
exploration of inviting from the perspective of pragmatics in which the influence of
social distance and social context on the employment of inviting strategies was of
attention. From the analysis of data, it was suggested that this influence was
considerably great with the social distance in terms of age and gender acting as the
determinants in choosing inviting strategies. However, though the author claimed that
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the study was grounded on the notion of politeness and face threatening acts
introduced by Brown and Levinson, the research actually investigated inviting
strategies as seen from the parameter of age and gender while the relative power
among interlocutors and the rank of imposition that was stressed by Brown and
Levinson were out of consideration. Further study on these dimensions was expected
in order to develop pragmatics competence.
Despite their significant contribution to the existing literature, the two studies
restricted their scope to the adoption of inviting strategies in one independent culture.
Meanwhile, for the prevalence of cross-cultural communication, further intercultural
research was under special consideration in both academic and practical environment.
From the light of this expectation, the study on cultural transfer in the adoption
of inviting strategies was a matter of concern.
1.6. CULTURAL TRANSFER
1.6.1. Linguistic theory
Though the framework of it comes with a lot of concepts, cultural transfer is
basically defined as the cultural interference resulting from cultural difference. In this
interpretation, cultural transfer happens when the life value and thought patterns of one
culture that acts as the guidance for people’s use of words and their behavior on that
culture are used to evaluate the words and deeds of other culture. Accordingly,
cultural transfer is classified into two categories named as surface-structure transfer
and deep-structure transfer.
Surface-structure transfer

Surface-structure transfer deals with two main aspects that are language forms
and communicative matter and linguistic words and deeds.
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With language forms being under consideration, vocabulary is the centre of
attention. The culture of vocabulary falls into five aspects
• There are no corresponding words in another language
For example: “áo dài” in Vietnamese
• The words carry strong historical and social implications
For example: the word “cowboy” in American culture
• Idioms
• Proverbs
• Formulae and euphemisms
They are all commonplace in real-life communication and expressed with the
absence of speakers’ consciousness. However, they are not familiar with non-native
speakers because of their limited acquisition of the second language as well as the
insufficient language practice. Therefore, it is inevitable that the influence of the first
language on the foreign language do exist.
Deep-structure transfer
In this type, transfer is seen from the psychological perspective in which the
influence of the first language habits happens in specific situation, resulting in
communication breakdown.
1.6.2. Learning theory
In learning theory, transfer take place when people’s learned behavior in one
situation continue to exist in other.
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From the light of this approach, there are two types of transfer including
language transfer and communicative transfer.
Language transfer
Language transfer considers the effect of one language on the learning of
another. It falls into two subtypes: positive transfer and negative transfer. When source

cultural norms are similar to the ones of target culture, positive transfer occurs whilst
the negative one comes with the difference among them. Positive transfer facilitates
the language learning while the opposite is true of negative transfer in which the use of
native language pattern leads to an error or an inappropriate form in the target
language.
Communicative transfer
Communicative transfer is caused by the use of rules of speaking from one
language when speaking another, for example the way of greeting, opening or closing
conversations.
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CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this part is to present research methods of the study as well as
the procedure of data collection and analysis
2.1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study aims to answer the following questions:
1. What are strategies used by Vietnamese students of English when offering
invitations?
2. How does Vietnamese language affect the adoption of these strategies in
English invitations?
3. What are factors influencing the cultural transfer in the adoption of these
strategies in English invitations?
4. What are implications for English language teaching?
2.2. PARTICIPANTS
Twenty first year Vietnamese students at the University of Languages and
International Studies participated in the research. All of them are studying in the
Faculty of English Language Teacher Education. These students, who have been
learned English for nearly ten years (7-10 years), are considered at the pre-
intermediate level of language proficiency. Because of the fact that they have got
access to the communicative language learning in a short time, the influence of
Vietnamese culture on their way of interacting remains considerable and explicit. As a

result, first year Vietnamese students were selected as informants of the study with the
hope that the findings of the research may contribute to the development of an
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effective approach to English language teaching from the initial academic year of
students.
2.3. RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
The research investigated the cultural transfer in the way Vietnamese students
of English offer English invitations. In order to achieve the aims, it was carried out
with the use of both qualitative and quantitative methods. The study concerned
inviting strategies adopted by Vietnamese students as well as the influence of the
source culture on that adoption and estimated the frequency of these strategies in each
language when seeing from different interactional partners’ parameters.
Books and materials from different sources supplied useful information to the
study. Meanwhile, sufficient data for the study were collected from the questionnaires
concerning three real life situations in which invitations were often performed. The
questionnaires which were designed to deal with two initial research questions fell into
two types including one in English and the other in Vietnamese with equivalent values.
After delivered and collected, they were analyzed in the light of cross-cultural
communication.
Questionnaires consisted of two following parts:
Part 1 is the informants’ background information
Part 2 is the main content of the questionnaires which was designed to figure
out the cultural transfer in the way Vietnamese students of English offer invitations as
well as cultural factors closely related to that. Part 2 deals with three situations
mentioned below:
Situation 1: Invitations to go to the cinema
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Situation 2: Invitations to a party
Situation 3: Invitations to go for coffee
In each situation, Vietnamese students were expected to offer invitations which

were appropriate to each communicating partners’ parameters such as gender, age, and
relationship.
2. 4. PROCEDURE OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
In the first place, the questionnaires were piloted before administered. The pilot
test which was performed by five four-year students gave some constructive feedback
about how the instruments work and whether its goal could be reached.
After that, when administering the questionnaires, it was greatly important to
select the appropriate sample because it played a decisive role in the result of the data
collection procedure. Basing on the aims and objectives of the research, twenty first
year students of English were of concern and became the representatives of
Vietnamese students of English at the extent of this study. Then, the data was collected
directly with the assistance of some strategies to increase the quality and quantity of
participants’ response. To a higher specification, participants taking part in the survey
were initially provided with all the information related to the study before they
administered it. They were also convinced that the data would be treated confidentially
before given clear instructions to complete the questionnaires.
To figure out the cultural transfer in the way Vietnamese students of English
offer English invitations, the quantitative analysis of data in native and target
languages was performed. The process of coding data began with the interpretation of
informants’ responses to find out strategies used by Vietnamese students. Before a
deeper examination was taken, the total number of expressions using each strategy was
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calculated to find the difference in the frequency of these strategies between the two
languages as well as within one language. The adoption of these strategies in
Vietnamese and English, then, was taken into detailed consideration when seen from
different communicating participants’ parameters. Hence, the impact of Vietnamese
language on students’ performance in English was seen explicitly and influential
factors were exposed, which responds to mentioned research questions.
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CHAPTER 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter is going to analyze and discuss the findings of the study
3.1. INVITING STRATEGIES
The findings from questionnaires reveal that there were 9 inviting strategies
adopted by Vietnamese students of English
Strategy 1: Giving options
The speaker reduces the imposition by offering choices open to the hearer when
performing the invitation.
Vietnamese invitations: “Chị đi xem phim với em không?”
“Em có muốn đến bữa tiệc của chị không?”
English invitations: “Do you want to go to the cinema with me to see
“Breaking Dawn”?”
“Would you like to go for coffee with me?”
Strategy 2: Suggesting/offering
The speaker puts forward an idea or a plan for speaker to think about. Using
this strategy, the speaker gives more imposition on the hearer than they do in giving
options.
Vietnamese invitations: “Đi xem phim với tớ đi!”
“Đi café buôn chuyện một chút nhé!”
English invitations: “Let’s go to the cinema!”
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