consumer behavior

Consumer Behavior
Fifth Edition
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Consumer Behavior
Wayne D. Hoyer
University of Texas at Austin
Deborah J. MacInnis
University of Southern California
Fifth Edition
© 2010, 2007 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Consumer Behavior, Fifth Edition
Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis
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To my wonderful family, Shirley, David, Stephanie, and Lindsey, to my
parents Louis and Doris, and to our puppies Casey and Daphne for their
tremendous support and love. To all of you, I dedicate this book.
Wayne D. Hoyer
Austin, Texas
September 2008
To my loving family and devoted friends. You are my life-spring of
energy and my center of gravity.
Deborah J. MacInnis
Los Angeles, California
September 2008
vi
About the
Authors

Wayne D. Hoyer
Wayne D. Hoyer is the James L. Bayless/William S. Farish Fund Chair for Free Enterprise in
the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas at Austin. He received his Ph.D. in
Consumer Psychology from Purdue University in 1980. Wayne has published over 60 articles
in various publications including the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing,
Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Advertising Research, and Journal of Retailing.
A 1998 article in the Journal of Marketing Research (with Susan Broniarczyk and Leigh
McAlister) won the O’Dell Award in 2003 for the article that had the most impact in the mar-
keting fi eld over that fi ve-year period. In addition to Consumer Behavior, he has co-authored
two books on the topic of advertising miscomprehension. Dr. Hoyer’s research interests
include consumer information processing and decision making (especially low-involvement
decision making), customer relationship management, and advertising effects (particularly
miscomprehension and the impact of humor). He is a former associate editor for the Journal
of Consumer Research and serves on nine editorial review boards including the Journal of
Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Consumer Research, and Journal of
Consumer Psychology. Dr. Hoyer is a member of the American Psychological Association, the
Association for Consumer Research, and the American Marketing Association. His major
areas of teaching include consumer behavior, customer strategy, and marketing communica-
tions. He has also taught internationally at the University of Mannheim, the University of
Muenster, and the Otto Beisheim School of Management (all in Germany), the University of
Bern in Switzerland, and Thammasat University in Thailand. He has also been a research
fellow at the University of Cambridge (UK).
Deborah J. MaCInnis
Debbie MacInnis (Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh 1986) is the Charles L. and Ramona I.
Hilliard Professor of Business Administration and Professor of Marketing at the University of
Southern California in Los Angeles, CA. She has previously held positions as Chairperson of
the Marketing Department and Vice Dean for Research. Debbie has published papers in the
Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychology and Marketing, and others in the areas of
marketing communications, information processing, imagery, emotions, and branding. She

is an Associate Editor for the Journal of Consumer Research and the Journal of Consumer
Psychology. She has also served as a member of the editorial review boards of the Journal of
Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, and Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Sciences and has won outstanding reviewer awards from these jour-
nals. She has also served on the editorial review boards of other journals in marketing and
business. Debbie has served as Conference Co-Chair, Treasurer, and President of the Associa-
tion for Consumer Research. She has also served as Vice President of Conferences and Re-
search for the Academic Council of the American Marketing Association. She has received
major awards for her research, including the Alpha Kappa Psi and Maynard awards, given to
the best practice- and theory-based articles respectively published in the Journal of Marketing.
About the Authors vii
Debbie’s research has also been named as a fi nalist for the Practice Prize Competition for
contributions to marketing, and the Converse Award for signifi cant long-term contributions
to marketing. She has been named recipient of the Marshall Teaching Innovation Award, the
Dean’s Award for Community, and the Dean’s Award for Research from the Marshall School of
Business. Her classes have won national awards through the SAA National Advertising
Competition. Debbie’s major areas of teaching include consumer behavior and integrated
marketing communications. Debbie lives in Los Angeles with her husband and two children.
Brief
Contents
Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 1
Chapter 1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 2
Enrichment Chapter Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 27
Part 2 The Psychological Core 43
Chapter 2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 44
Chapter 3 Exposure, Attention, and Perception 69
Chapter 4 Knowledge and Understanding 91
Chapter 5 Attitudes Based on High Effort 121
Chapter 6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort 148
Chapter 7 Memory and Retrieval 170

Part 3 The Process of Making Decisions 193
Chapter 8 Problem Recognition and Information Search 194
Chapter 9 Judgment and Decision Making Based on High Effort 219
Chapter 10 Judgment and Decision Making Based on Low Effort 246
Chapter 11 Post-Decision Processes 271
Part 4 The Consumer’s Culture 299
Chapter 12 Consumer Diversity 300
Chapter 13 Social Class and Household Infl uences 325
Chapter 14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 355
Chapter 15 Social Infl uences on Consumer Behavior 385
Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 413
Chapter 16 Adoption of, Resistance to, and Diffusion of Innovations 414
Chapter 17 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 440
Chapter 18 Ethics, Social Responsibility, and the Dark Side of
Consumer Behavior and Marketing 469
viii
Contents
Part 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behavior 1
Chapter 1 Understanding Consumer Behavior 2
INTRODUCTION: Land of the Rising Trends 2
Defi ning Consumer Behavior 3
Consumer Behavior Involves Goods, Services, Activities,
Experiences, People, and Ideas 3
Consumer Behavior Involves More Than Buying 4
Consumer Behavior Is a Dynamic Process 5
Consumer Behavior Can Involve Many People 5
Consumer Behavior Involves Many Decisions 5
Consumer Behavior Involves Feeling and Coping 10
What Affects Consumer Behavior? 10
The Psychological Core: Internal Consumer Processes 10

The Process of Making Decisions 12
The Consumer’s Culture: External Processes 13
Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 15
Who Benefi ts from the Study of Consumer Behavior? 16
Marketing Managers 16
Ethicists and Advocacy Groups 17
Public Policy Makers and Regulators 17
Academics 17
Consumers and Society 17
Marketing Implications of Consumer Behavior 18
Developing and Implementing Customer-Oriented Strategy 18
Selecting the Target Market 19
Positioning 19
Developing Products and Services 20
Making Promotion and Marketing Communications Decisions 20
Making Pricing Decisions 22
Making Distribution Decisions 23
Summary 24
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Swatch Makes Time for Luxury 25
Enrichment Chapter Developing Information About Consumer Behavior 27
INTRODUCTION: Understanding China’s “Technology Tribes” 27
Consumer Behavior Research Methods 28
Surveys 28
Focus Groups 29
Interviews 29
Storytelling 30
Photography and Pictures 31
Diaries 31
Experiments 31
Field Experiments 32

Conjoint Analysis 32
Observations 32
Purchase Panels 33
Database Marketing 33
Neuroscience 34
Types of Consumer Researchers 34
In-house Marketing Research Departments 35
External Marketing Research Firms 35
Advertising Agencies 36
Syndicated Data Services 36
Retailers 37
Research Foundations and Trade Groups 37
Government 37
Consumer Organizations 38
Academics and Academic Research Centers 38
Ethical Issues in Consumer Research 38
The Positive Aspects of Consumer Research 38
The Negative Aspects of Consumer Research 39
Summary 40
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Offi ceMax Asks How Shoppers
Shop—and More 40
Part 2 The Psychological Core 43
Chapter 2 Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 44
INTRODUCTION: The Toyota Prius Zooms into the Fast Lane 44
Consumer Motivation and Its Effects 45
High-Effort Behavior 45
High-Effort Information Processing and Decision Making 47
Felt Involvement 47
What Affects Motivation? 49
Personal Relevance 49

ixix
Preface xvii
x Contents
Consistency with Self-Concept 50
Values 50
Needs 50
Goals 55
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 57
Perceived Risk 59
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 61
Inconsistency with Attitudes 62
Consumer Ability: Resources to Act 62
Product Knowledge and Experience 62
Cognitive Style 63
Complexity of Information 63
Intelligence, Education, and Age 63
Money 64
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 64
Consumer Opportunity 64
Time 65
Distraction 65
Amount, Repetition, and Control of Information 65
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 66
Summary 66
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: What’s in Store at Umpqua
Bank 67
Chapter 3 Exposure, Attention, and Perception 69
INTRODUCTION: Going After Gamers: Advertising in Video Games 69
Exposure 70

MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 70
Factors Infl uencing Exposure 70
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 72
Selective Exposure 72
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 73
Measuring Exposure 74
Attention 74
Characteristics of Attention 74
Focal and Nonfocal Attention 75
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 76
Customer Segments Defi ned by Attention 79
Habituation 80
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 80
Perceiving Through Vision 80
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 81
Perceiving Through Hearing 81
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 81
Perceiving Through Taste 82
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 83
Perceiving Through Smell 83
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 84
Perceiving Through Touch 84
When Do We Perceive Stimuli? 85
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 86
How Do Consumers Perceive a Stimulus? 88
Summary 89
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Heinz Is Looking for Attention 90
Chapter 4 Knowledge and Understanding 91
INTRODUCTION: Ringing Up the Engagement Ring Market 91
Overview of Knowledge and Understanding 92

Knowledge Content 94
Schemas, Associations, and Brand Equity 94
Types of Schemas 95
Images 95
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 97
Scripts 99
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 99
Knowledge Structure 100
Categories and Their Structure 100
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 102
Goal-Derived Categories 104
Construal Level Theory 105
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 106
Why Consumers Differ in Their Knowledge 106
Using Knowledge to Understand 108
Categorization 108
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 109
Comprehension 109
Subjective Comprehension 111
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 112
Consumer Inferences 112
Ethical Issues 118
Summary 118
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Hyundai Accelerates New Image
Marketing 119
Contents xi
Chapter 6 Attitudes Based on Low Effort 148
INTRODUCTION: Those Funny, Quirky, Sexy Beer Commercials 148
Chapter 5 Attitudes Based on High Effort 121
INTRODUCTION Endorsed by . . . Tomorrow’s Sports Superstars 121

What Are Attitudes? 122
The Importance of Attitudes 122
The Characteristics of Attitudes 122
Forming and Changing Attitudes 123
The Foundation of Attitudes 123
The Role of Effort in Attitude Formation and Change 123
The Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes 126
Direct or Imagined Experience 126
Reasoning by Analogy or Category 126
Values-Driven Attitudes 126
Social Identity–Based Attitude Generation 126
Analytical Processes of Attitude Formation 126
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 127
How Cognitively Based Attitudes Are Infl uenced 131
Communication Source 131
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 132
The Message 133
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 134
The Affective (Emotional) Foundations of Attitudes 137
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 139
How Affectively Based Attitudes Are Infl uenced 139
The Source 139
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 140
The Message 140
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 141
Attitude Toward the Ad 142
When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 143
Summary 145
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Geico Makes its Case for Savings and
Service 146

High-Effort Versus Low-Effort Routes to Persuasion 149
Unconscious Infl uences on Attitudes When Consumer
Effort Is Low 151
Thin-Slice Judgments 151
Body Feedback 151
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 151
Cognitive Bases of Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low 152
How Cognitive Attitudes Are Infl uenced 153
Communication Source 153
The Message 153
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 154
Message Context and Repetition 155
Affective Bases of Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low 156
The Mere Exposure Effect 156
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 156
Classical Conditioning 157
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 158
Attitude Toward the Ad 159
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 160
Mood 160
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 161
How Affective Attitudes Are Infl uenced 162
Communication Source 162
The Message 163
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 165
Summary 167
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Tugging on Shoppers’
Heartstrings 168
Chapter 7 Memory and Retrieval 170
INTRODUCTION: Déjà Vu All Over Again: Nostalgia Marketing 170

What Is Memory? 171
What Are the Types of Memory? 171
Sensory Memory 173
Short-Term Memory 173
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 174
Long-Term Memory 175
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 176
How Memory Is Enhanced 177
Chunking 177
Rehearsal 177
Recirculation 177
Elaboration 178
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 178
What Is Retrieval? 179
xii Contents
Organization of Long-Term Memory 179
The Semantic Network 180
Retrieval Failures 182
Retrieval Errors 183
What Are the Types of Retrieval? 184
Explicit Memory 184
Implicit Memory 184
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 184
How Retrieval Is Enhanced 186
Characteristics of the Stimulus 186
What the Stimulus Is Linked To 188
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 189
How a Stimulus Is Processed in Short-Term Memory 190
Consumer Characteristics Affecting Retrieval 190
Summary 191

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Remember the Apple 192
Part 3 The Process of Making Decisions 193
Chapter 8 Problem Recognition and Information Search 194
INTRODUCTION: Awesome or Awful? Read the Review 194
Problem Recognition 195
The Ideal State: Where We Want to Be 195
The Actual State: Where We Are Now 197
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 197
Internal Search: Searching for Information from Memory 198
How Much Do We Engage in Internal Search? 198
What Kind of Information Is Retrieved from Internal Search? 199
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 203
Is Internal Search Always Accurate? 203
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 204
External Search: Searching for Information from the
Environment 205
Where Can We Search for Information? 205
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 208
How Much Do We Engage in External Search? 210
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 213
What Kind of Information Is Acquired in External Search? 214
Is External Search Always Accurate? 215
How Do We Engage in External Search? 215
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 216
Summary 217
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Using Cell Phones for Price and
Product Comparisons 218
Chapter 9 Judgment and Decision Making Based on High Effort 219
INTRODUCTION: Racing Toward Higher Vehicle Sales in Thailand 219
High-Effort Judgment Processes 220

Judgments of Likelihood and Goodness/Badness 220
Anchoring and Adjustment 222
Biases in Judgment Processes 222
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 224
High-Effort Decisions and High-Effort Decision-Making Pro-
cesses 224
Deciding Which Brands to Consider 225
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 226
Deciding Which Criteria Are Important to the Choice 226
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 228
Deciding What Brand to Choose: Thought-Based Decisions 229
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 230
Decisions Based on Brands 230
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 231
Decisions Based on Product Attributes 232
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 233
Decisions Based on Gains and Losses 233
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 234
Deciding What Brand to Choose: High-Effort Feeling-Based De-
cisions 234
Appraisals and Feelings 235
Affective Forecasts and Choices 235
Imagery 236
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 237
Additional High-Effort Decisions 237
Decision Delay 237
Decision Making When Alternatives Cannot Be Compared 237
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 238
What Affects High-Effort Decisions? 239
Consumer Characteristics 239

Characteristics of the Decision 241
Group Context 242
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 243
Summary 244
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Winnebago Wants RV Owners to Get
on the Road 244
Contents xiii
Chapter 10 Judgment and Decision Making Based on Low Effort 246
INTRODUCTION: Jones Soda Bottles Brand Loyalty 246
Low-Effort Judgment Processes 247
The Representativeness Heuristic 247
The Availability Heuristic 247
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 249
Low-Effort Decision-Making Processes 250
Unconscious Low-Effort Decision Making 250
Conscious Low-Effort Decision Making 250
Using Simplifying Strategies When Consumer
Effort Is Low 251
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 252
Learning Choice Tactics 253
Reinforcement 253
Punishment 253
Repeat Purchase 254
Choice Tactics Depend on the Product 254
Low-Effort Thought-Based Decision Making 255
Performance as a Simplifying Strategy 255
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 255
Habit as a Simplifying Strategy 256
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 256
Brand Loyalty as a Simplifying Strategy 258

MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 259
Price as a Simplifying Strategy 260
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 260
Normative Infl uences as a Simplifying Strategy 263
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 264
Low-Effort Feeling-Based Decision Making 264
Feelings as a Simplifying Strategy 264
Brand Familiarity 265
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 266
Decision Making Based on Variety-Seeking Needs 266
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 267
Buying on Impulse 267
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 268
Summary 268
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Try it, You’ll Like it: Sampling 269
Chapter 11 Post-Decision Processes 271
INTRODUCTION: The Treasure Hunt Is on at Costco 271
Post-Decision Dissonance and Regret 272
Dissonance 272
Regret 272
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 274
Learning from Consumer Experience 274
A Model of Learning from Consumer Experience 275
What Affects Learning from Experience? 276
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 278
How Do Consumers Make Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction
Judgments? 278
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 279
Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Based on Thoughts 280
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 282

Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Based on Feelings 284
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 286
Responses to Dissatisfaction 286
Complaints 287
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 287
Responding to Service Recovery 288
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 288
Responding by Negative Word of Mouth 289
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 289
Is Customer Satisfaction Enough? 289
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 290
Disposition 291
Disposing of Meaningful Objects 291
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 293
Recycling 294
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 295
Summary 295
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE Service Recovery Helps Jetblue Fly
Higher 296
Part 4 The Consumer’s Culture 299
Chapter 12 Consumer Diversity 300
INTRODUCTION: Connecting with Customers by Focusing on Quinceañera Celebrations 300
How Age Affects Consumer Behavior 301
Age Trends in the United States 301
Teens and Generation Y 301
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 303
Generation X 304
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 305
Boomers 306
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 306

xiv Contents
Seniors 307
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 307
How Gender and Sexual Orientation Affect Consumer
Behavior 308
Sex Roles 308
Gender and Sexual Orientation 308
Differences in Acquisition and Consumption Behaviors 309
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 310
How Regional Infl uences Affect Consumer Behavior 311
Regions Within the United States 311
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 312
Regions Across the World 313
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 313
How Ethnic Infl uences Affect Consumer Behavior 314
Ethnic Groups Within the United States 315
Hispanic American Consumers 316
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 316
African American Consumers 317
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 318
Asian American Consumers 319
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 320
Ethnic Groups Around the World 321
The Infl uence of Religion 322
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 322
Summary 323
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Can Canned Soup Translate? 324
Chapter 13 Social Class and Household Infl uences 325
INTRODUCTION: Marketing to India’s Growing Middle Class 325
Social Class 326

Types of Social Class Systems 326
Social Class Infl uences 328
How Social Class Is Determined 330
How Social Class Changes over Time 332
Upward Mobility 332
Downward Mobility 333
Social Class Fragmentation 333
How Does Social Class Affect Consumption? 334
Conspicuous Consumption and Status Symbols 335
Status Symbols and Judging Others 335
Compensatory Consumption 336
The Meaning of Money 336
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 338
The Consumption Patterns of Specifi c Social Classes 338
The Upper Class 339
The Middle Class 340
The Working Class 340
The Homeless 341
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 341
How the Household Infl uences Consumer Behavior 343
Types of Households 344
Households and Family Life Cycle 344
Changing Trends in Household Structure 345
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 348
Roles that Household Members Play 349
The Roles of Spouses 350
The Roles of Children 351
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 352
Summary 353
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Getting to Know Mom 354

Chapter 14 Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles 355
INTRODUCTION: The Lure of Luxury versus Back to Basics 355
Values 356
How Values Can Be Described 358
The Values that Characterize Western Cultures 358
Why Values Change 365
Infl uences on Values 365
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 366
How Values Can Be Measured 368
Personality 371
Research Approaches to Personality 371
Determining Whether Personality Characteristics Affect Consumer
Behavior 374
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 378
Lifestyles 378
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 379
Psychographics: Combining Values, Personality, and Life-
styles 380
VALS 380
Other Applied Psychographic Research 382
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 383
Summary 383
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: McDonald’s Goes Upscale from Paris
to Peoria 384
Contents xv
Chapter 15 Social Infl uences on Consumer Behavior 385
INTRODUCTION: Building Sales by Building Buzz 385
Sources of Infl uence 386
Marketing and Nonmarketing Sources 386
How Do These General Sources Differ? 389

MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 390
Opinion Leaders 391
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 392
Reference Groups as Sources of Infl uence 392
Types of Reference Groups 393
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 394
Characteristics of Reference Groups 395
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 396
Reference Groups Affect Consumer Socialization 397
Normative Infl uence 399
How Normative Infl uence Can Affect Consumer Behavior 399
What Affects Normative Infl uence Strength 401
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 404
Informational Infl uence 405
How Informational Infl uence Can Affect Consumer Behavior 405
Factors Affecting Informational Infl uence Strength 406
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 406
Descriptive Dimensions of Information 407
Valence: Is Information Positive or Negative? 407
Modality: Does Information Come from Verbal or Nonverbal
Channels? 408
The Pervasive and Persuasive Infl uence of Word of Mouth 408
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 409
Summary 411
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Who Makes the Call to Switch
Carriers? 411
Part 5 Consumer Behavior Outcomes and Issues 413
Chapter 16 Adoption of, Resistance to, and Diffusion of Innovations 414
INTRODUCTION: A Taste for Innovation 414
Innovations 415

Defi ning an Innovation 415
Innovations Characterized by Degree of Novelty 417
Innovations Characterized by Benefi ts Offered 418
Innovations Characterized by Breadth 419
Resistance versus Adoption 419
Whether Consumers Adopt an Innovation 419
How Consumers Adopt an Innovation 420
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 421
When Consumers Adopt Innovations 422
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 424
Diffusion 425
How Offerings Diffuse Through a Market 426
Factors Affecting the Shape of the Diffusion Curve 426
How Diffusion Relates to the Product Life Cycle 427
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 428
Infl uences on Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion 429
Characteristics of the Innovation 429
Uncertainty 430
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 431
Consumer Learning Requirements 431
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 433
Social Relevance 434
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 434
Legitimacy and Adaptability 435
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 435
Characteristics of the Social System 435
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 436
The Consequences of Innovations 437
Summary 437
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: The CFL: Coming Soon to a Light

Socket Near You 438
Chapter 17 Symbolic Consumer Behavior 440
INTRODUCTION: Pampering Pets = Big Business 440
Sources and Functions of Symbolic Meaning 441
Meaning Derived from Culture 441
Meaning Derived from the Consumer 443
The Emblematic Function 444
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 446
The Role Acquisition Function 447
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 449
The Connectedness Function 450
The Expressiveness Function 451
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 452
Multiple Functions 452
Symbols and Self-Concept 452
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 453
Special Possessions and Brands 454
xvi Contents
Chapter 18 Ethics, Social Responsibility, and the Dark Side of Consumer Behavior and Marketing 469
INTRODUCTION: Kids’ Food Advertising Goes on a Diet 469
Deviant Consumer Behavior 470
Addictive, Compulsive, and Impulsive Behavior 470
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 475
Consumer Theft 476
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 478
Black Markets 479
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 479
Underage Drinking and Smoking 480
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 480
Ethical Issues in Marketing 482

Should Marketers Advertise to Children? 482
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 483
Do Marketing Efforts Promote Obesity? 484
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 484
Does Advertising Affect Self-Image? 485
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 485
Do Marketing Practices Invade Consumers’ Privacy? 487
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 488
Social Responsibility Issues in Marketing 488
Environmentally Conscious Behavior 489
Conservation Behavior 489
MARKETING IMPLICATIONS 490
How Can Consumers Resist Marketing Practices? 490
Summary 491
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Is Your Personal Data Private? Is It
Safe? 492
Endnotes N-1
Ad/Photo Credits C-1
Text Credits C-3
Glossary G-1
Name/Author Index I-1
Company/Product Index I-14
Subject Index I-19
Special Brands 454
Types of Special Possessions 454
The Characteristics that Describe Special Possessions 455
Why Some Products Are Special 456
Consumer Characteristics Affect What Is Special 457
Rituals Used with Special Possessions 458
Disposing of Special Possessions 459

Sacred Meaning 459
The Transfer of Symbolic Meaning Through Gift Giving 461
The Timing of Gifts 461
Three Stages of Gift Giving 462
Summary 466
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE: Buying that Special Something
Online 467
xvii
At just about every moment of our lives, we engage in some form of consumer be-
havior. When we watch an ad on TV, talk to friends about a movie we just saw,
brush our teeth, go to a ball game, buy a new CD, or even throw away an old pair
of shoes, we are behaving as a consumer. In fact, being a consumer reaches into
every part of our lives.
Given its omnipresence, the study of consumer behavior has critical implica-
tions for areas such as marketing, public policy, and ethics. It also helps us learn
about ourselves—why we buy certain things, why we use them in a certain way,
and how we get rid of them.
In this book we explore the fascinating world of consumer behavior, looking at
a number of interesting and exciting topics. Some of these are quickly identifi ed
with our typical image of consumer behavior. Others may be surprising. We hope
you will see why we became stimulated and drawn to this topic from the very mo-
ment we had our fi rst consumer behavior course as students. We hope you will also
appreciate why we choose to make this fi eld our life’s work, and why we developed
and continue to remain committed to the writing of this textbook.
Why the New Edition of This Book?
There are a number of consumer behavior books on the market. An important
question concerns what this book has to offer and what distinguishes it from other
texts. As active researchers in the fi eld of consumer behavior, our overriding goal
was to continue providing a treatment of the fi eld that is up to date and cutting
edge. There has been an explosion of research on a variety of consumer behavior

topics over the last twenty years. Our primary aim was to provide a useful summary
of this material for students of marketing. However, in drawing on cutting-edge
research, we wanted to be careful not to become too “academic.” Instead, our
objective is to present cutting-edge topics in a manner that is accessible and easy
for students to understand.
Specifi c changes and improvements to the fi fth edition of this book include:
Shorter length and more streamlined prose, making the content easier for stu-
d
dents to process
Coverage of the latest research from the academic fi eld of consumer behavior d
New end-of-chapter cases, giving students the opportunity to discuss real- d
world consumer issues and to apply and use the concepts discussed in each
chapter
New coverage of research and behavioral concepts related to such topics as d
emotions, post-decision regret, decision framing, privacy, and obesity
Numerous new advertisements offering concrete illustrations of consumer be- d
havior concepts in action
Numerous new examples highlighting how all kinds of organizations use con- d
sumer behavior in their marketing efforts
Preface
xviii Preface
New database analysis exercises offering students an opportunity to make d
marketing decisions based on consumer demographics and behavior styles
Textbook Features
As award-winning teachers, we have tried to translate our instructional abilities
and experience into the writing of this text. The following features have been a nat-
ural outgrowth of these experiences.
Conceptual Model First, we believe that students can learn best when they see the
big picture—when they understand what concepts mean, how they are used in
business practice, and how they relate to one another. In our opinion, consumer

behavior is too often presented as a set of discrete topics with little or no relation-
ship to one another. We have therefore developed an overall conceptual model that
helps students grasp the big picture and see how the chapters and topics are them-
selves interrelated. Each chapter is linked to other chapters by a specifi c model that
fi ts within the larger model. Further, the overall model guides the organization of
the book. This organizing scheme makes the chapters far more integrative than
most other books.
Practical Orientation, with an Emphasis on Globalization and E-commerce
Another common complaint of some treatments of consumer behavior is that they
refl ect general psychological or sociological principles and theories, but provide
very little indication of how these principles and theories relate to business prac-
tice. Given our notion that students enjoy seeing how the concepts in consumer
behavior can apply to business practice, a second objective of the book was to pro-
vide a very practical orientation. We include a wealth of contemporary real-world
examples to illustrate key topics. We also try to broaden students’ horizons by pro-
viding a number of international examples. Given the importance of online con-
sumer behavior, we also provide a number of examples of consumer behavior in an
e-commerce context.
Current and Cutting-Edge Coverage Third, we provide coverage of the field of
consumer behavior that is as current and up to date as possible (including many of
the recent research advances). This includes several novel chapters that often do
not appear in other textbooks: “Symbolic Consumer Behavior,” “Knowing and
Understanding,” “Low Effort Attitude Change,” “Low Effort Decision Making,”
and “Ethics, Social Responsibility, and the Dark Side of Consumer Behavior and
Marketing.” These topics are at the cutting edge of consumer behavior research and
are likely to be of considerable interest to students.
Balanced Treatment of Micro and Macro Topics Fourth, our book tries to pro-
vide a balanced perspective on the fi eld of consumer behavior. Specifi cally we
give treatment to both psychological (micro) consumer behavior topics (e.g.,
attitudes, decision making) and sociological (macro) consumer behavior topics

(e.g., subculture, gender, social class influences). Also, although we typically
teach consumer behavior by starting with the more micro topics and then mov-
ing up to more macro topics, we realize that some instructors prefer the reverse
sequence. The Instructor’s Manual therefore provides a revised table of contents
and model that shows how the book can be taught for those who prefer a macro
fi rst, micro second approach.
Preface xix
Broad Conceptualization of the Subject Fifth, we present a broad conceptualiza-
tion of the topic of consumer behavior. While many books focus on what products
or services consumers buy, consumer behavior scholars have recognized that the
topic of consumer behavior is actually much broader. Specifically, rather than
studying buying per se, we recognize that consumer behavior includes a set of deci-
sions (what, whether, when, where, why, how, how often, how much, how long)
about acquisition (including, but not limited to buying), usage, and disposition de-
cisions. Focusing on more than what products or services consumers buy provides
a rich set of theoretical and practical implications for our both understanding of
consumer behavior and the practice of marketing.
Finally, we consider the relevance of consumer behavior to many constituents,
not just marketers. Chapter 1 indicates that CB is important to marketers, public
policy makers, ethicists and consumer advocacy groups, and consumers themselves
(including students’ own lives). Some chapters focus exclusively on the implications
of consumer behavior for public policy makers, ethicists, and consumer advocacy
groups. Other chapters consider these issues as well, though in less detail.
Content and Organization of the Book
One can currently identify two main approaches to the study of consumer behav-
ior: a “micro” orientation, which focuses on the individual psychological processes
that consumers use to make acquisition, consumption, and disposition decisions,
and a “macro” orientation, which focuses on group behaviors and the symbolic na-
ture of consumer behavior. This latter orientation draws heavily from such fi elds as
sociology and anthropology. The current book and overall model have been struc-

tured around a “micro to macro” organization based on the way we teach this
course and the feedback that we have received from reviewers. (As mentioned
previously, for those who prefer a “macro to micro” structure, we provide in the
Instructor’s Manual an alternative Table of Contents that reflects how the book
could be easily adapted to this perspective.)
Chapter 1 presents an introduction to consumer behavior and provides stu-
dents with an understanding of the breadth of the fi eld, and its importance to mar-
keters, advocacy groups, public policy makers, and consumers themselves. It also
presents the overall model that guides the organization of the text. An enrichment
chapter, which follows Chapter 1, describes the groups who conduct research on
consumers. It also describes methods by which consumer research is conducted.
Part I, “The Psychological Core,” focuses on the inner psychological processes
that affect consumer behavior. We see that consumers’ acquisition, usage, and dis-
position behaviors and decisions are greatly affected by the amount of effort they
put into engaging in behaviors and making decisions. Chapter 2 describes three
critical factors that affect effort: the (1) motivation or desire, (2) ability (knowledge
and information), and (3) opportunity to engage in behaviors and make decisions.
In Chapter 3, we then examine how information in consumers’ environments (ads,
prices, product features, word-of-mouth communications, and so on) is internally
processed by consumers—how they come in contact with these stimuli (exposure),
notice them (attention), and perceive them. Chapter 4 continues by discussing how
we compare new stimuli to our knowledge of existing stimuli, a process called cat-
egorization, and how we attempt to understand or comprehend them on a deeper
level. In Chapters 5 and 6, we see how attitudes are formed and changed depending
xx Preface
on whether the amount of effort consumers devote to forming an attitude is high
or low and whether attitudes are cognitively or affectvely based. Finally, because
consumers often must recall the information they have previously stored in order
to make decisions, Chapter 7 looks at the important topic of consumer memory.
Whereas Part I examines some of the internal factors that infl uence consumers’

decisions, a critical domain of consumer behavior involves understanding how con-
sumers make acquisition, consumption, and disposition decisions. Thus, in Part II
we examine the sequential steps of the consumer decision-making process. In
Chapter 8, we examine the initial steps of this process—problem recognition and in-
formation search. Similar to the attitude change processes described earlier, we next
examine the consumer decision-making process, both when effort is high (Chapter
9) and when it is low (Chapter 10). Further, in both chapters we examine these im-
portant processes from both a cognitive and an affective perspective. Finally, the
process does not end after a decision has been made. In Chapter 11 we see how con-
sumers determine whether they are satisfi ed or dissatisfi ed with their decisions and
how they learn from choosing and consuming products and services.
Part III refl ects a “macro” view of consumer behavior that examines how various
aspects of culture affect consumer behavior. First, we see how consumer diversity (in
terms of age, gender, sexual orientation, region, ethnicity, and religion) can affect
consumer behavior (Chapter 12). Chapter 13 then examines how social class and
households are classifi ed and how these factors affect acquisition, usage, and disposi-
tion behaviors. Chapter 14 then examines how external infl uences affect our person-
ality, lifestyle, and values, as well as consumer behavior. Chapter 15 considers how,
when, and why the specifi c reference groups (friends, work group, clubs) to which we
belong can infl uence acquisition, usage, and disposition decisions and behaviors.
Part IV, “Consumer Behavior Outcomes,” examines the effects of the numerous
influences and decision processes discussed in the previous three sections.
Chapter 16 builds on the topics of internal decision making and group behavior by
examining how consumers adopt new offerings, and how their adoption decisions af-
fect the spread or diffusion of an offering through a market. Because products and
services often refl ect deep-felt and signifi cant meanings (e.g., our favorite song or res-
taurant), Chapter 17 focuses on the interesting topic of symbolic consumer behavior.
Part V, “Consumer Welfare” covers two topics that have been of great interest to
consumer researchers in recent years. Chapter 18 examines ethics, responsibility,
and the “dark side” of consumer behavior and focuses on some negative outcomes

of consumer-related behaviors (compulsive buying and gambling, prostitution,
etc.) as well as marketing practices that have been the focus of social commentary
in recent years. Finally, an additional chapter can be found on the website for this
book. That chapter discusses consumerism and public policy issues that are rele-
vant to consumer behavior.
Pedagogical Advantages
Based on our extensive teaching experience, we have incorporated a number of
features that should help students learn about consumer behavior.
Chapter Opening Cases Each chapter begins with a case scenario about an actual
company or situation that illustrates key concepts discussed in the chapter and
their importance to marketers. This will help students grasp the “big picture” and
understand the relevance of the topics from the start of the chapter.
Preface xxi
Chapter Opening Model Each chapter also begins with a conceptual model that
shows the organization of the chapter, the topics discussed, and how they relate
both to one another and to other chapters. Each model refl ects an expanded pic-
ture of one or more of the elements presented in the overall conceptual model for
the book (described in Chapter 1).
Marketing Implication Sections Numerous Marketing Implications sections are in-
terspersed throughout each chapter. These sections illustrate how various con-
sumer behavior concepts can be applied to the practice of marketing, including
such basic marketing functions as market segmentation, target market selection,
positioning, market research, promotion, price, product, and place decisions. An
abundance of marketing examples (from both the US and abroad) provide concrete
applications and implementations of the concepts to marketing practice.
Marginal Glossary Every chapter contains a set of key terms that are both high-
lighted in the text and defi ned in margin notes. These terms and their defi nitions
should help students identify and remember the central concepts described in the
chapter.
Abundant Use of Full-Color Exhibits Each chapter contains a number of illustrated

examples, including photos, advertisements, charts, and graphs. These illustrations
help to make important topics personally relevant and engaging, help students re-
member the material, and make the book more accessible and aesthetically pleas-
ing, thereby increasing students’ motivation to learn. All diagrams and charts
employ full color, which serves to both highlight key points and add to the aesthetic
appeal of the text. Each model, graph, ad, and photo also has an accompanying
caption that provides a simple description and explanation of how the exhibit re-
lates to the topic it is designed to illustrate.
End-of-Chapter Summaries The end of each chapter provides students with a sim-
ple and concise summary of topics. These summaries are a good review tool to use
with the conceptual model to help students to get the big picture.
End-of-Chapter Questions Each chapter includes a set of review and discussion
questions designed to help students recall and more deeply understand the con-
cepts in the chapter.
End-of-Chapter Cases Each chapter ends with a short case that describes an issue
pertinent to the topics discussed in the text. By applying chapter content to real-
world cases, students have a chance to make the concepts we discuss more con-
crete. Many of the cases involve brands that consumers are familiar with,
heightening engagement with the material.
Complete Teaching Package
A variety of ancillary materials have been designed to help the instructor in the
classroom. All of these supplements have been carefully coordinated to support the
text and provide an integrated set of materials for the instructor. The Instructor’s
Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint programs can be found on the Instructor’s
xxii Preface
Resource CD-ROM. Instructor Manual, Test Bank fi les, and Lecture Outline Power-
Points can also be found on the Instructor’s Companion Site.
Instructor’s Manual The Instructor’s Manual, prepared by Professor Carol Bru-
neau, has been completely revised and updated to provide a thorough review of
material in the text as well as supplementary materials that can be used to expand

upon the text and enhance classroom presentations. An alternate table of contents
and consumer behavior model for presenting the text in a “macro to micro” ap-
proach has been provided as well as different sample syllabi. Included for each
chapter are a chapter summary; learning objectives; a comprehensive chapter out-
line; answers to review and discussion questions; answers to end-of-chapter cases;
suggestions and guidelines for end-of-chapter exercises, including Internet exer-
cises; additional discussion questions; and several suggested classroom activities.
Classroom activities include questions for each chapter that stimulate group dis-
cussion, suggestions for bringing additional examples (videos, readings, etc.) into
the classroom, and special experiential activities created by Professor Sheri Bridges,
with detailed guidelines for facilitation.
Online Test Bank An extensive test bank prepared by Professor Carol Bruneau
is available to assist the instructor in assessing student performance. The test
bank has been expanded and revised to reflect the new edition content and in-
cludes a mix of both conceptual and applied questions for each chapter. Each
test bank question provides a text page reference and has been tagged for
AACSB requirements.
Online Test Bank, Diploma Format This electronic version of the printed Test Bank
allows instructors to generate and change tests easily on the computer. The pro-
gram will print an answer key appropriate to each version for the test you have de-
vised, and it allows you to customize the printed appearance of the test.
PowerPoint Presentation Package A package of professionally developed Power-
Point slides is available for use by adopters of this textbook. Two versions of the
PowerPoints are available to provide instructors with maximum fl exibility. The Lec-
ture PowerPoints outline the text content, including key fi gures and tables; while
specially tagged premium slides include additional print ads and other supplemen-
tary content that does not appear within the textbook. Instructors who have access
to PowerPoint can edit slides to customize them for their classrooms.
Videos A completely new video package has been provided to supplement and en-
liven class lectures and discussion. Videos include many real-world scenarios that

illustrate certain concepts in a given chapter. The clips are intended to be interest-
ing, to ground the concepts in real life for students, and to provide an impetus for
stimulating student input and involvement. A Video Guide is also available to help
instructors integrate the videos with various text chapters.
WebCT For instructors teaching an online or hybrid course, WebCT course car-
tridges are available. This special offering provides unique exercises that give stu-
dents fi rst-hand experience using PRIZM®
NE
data resources. Students will be able
to use this ground-breaking methodology to practice making solid, cost-effective
marketing decisions about market size, site selection, direct mail, and other tar-
geted communications.
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments
Special recognition is extended to Marian Wood, whose assistance was instrumental
to the completion of this project. Her tireless work on this project is greatly appre-
ciated. We have also been extremely fortunate to work with a wonderful team of
dedicated professionals from Cengage Learning. We are very grateful to Joanne
Dauksewicz, Fred Burns, Colleen Farmer, and Julie Low whose enormous energy
and enthusiasm spurred our progress on this Fifth Edition. We also appreciate the
efforts of Carol Bruneau of The University of Montana for her work on the Instruc-
tor’s Manual and Test Bank; John Eaton of Arizona State University for his contribu-
tions to the online Interactive Quizzes and creation of the PRIZM Database Analysis
Exercises; and Sheri Bridges at Wake Forest University for her work on the Experi-
ential Exercises, The quality of this book and its ancillary package has been helped
immensely by the insightful and rich comments of a set of researchers and instruc-
tors who served as reviewers. Their thoughtful and helpful comments had real im-
pact in shaping the fi nal product. In particular, we wish to thank:
Larry Anderson
Long Island University

Mike Ballif
University of Utah
Sharon Beatty
University of Alabama
Sandy Becker
Rutgers Business School
Russell Belk
University of Utah
Joseph Bonnice
Manhattan College
Timothy Brotherton
Ferris State University
Carol Bruneau
University of Montana
Margaret L. Burk
Muskingum College
Carol Calder
Loyola Marymount
University
Paul Chao
University of Northern Iowa
Dennis Clayson
University of Northern
Iowa
Joel Cohen
University of Florida
Sally Dibb
University of Warwick
Richard W. Easley
Baylor University

Richard Elliott
Lancaster University
Abdi Eshghi
Bentley College
Frank W. Fisher
Stonehill College
Ronald Fullerton
Providence College
Philip Garton
Leicester Business School
Peter L. Gillett
University of Central
Florida
Debbora Hefl in
Cal Poly - Pomona
Elizabeth Hirschman
Rutgers University
Raj G. Javalgi
Cleveland State
University
Harold Kassarjian
UCLA
Patricia Kennedy
University of Nebraska -
Lincoln
Robert E. Kleine
Arizona State University
Stephen K. Koernig
DePaul University
Scott Koslow

University of Waikato
Student and Instructor Companion Sites
Companion web sites enhance the book content and provide additional informa-
tion, guidance, and activities. The student companion site provides a number of
resources to help students study and test their learning. Interactive Flashcards
allow students to study key terms and concepts, while the Interactive Quiz section
of the site gives students an opportunity to prepare for in-class exams through
chapter self-assessments. For instructors, the companion site provides a set of
Lecture PowerPoints, as well as an online Instructor Manual and Test Bank fi les.
xxiv Preface
Robert Lawson
William Patterson
University
Phillip Lewis
Rowan College of
New Jersey
Kenneth R. Lord
SUNY - Buffalo
Peggy Sue Loroz
Gonzaga University
Bart Macchiette
Plymouth State College
Michael Mallin
Kent State University
Lawrence Marks
Kent State University
David Marshall
University of Edinburgh
Ingrid M. Martin
California State Univer-

sity, Long Beach
Anil Mathur
Hofstra University
A. Peter McGraw
University of Colorado,
Boulder
Matt Meuter
California State
University, Chico
Martin Meyers
University of Wisconsin -
Stevens Point
Vince Mitchell
UMIST
Lois Mohr
Georgia State
University
Risto Moisio
California State Univer-
sity, Long Beach
Rebecca Walker Naylor
University of South
Carolina
James R. Ogden
Kutztown University
Thomas O’Guinn
University of Illinois
Marco Protano
New York University
Judith Powell

Virginia Union University
Michael Reilly
Montana State University
Anja K. Reimer
University of Miami
Gregory M. Rose
The University of
Mississippi
Mary Mercurio Scheip
Eckerd College
Marilyn Scrizzi
New Hampshire
Technical College
John Shaw
Providence College
C. David Shepherd
University of Tennessee,
Chattanooga
Robert E. Smith
Indiana University
Eric Richard Spangenberg
Washington State
University
Bruce Stern
Portland State University
Barbara Stewart
University of Houston
Jane Boyd Thomas
Winthrop University
Phil Titus

Bowling Green State
University
Carolyn Tripp
Western Illinois
University
Rajiv Vaidyanathan
University of Minnesota,
Duluth
Stuart Van Auken
California State
University, Chico
Kathleen D. Vohs
University of Minnesota
Janet Wagner
University of Maryland
John Weiss
Colorado State University
Tommy E. Whittler
University of Kentucky
Carolyn Yoon
University of Michigan